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1
ax-Planck-Institut für Radioastro
M
nomie, Bonn, Germany
2
Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale,
Université Paris-Sud, Paris, France
3
Argelander-Institut für Astronomie,
Universität Bonn, Germany oped by the Bolometer Group of the Observations of astronomical objects
4
ESO MPIfR, LABOCA is the most complex from ground-based telescopes have to
5
Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, system ever developed by this group. The pierce that screen presented by the at-
Berkeley, California, USA design of this new facility takes advan- mosphere, therefore requiring techniques
tage of the experience accumulated over to minimise its effects. The most widely-
several years in developing bolometers used technique is application of a switch-
In May 2007, the Large APEX Bolometer for millimetric and submillimetric atmos- ing device, usually a chopping secondary
Camera LABOCA was commissioned pheric windows and operating them on mirror (commonly called a ‘wobbler’), to
as a facility instrument on the APEX ground-based telescopes. observe alternatively the source and an
12-m submillimetre telescope located at area of blank sky close by, at a frequen-
an altitude of 5100 m in northern Chile. The main obstacle, when observing at cy higher than the variability of the sky
The new 870-µm bolometer camera, in millimetre and submillimetre wavelengths, noise. Invented for observations with sin-
combination with the high efficiency of is our Earth’s atmosphere, which is seen gle pixel detectors, this method is also
APEX and the excellent atmospheric by a bolometer like a bright screen. It used with arrays of bolometers. However,
transmission at the site, offers unprece- is as difficult as trying to do astronomical it presents some disadvantages and the
dented capability in mapping submilli- observations in the optical during day- most evident are, among others, that the
metre continuum emission. An overview time. This is largely due to the water va- wobbler is usually slow (1 or 2 Hz), posing
of LABOCA and the prospects for sci- pour present in the atmosphere, with a limitation to the scanning speed, and
ence are presented. only small contributions from other com- that not all telescopes are equipped with
ponents, like ozone. In the submillimetre a wobbler.
range the only sources in the sky brighter
A technological challenge than the atmosphere are the planets LABOCA has been specifically designed
Venus, Mars, Jupiter and Saturn (and, of to work without a wobbler to remove the
A new facility instrument has started op- course, the Sun and the Moon). All other atmospheric contribution, using a differ-
eration on the APEX telescope (Atacama celestial objects have weaker fluxes, ent technique which well suits observa-
Pathfinder Experiment, Güsten et al., usually orders of magnitude weaker than tions with an array of detectors. This tech-
2006) as a collaborative effort between the atmospheric emission. Besides, the nique, called ‘fast scanning’ (Reichertz
the Max-Planck-Institut für Radioastron- atmosphere is not stable and the amount et al. 2001), is based on the idea that,
omie in Bonn (MPIfR), ESO and the of water vapour along the line of sight can when observing with an array, each unit
Onsala Space Observatory (OSO). The change quickly, giving rise to instabilities bolometer looks at a different part of the
new Large APEX BOlometer CAmera of emission and transmission, called ‘sky sky and chopping is no longer needed. A
(LABOCA) is an array of bolometers de- noise’. modulation of the signal is produced by
signed for fast mapping of large sky moving the telescope across the source
areas at high angular resolution and with field of interest. The atmospheric contri-
high sensitivity: a challenging task. Devel- bution (as well as part of the instrumental
0.6
0.4
0.2
313 372
0.0
250 300 350 400 450
Frequency (GHz)
(see Figure 4). The voltages at the edges Raster of Spirals Figure 4: The coloured lines show the
400 scanning pattern of a single bolometer
of the thermistors are channelled to the
for a four-point raster of spirals. The
146
159
180 153
152
149 80
and sizes on sky of all the functional
substrate) going through low-noise, unity
170 175 169
LABOCA detectors.
74
176 163 73 75
165
150 76
156
141 154 183 147 81
0
93 120 94
240 228 243
256 100
215 97
218 231 5 98
225 246 86 121
205
– 48˚ 40�
Declination (J2000)
Declination (J2000)
–15�
– 48˚ 50�
– 49˚ 00�
– 20�
– 49˚ 10�
– 25�
– 49˚ 20�
16 h 42 m 40 m 38 m
Right Ascension (J2000)
0 h 48 m 15 s 48 m 00 s 47m 45 s 47m 30 s 47m 15 s 47m 00 s
Right Ascension (J2000)
Figure 5: Quarter square degree map observed with
LABOCA towards the reflection nebula NGC 6188. Figure 6: 870 µm emission of the nuclear starburst
The total observing time for this field is only 30 min galaxy NGC 253. The map reveals for the first time
resulting in a noise level of 35 mJy/beam. The map is the full extension of the low surface-brightness emis-
a mosaic of raster-spiral patterns. sion arising from the spiral arms in this galaxy.
to a noise level of 40 mJy/beam. An on- Star formation in the Milky Way ded. LABOCA will help to obtain a de-
line time estimator for LABOCA is availa- tailed understanding of their evolution. In
ble at www.apex-telescope.org/bolom- The outstanding power of LABOCA in addition, deep surveys of nearby, star-
eter/laboca/obscal. mapping large areas of the sky with high forming clouds, will allow the study of the
sensitivity (see Figure 5) will allow, for pre-stellar mass function down to the
the first time, unbiased surveys of the dis- brown dwarf regime.
