1.

Tool path
1.1 Tool path generation method for Multi axis Machining

In the paper Presented by Young-Keun Choi & all, a tool path generation method for multi-axis machining of freeform surfaces using Bezier curves and surfaces. The tool path generation includes two core steps. In which first is the forward-step function that determines the maximum distance, called forward step, between two cutter contact (CC) points with a given tolerance. The second component is the side step function which determines the maximum distance, called side step, between two adjacent tool paths with a given scallop height. Using the Bezier curves and surfaces, we generate cutter contact (CC) points for freeform surfaces and cutter location (CL) data files for post processing. a Several objects are machined using a multi-axis milling machine. As part of the validation process, the tool paths generated from Bezier curves and surfaces are analyzed to compare the machined object and the desired object.[1]

1.2 Tool path pattern

In the Paper presented by Avisekh Banerjee & all they proposes a process planning for machining of a Floor which is the most prominent elemental machining feature in a 2D pocket machining . Traditionally, process planning of 2D pocket machining is posed as stand-alone problem involving either tool selection, tool path generation or machining parameter selection, resulting in sub-optimal plans. For this reason, tool path generation and feed selection is proposed to be integrated with an objective of minimizing machining time under realistic cutting force constraints for given pocket geometry and cutting tool. A morphed spiral tool path consisting of G1 continuous biarc and arc spline is proposed as a possible tool path generation strategy with the capability of handling islands in pocket geometry. Proposed tool path enables a constant feed rate and consistent cutting force during machining in typical commercial CNC machine tool. The constant feed selection is based on tool path and cutting tool geometries as well as dynamic characteristics of mechanical structure of the machine tool to ensure optimal machining performance. The proposed tool path strategy is compared with those generated by commercial CAM software. The calculated tool path length and measured dry machining time shows the considerable advantage of the proposed tool path. For optimal machining parameter selection, the feed per tooth is iteratively optimized with a pre-calibrated cutting force model, under a cutting force constraint to avoid tool rupture. The optimization result shows around 32% and 40% potential improvement in productivity with one and two feed rate strategies respectively.[2]

1.3 Tool path An analytical curvature-continuous path-smoothing algorithm is developed for the high speed machining of a linear tool path. The algorithm can be used in a post-processing stage or NC unit. Every segment junction of the linear tool path, which is the point of tangent discontinuity, is blended by inserting two cubic Bezier spiral curves. A tool path, which is composed of cubic Bezier curves and lines, is then obtained to replace the linear tool path. The new tool

path is everywhere curvature-continuous, and both the tangent and curvature discontinuities are avoided. The feed motion will be more stable since the discontinuities are the most important sources of feed fluctuation. In the blending algorithm, the approximation error at the segment junction is accurately guaranteed and the control points of the two cubic Bezier transition curves are all analytically computed. The maximal curvature in every Bezier transition pair, which is critical for velocity planning, is also analytically computed. The analytical expressions provide a way to optimize the curvature radii of the transition curves to pursue the high feed speed. The pathsmoothing methods for the post-processing stage and NC unit are both developed. The computational examples confirm the validity of the algorithm. The transition algorithm has been integrated into an open NC system. Cutting experiments show that the curvature-continuous tool path generates smoother feed and consumes shorter machining time than the original linear tool path.[3] 1.4 Tool path optimization Incremental sheet forming (ISF) process is based on localized plastic deformation in a thin sheet metal blank. It consists to deform progressively and locally the sheet metal using spherical forming tool controlled by a CNC machine-tool. Although it is a slow process compared to conventional forming technique such as stamping. The cost reduction linked to the fact that punches and dies are avoided which makes it a very attractive process for small batch production and rapid prototyping. However, ISF process depends strongly on the forming tool path which influences greatly the part geometry and sheet thickness distribution. A homogeneous thickness distribution requires a rigorous optimization of the parameter settings, and an optimal parameterization of the forming strategy. This paper shows an optimization procedure tested for a given forming strategy, in order to reduce the manufacturing time and homogenize thickness distribution of an asymmetric part. The optimal forming strategy was determined by finite element analyses (FEA) in combination with response surface method (RMS) and sequential quadratic programming (SQP) algorithm.[4] 1.5 Path generation The spiral fashion is an important kind of embroidery fashion. In the spiral fashion embroidery, a user-designed region is embroidered with a thread along a uniform spiral path whose shape is similar to the regions contours. An approach which can automatically generate this kind of embroidery path is proposed in this paper. In this approach, the region is decomposed into several ring-shaped sub-regions at first. Then these sub-regions are organized into a binary tree and the spiral lines in these sub-regions are connected to form a single path[5].