Science with LABOCA tribution of the cold dust in the Milky Way
to be performed.
On account of its spectral passband, Cold gas in Galaxies
centred at a wavelength of 870 µm, As the dust emission at 870 µm is typi-
LABOCA is particularly sensitive to ther- cally optically thin, it is a direct tracer of The only reliable way to trace the bulk of
mal emission from cold objects which the gas column density and gas mass. dust in galaxies is through imaging at
is of great interest for a number of astro- Large-scale surveys in the Milky Way will submillimetre wavelengths. It is becoming
physical research fields. reveal the distribution and gas properties clear that most of the dust mass in spiral
of a large number of pre-stellar cores in galaxies lies in cold, low-surface bright-
different environments and evolutionary ness discs, often extending far from the
Planet formation states. Equally importantly, they provide galactic nucleus (as in the case of the
information on the structure of the inter- starburst galaxy NGC 253, see Figure 6).
The study of Kuiper Belt Objects in the stellar medium on large scales at high Understanding this component is criti-
Solar System as well as observations spatial resolution, an area little explored cally important as it dominates the total
of debris discs of cold dust around near so far. Such surveys are vital to improve gas mass in galaxies. For example stud-
by main-sequence stars can give vital our understanding of the processes that ies of the Schmidt Law, based on H i
clues to the formation of our own Solar govern star formation as well as the re observations alone, heavily underestimate
System and planets in general. With the lation between the clump mass spectrum the gas surface density in the outer parts
angular resolution of 18.6 arcseconds, and the stellar initial mass function (IMF). of galaxies. In addition to studying indi-
LABOCA will be capable of resolving the vidual nearby galaxies, LABOCA will be
debris discs of nearby stars. Large unbiased surveys are also critical vital for determining low-z benchmarks,
for finding precursors of high-mass stars such as the local luminosity and dust
which are undetectable at other wave- mass functions, which are required to in-
lengths due to the high obscuration of the terpret information from deep cosmologi-
massive cores in which they are embed- cal surveys.
Galaxy formation at high redshift Figure 7: LABOCA image of SMM 14011+0252 (left)
and SMM 14009+0252 (right) smoothed to 25 arc-
+ 2˚ 55�
second resolution. Both submillimetre galaxies
Owing to the advantageous interaction of were first detected by SCUBA (Ivison et al. 2000).
redshift and the cool dust spectral energy + 54� SMM 14011 is at a redshift of z = 2.56 (confirmed by
Declination (J2000)
distribution (negative-K correction), sub- CO detections) while SMM 14009 has no clear
optical counterpart and therefore no reliable redshift
millimetre observations offer equal sen + 53�
determination. The noise level of the map is about
sitivity to dusty star forming galaxies over 2.5 mJy/beam.
+ 52�
a redshift range from z ~ 1–10 and there-
fore provide information on the star for- + 51�
mation history at epochs from about half
to only 5 % of the present age of the Uni- + 50�
verse. Recent studies have shown that 14 h 01m 15 s 01m 10 s 01m 05 s 01m 00 s 00 m 55 s
Right Ascension (J2000)
00 m 50 s
Enrico Marchetti 1 adaptive optics correction systems for the images of the astronomical objects
Roland Brast 1 sharpening the astronomical images, be- far from the guide star are only partially
Bernard Delabre 1 fore feeding them into the scientific instru- corrected, with a blurring size which in-
Robert Donaldson 1 ment. creases with the distance from the guide
Enrico Fedrigo 1 star. This phenomenon is called atmos-
Christoph Frank 1 In this framework the final goal of MAD is pheric anisoplanatism and a graphical
Norbert Hubin 1 to prove, on-sky, the feasibility of MCAO representation is given in Figure 1.