2.Bezier curves/surfaces

2.1Bezier transition algorithm

An analytical curvature-continuous path-smoothing algorithm is developed for the high speed machining of a linear tool path. The algorithm can be used in a post-processing stage or NC unit. Every segment junction of the linear tool path, which is the point of tangent discontinuity, is blended by inserting two cubic Bezier spiral curves. A tool path, which is composed of cubic Bezier curves and lines, is then obtained to replace the linear tool path. The new tool

path is everywhere curvature-continuous, and both the tangent and curvature discontinuities are avoided. The feed motion will be more stable since the discontinuities are the most important sources of feed fluctuation. In the blending algorithm, the approximation error at the segment junction is accurately guaranteed and the control points of the two cubic Bezier transition curves are all analytically computed. The maximal curvature in every Be zier transition pair, which is critical for velocity planning, is also analytically computed. The analytical expressions provide a way to optimize the curvature radii of the transition curves to pursue the high feed speed. The pathsmoothing methods for the post-processing stage and NC unit are both developed. The computational examples confirm the validity of the algorithm. The transition algorithm has been integrated into an open NC system. Cutting experiments show that the curvature-continuous tool path generates smoother feed and consumes shorter machining time than the original linear tool path[6]

Bezier curve for Metamodeling of Simulation output

M any design optimization problems rely on simulation models to obtain feasible solutions. Even with substantial improvement in the computational capability of computers, the enormous cost of computation needed for simulation makes it impractical to rely on simulation models. The use of metamodels or surrogate approximations in place of actual simulation models makes analysis realistic by reducing computational burden. There are many popular metamodeling techniques such as Polynomial Regression, Multivariate Adaptive Regression Splines, Radial Basis Functions, Kriging and Artificial Neural Networks. This research proposes a new metamodeling technique that uses Bezier curves and patches. The Bezier curve method is based on interpolation like Kriging and Radial Basis Functions. In this research the Bezier Curve method will be used for output modeling of univariate and bivariate output modeling. Results will be validated using comparison with some of the most popular meta modeling techniques.[7] Intersection of Bezier Curves

We give the first complete subdivision algorithm for the intersection of two Bezier curves F,G, possibly with tangential intersections. Our approach to robust subdivision algorithms is based on geometric separation bounds, and using a criterion for detecting non-crossing intersection of curves. Our algorithm is adaptive, being based only on exact big float computations. In particular, we avoid manipulation of algebraic numbers and resultant computations. It is designed to be competitive with current algorithms on nice inputs. All standard algorithms assume F,G to be relatively prime our algorithm needs a generalization of this.[4] B-spline curve Pottmann et al. propose an iterative optimization scheme for approximating a target curve with a B-spline curve based on square distance minimization, or SDM. The main advantage of SDM is that it does not need a parameterization of data points on the target curve. Starting with an initial B-spline curve, this scheme makes an active B-spline curve converge faster towards the target curve and produces a better approximating B-spline curve

than existing methods relying on data point parameterization. However, SDM is sensitive to the initial B-spline curve due to its local nature of optimization. To address this, we integrate SDM with procedures for automatically adjusting both the number and locations of the control points of the active spline curve. This leads to a method that is more robust and applicable than SDM used alone. Furthermore, it is observed that the most time consuming part of SDM is the repeated computation of the foot-point on the target curve of a sample point on the active B-spline curve. In our implementation, we speed up the foot-point computation by pre-computing the distance field of the target curve using the Fast Marching Method. Experimental examples are presented to demonstrate the effectiveness of our method.[9] B-splines technique