Johann Kolb 1 and related techniques, and to evaluate
Jean-Louis Lizon 1 all the technical issues as well as to iden- MCAO tries to overcome this limitation
Massimiliano Marchesi 1 tify the key aspects involving the design, by sensing and correcting for the whole
Sylvain Oberti 1 construction and operation of such sys- atmospheric volume probed by the ob-
Roland Reiss 1 tems. served field of view (Beckers 1988). The
Joana Santos 1 process of implementing MCAO correc-
Christian Soenke 1 MAD is not a fully internal ESO project as tion consists of three main steps. The first
Sebastien Tordo 1 it has benefited from the collaboration of one is to measure the deformation of
Andrea Baruffolo 2 two consortia to develop some strategic the wavefront due to the atmospheric tur-
Paolo Bagnara 2 components of the system. A consortium bulence along different directions in the
The CAMCAO consortium 3 led by Universidade de Lisboa (Portugal) field of view. This is performed with sev-
designed and built the Camera for MCAO eral wavefront sensors looking at dif-
(CAMCAO), which is a high spatial reso ferent guide stars in the field of view. The
1
ESO lution infrared imaging camera used by greater the number of guide stars, the
2
INAF – Astronomical Observatory of MAD for evaluating the correction perfor better the knowledge of the wavefront
Padova, Italy mance. An Italian consortium formed by distortion in the sky field of interest. The
3
Universidade de Lisboa, Portugal the Observatories of Padova and Arcetri, second step is called atmospheric tom-
both part of the Italian National Institute ography and consists in reconstruct-
for Astrophysics (INAF), developed the in- ing the vertical distribution of the atmos-
The aim of the Multi-Conjugate Adap- strument control software and a novel pheric turbulence at different locations
tive Optics Demonstrator (MAD) is to concept of wavefront sensor, called Layer of the field, in order to obtain a three-
correct for atmospheric turbulence over Oriented, which will be tested separate- dimensional mapping of the turbulence
a field of view which is much larger than ly on the sky in September 2007 (Vernet- above the telescope. The solution to this
the one typically covered by the exist- Viard et al. 2005). step represents quite a complex prob-
ing adaptive optics systems installed on lem, since the number of measurable
8-m-class telescopes. After a long quantities (the guide stars) is always
period of testing at the ESO premises, What is MCAO? smaller than the number of the unknown
MAD was installed at the VLT early in ones (the turbulence at several discrete
2007 in order to evaluate its correction Adaptive optics corrects in real time for altitudes above the telescope). This limita-
performance. Here we present the the atmospheric turbulence which affects tion comes from the fact that, while the
MAD project and the recent results ob- the spatial resolution of the astronomical vertical distribution of the atmospheric
tained during the on-sky testing at the images obtained by ground based tele- turbulence is continuous, the number of
VLT UT3 telescope Melipal. scopes. In the existing adaptive optics available guide stars is always limited to
systems, the field of view which benefits a few, both for natural and technical rea-
from the real-time atmospheric turbu- sons.
MAD (Marchetti et al. 2006) is a demon- lence correction is very limited, typically a
strator instrument aimed at correcting few arcseconds for images obtained The atmospheric tomography problem,
atmospheric turbulence over a large field at infrared wavelengths. This limitation which is quite complex and requires
of view by implementing a novel adaptive arises from the fact that the distorted some a priori assumptions to achieve a
optics technique called Multi-Conjugate wavefront is estimated by the wavefront simplified solution, has been already
Adaptive Optics (MCAO). sensor only in the direction of a suffi- given in its theoretical form (Ragazzoni,
ciently bright guide star located near the Marchetti and Rigaut 1998) and then
MCAO and similar atmospheric turbu- observed astronomical object, and is demonstrated in an open-loop experi-
lence correction techniques have been corrected for this same direction by a de- ment on the sky (Ragazzoni, Marchetti
recognised as strategic both for the formable mirror. In this configuration, only and Valente 2000). The third step is
second-generation VLT instrumentation the volume of the atmosphere probed to apply the wavefront correction to the
and for the European Extremely Large by the beam of the observed guide star is whole field of view and not only in a spec-
Telescope (Gilmozzi and Spyromilio efficiently sensed, while the atmospheric ified direction. This is achievable by us-
2007), the 42-m telescope facility whose volumes probed by the light of astronomi- ing several deformable mirrors which are
project is in development at ESO. In fact cal objects far from the guide star are optically conjugated to different altitudes
both the above-mentioned projects will only partially sensed. The direct conse- in the atmosphere above the telescope.
make extensive use of wide-field-of-view quence of this misregistration is that The deformable mirrors intercept the light
Reference
Reference Star Off-axis Stars
Star
Residual
Turbulence
Ground Layer
Telescope
Telescope
Ground Conj. DM
DM
Altitude Conj. DM
WFC
WFC
WFS
WFS
from the whole field of view and it is pos- The wavefront sensing concept pre- used. A detailed description of the Layer
sible in this way to tune the correction sented here is called Star Oriented and it Oriented concept is given in Ragazzoni,
depending on the location in the field. A is based on using as many wavefront Farinato and Marchetti (2000).