Three-dimensional (3D) anthropometry based on the laser scanning technique not only provides one-dimensional measurements calculated in accordance with the landmarks which are pre-located on the human body surface manually, but also the 3D shape information between the landmarks. This new technique used in recent ergonomic research has brought new challenges to resolving the application problem that was generally avoided by anthropometric experts in their researches. The current research problem is concentrating on how to shift and develop one-dimensional measurements (1D landmarks) into three-dimensional measurements (3D land-surfaces). The main purpose of this paper is to test whether the function of B-splines can be used to fit 3D scanned human heads, and to for further study to develop a computer aided ergonomic design tool (CAED). The result shows that Bsplines surfaces can effectively reconstruct 3D human heads based on the laser scanning technique[10] Hermite b-spline approximation

Free-Form Deformation Techniques (FFD) are commonly used to generate animations, where a polygonal approximation of the final object suffices for visualization purposes. However, for some CAD/CAM applications, we need an explicit expression of the object, rather than a collection of sampled points. If both object and deformation are polynomial, their composition yields a result that is also polynomial, albeit very high degree, something undesirable in real applications. To solve this problem, we transform each curve or surface composing the object, usually expressed in the Bernstein basis, to a modified Newton form. In this representation, the two-point analogue of Taylor expansions, the composition admits a simple expression in terms of discrete convolutions, and degree reduction corresponding to Hermite approximation is trivial by dropping high-degree coefficients. Furthermore, degree-reduction can be incorporated into the composition. Finally, the deformed curve or surface is converted back to the Bernstein form. This method extends to general non-polynomial deformation, such as bending and twisting, by computing a polynomial approximant of the deformation[11] B-Spline Surfaces

Creating freeform surfaces is a challenging task even with advanced geometric modeling systems. Laser range scanners offer a promising alternative for model acquisition the 3D scanning of existing objects or clay maquettes. The problem of converting the dense point sets produced by laser scanners into useful geometric models is referred

to as surface reconstruction. In this paper, we present a procedure for reconstructing a tensor product B-spline surface from a set of scanned 3D points. Unlike previous work which considers primarily the problem of fitting a single B-spline patch, our goal is to directly reconstruct a surface of arbitrary topological type. We must therefore define the surface as a network of B-spline patches. A key ingredient in our solution is a scheme for automatically constructing both a network of patches and a parametrization of the data points over these patches. In addition, we define the B-spline surface using a surface spline construction, and demonstrate that such an approach leads to an efficient procedure for fitting the surface while maintaining tangent plane continuity. We explore adaptive refinement of the patch network in order to satisfy user-specified error tolerances,[12] B-spline approximation in boundary face method

In this paper, basis functions generated from B-spline or Non-Uniform Rational B-spline (NURBS), are used for approximating the boundary variables to solve the 3D linear elasticity Boundary Integral Equations (BIEs). The implementation is based on the BFM framework in which both boundary integration and variable approximation are performed in the parametric spaces of the boundary surfaces to keep the exact geometric information in the BIEs. In order to reduce the influence of tensor product of B-spline and make the discretization of a body surface easier, the basis functions defined in global intervals are translated into local form. B-spline fitting function built with the local basis functions is converted into an interpolation type of function in which the nodal values of the boundary variables are used for control points. Numerical tests for 3D linear elasticity problems show that the BFM with Bspline basis functions outperforms that with the well-known Moving Least Square (MLS) approximation.[Error! Reference source not found.]

Hierarchical bases of spline spaces

The prospect of applying spline spaces over T-subdivisions to adaptive isogeometric analysis is an exciting one. One major issue with spline spaces over T-subdivisions is in providing proper bases (shape functions) for finite element analysis. In this paper, we propose a method for the construction of hierarchical bases of a spline space with highest order smoothness over a consistent hierarchical T-subdivision. Our method is induced by the surjection condition, and this set of basis functions is hierarchically adaptive. We also present a concrete set of non-negative hierarchical bases over a T-subdivision and apply them in adaptive finite element analysis.[14]

T-spline based isogeometric analysis Isogeometric analysis has been recently introduced as a viable alternative to the standard, polynomialbased finite element analysis. Initially, the isogeometric approach has been developed using the NURBS and although it has

been shown that it can outperform the classical finite element method in many aspects, there are several drawbacks, namely related to the handling trimmed geometries and to the refinement of the adopted discretization. These may be overcome by extending the concept of isogeometric analysis to so-called T-splines which are a generalization of NURBS. This paper presents how the isogeometric analysis based on T-spline can be integrated within an object oriented finite element environment. The class hierarchy and corresponding methods are designed in such a way, that most of nthe existing functionality of the finite element code is reused. The missing data and algorithms are developed and implemented in such a way that the object oriented features are fully retained. The performance of the implemented T-spline based isogeometric analysis methodology is presented on a simple example.[15]

hierarchical b-spline finite element method

A novel technique is presented to facilitate the implementation of hierarchical b-splines and their interfacing with conventional finite element implementations. The discrete interpretation of the two-scale relation, as common in subdivision schemes, is used to establish algebraic relations between the basis functions and their coefficients on different levels of the hierarchical b-spline basis. The subdivision projection technique introduced allows us first to compute all element matrices and vectors using a fixed number of same-level basis functions. Their subsequent multiplication with subdivision matrices projects them, during the assembly stage, to the correct levels of the hierarchical b-spline basis. The proposed technique is applied to convergence studies of linear and geometrically nonlinear problems in one, two and three space dimensions.[16] B-splines and NURBS This paper presents a B-splines and NURBS based finite element method for self-consistent solution of the Kohn Sham equations [1,2] for electronic structure modeling of semiconducting materials. A Galerkin formulation is developed for the Schrdinger wave equation (SWE) that yields a complex-valued generalized eigenvalue problem. The nonlinear SWE that is embedded with a non-local potential as well as the nonlinear Hartree and exchange correlation potentials is solved in a self-consistent fashion. In the self consistent solution procedure, a Poisson problem is integrated and solved as a function of the electron density that yields the local pseudopotential (for pseudopotential formulation) and the Hartree potential for SWE. Accuracy and convergence properties of the method are assessed through test cases and the superior performance of higher-order B-splines and NURBS basis functions as compared to the corresponding Lagrange basis functions is highlighted. Self-consistent solutions for semiconducting materials, namely, Gallium Arsenide (GaAs) and graphene are presented and results are validated via comparison with the plane wave solutions.[17] Generalized B-splines as a tool in isogeometric analysis

The concept of isogeometric analysis has been proposed in [13], where NURBS are considered as basis of the analysis, thanks to their ability to construct an exact geometric model in several practical applications and to their popularity in commercial CAD systems. In this paper we propose an alternative to the rational model presenting an

isogeometric analysis approach based on generalized B-splines. Geometric models exactly represented by generalized B-splines include those generated by NURBS. Moreover, generalized B-splines possess all fundamental properties of algebraic B-splines (and NURBS) including classical refinement processes as hpk refinements. Finally, since generalized B-splines are not confined to rational functions, they behave completely similar to algebraic B-splines with respect to differentiation and integration. This seems to be of interest in the treatment of some relevant problems.[18] A research tool for Isogeometric Analysis of PDEs

GeoPDEs (http://geopdes.sourceforge.net) is a suite of free software tools for applications on Isogeometric Analysis (IGA). Its main focus is on providing a common framework for the implementation of the many IGA methods for the discretization of partial differential equations currently studied, mainly based on B-Splines and Non-Uniform Rational B-Splines (NURBS), while being flexible enough to allow users to implement new and more general methods with a relatively small effort. This paper presents the philosophy at the basis of the design of GeoPDEs and its relation to a quite comprehensive, abstract definition of IGA.[19]

References1. Young-Keun Choi a,*, A. Banerjee b, Jae-Woo Lee Tool path generation for free form surfaces using Bezier curves/surfaces Computers & Industrial Engineering 52 (2007) 486 501 2. Avisekh Banerjee , Hsi-Yung Feng, Evgueni V. Bordatchev, Process planning for Floor machining of 2D pockets based on a morphed spiral tool path pattern Computers & Industrial Engineering xxx (2012) xxx xxx 3. Qing Zhen Bi, Yong Qiao Jin, Yu Han Wang, Li Min Zhu, Han Ding An analytical curvature-continuous Bezier transition algorithm for high-speed machining of a linear tool path International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture 57 (2012) 5565 4. Mohamed Azaouzi a,, Nadhir Lebaal Tool path optimization for single point incremental sheet forming using response surface method Simulation Modeling Practice and Theory 24 (2012) 4958

5.

QiMing Tian *, YuPin Luo, DongCheng Hu Spiral-fashion embroidery path generation in embroidery CAD systems Computer-Aided Design 38 (2006) 125133

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Qing Zhen Bi, Yong QiaoJin ,Yu Han Wang, Li Min Zhu, Han Ding n An analytical curvature-continuous Bezier transition algorithm for high-speed machining of a linear tool path

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Harish Kingre Nagpur University, December, 2004. J.M. Carnicer, J. Delgado , J.M. Pea Progressive iteration approximation and the geometric algorithm Computer-Aided Design 44 (2012) 143145

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Huaiping Yang Wenping Wang Jiaguang Sun Control point adjustment for B-spline curve approximation Computer-Aided Design 36 (2004) 639652

10. B. Zhang*, J.F.M. Molenbroek Representation of a human head with bi-cubic B-splines technique based on the laser scanning technique in 3D surface anthropometry Applied Ergonomics 35 (2004) 459 465 11. J. Snchez-Reyes , J.M. Chacn Hermite approximation for free-form deformation of curves and surfaces Computer-Aided Design 44 (2012) 445456. 12. Matthias Eck Hugues Hoppe Automatic Reconstruction of B-Spline Surfaces of Arbitrary Topological Type 13. Jinliang Gu,JianmingZhang , XiaominSheng,GuanyaoLi B-spline approximation in boundary face method for three-dimensional linear elasticity Engineering Analysis with Boundary Elements 35 (2011) 1159 1167 14. Meng Wu, Jinlan Xu, Ruimin Wang, Zhouwang Yang Hierarchical bases of spline spaces with highest order smoothness over hierarchical T-subdivisions Computer Aided Geometric Design 29 (2012) 499 509 15. Daniel Rypl , Borek Patzak Object oriented implementation of the T-spline based isogeometric analysis Advances in Engineering Software 50 (2012) 137 149 16. P.B. Bornemann, F. Cirak_ A subdivision-based implementation of the hierarchical b-spline finite element method Department of Engineering, University of Cambridge, Trumpington Street, Cambridge CB2 1PZ, U.K. 17. Arif Masud , Raguraman Kannan B-splines and NURBS based finite element methods for KohnSham equations Comput. Methods Appl. Mech. Engrg. 241 244 (2012) 112127 18. Carla Manni a, , Francesca Pelosi a, M. Lucia Sampoli Generalized B-splines as a tool in isogeometric analysis Comput. Methods Appl. Mech. Engrg. 200 (2011) 867 881 19. C. de Falco a,, A. Reali b,c,d, R. Vzquez c GeoPDEs: A research tool for Isogeometric Analysis of PDEs Advances in Engineering Software 42 (2011) 10201034 20.