graphic representation of MCAO is given sensors as guide stars. MAD is actually
in Figure 2. From this concept of multi- equipped with a Star Oriented wave-
ple conjugations comes the definition of front sensor and it has been used to per- The MAD system
MCAO. This differs substantially from the form the first two demonstration runs of
actual adaptive optics systems which 2007. All the results presented have been The full MAD system with the exceptions
have only one deformable mirror, typically obtained with the Star Oriented wavefront of the CAMCAO infrared imaging camera,
conjugated to the pupil of the telescope sensor. the instrument control software and the
at the altitude of a few metres in the at- Layer Oriented wavefront sensor has
mosphere. As mentioned before MAD will be been fully designed and built by ESO in
equipped with a second wavefront sen- Garching. The MAD system has been
The atmospheric turbulence has a con- sor, called Layer Oriented, which will have optimised for providing the best correc-
tinuous vertical structure which induces a first light during the third MAD demon- tion in K-band (2.2 μm) and all the
systematic error in the wavefront correc- stration run planned for September 2007. performance has been evaluated at this
tion, due to the fact that, for technical rea- This wavefront sensor, based on a py- wavelength.
sons, the number of conjugation altitudes ramidal optical component, works with a
at which the deformable mirrors can be completely new concept, which allows The main strategy we have followed has
placed is limited. What in practice is done sensing all the guide stars simultaneously been to reuse as much as possible ex
for an MCAO system is to optimise the and uses as many detectors as deforma- isting hardware and software compo-
correction to be given to each deformable ble mirrors. In this way the quality of the nents developed in the framework of the
mirror in order to minimise the uncor- signal from the guide stars is improved by other ESO adaptive optics projects. We
rected turbulence, both along the vertical co-adding the light on the same detector; also decided to follow rigorously the ESO
of the telescope and in the scientific field but the complexity does not scale as the standards in matters of instrumentation,
of view. first order with the number of guide stars
being fully compliant with the installation based on a Hawaii2 2k × 2k detector to 640 Hz in 2 × 2 binning mode. At each
of new instruments at the VLT. driven by an ESO IRACE control system; loop cycle 312 slopes are received and
the pixel size projected on the sky is multiplied by the reconstruction matrix. In
Despite the prototype nature of MAD, the 0.028 arcseconds for a total field of view total MAD controls 122 real-time chan-
full project underwent the ESO review of ~ 57 arcseconds. A scanning table nels, 38 movable functions, and 5 detec-
procedure before the initiation of the pro- allows CAMCAO to patrol the full 2-arc- tors simultaneously through six dedicated
curement and construction of the main minute field of view, while keeping the Local Control Units located in four elec-
hardware components. MAD passed the adaptive optics loop closed and without tronics cabinets.
Conceptual and the Final Design Reviews, the need to offset the telescope or move
as well as the Preliminary Acceptance other optical components into the light
for Europe, just before the shipment to path. CAMCAO is equipped with stand- MAD installation and first light
Paranal to evaluate the compliance with ard J, H, Ks filters plus some narrowband
VLT Paranal standards for instrument in- ones. MAD was first integrated in the optical lab-
stallation and operation. oratory at ESO Garching where the MAD
The Star Oriented wavefront sensor is team performed extensive system tests,
The MAD optical bench consists of a based on three Shack-Hartmann sensors lasting more than one year, before the
static table supported by a structure of 8 × 8 sub-apertures each, which are shipment to Paranal. During the tests we
which elevates the main optical axis to able to scan the full 2-arcminute field characterised the performance of the
the level of the one from the VLT on the of view to easily pick up the light of the system under different correction config-
Nasmyth platform. The light from the guide stars. The wavefront sensor detec- urations, including a long phase of de-
2-arcminute field of view coming from the tors are commercial E2V CCD39 units, bugging during which we implemented
telescope enters MAD through an optical 80 × 80 pixels, a device commonly used the useful corrective actions to optimise
derotator which compensates for the in existing adaptive optics systems, and both the performance and the operabil-
field rotation affecting the images at the driven by an ESO FIERA control system. ity of the system. A dedicated facility to
Nasmyth focus. After a collimator lens In proximity to the wavefront sensor is emulate a three-dimensional, time-evolv-
there are the two deformable mirrors, the located the acquisition camera, based on ing atmosphere and variable configur
first one conjugated at 8.5 km above the the standard ESO new technical CCD ation of guide stars, called MAPS, was
telescope and the second at the tele- and its related controller; the camera im- placed at the MAD entrance window and
scope pupil (see Figure 3). Both deforma- ages the 2-arcminute field of view in used during the full testing period.
ble mirrors are spare units of the ones order to locate the exact position of the
used in the MACAO family adaptive op- guide stars. During operation an interac- In December 2006 MAD successfully
tics systems installed at the VLT (60-ele- tive procedure allows correct centring passed the Preliminary Acceptance Eu-
ment bimorph mirrors). The pupil-conju- of each Shack-Hartmann on the desired rope and in January 2007 it was dis-
gated deformable mirror is supported by guide stars, using only the image from mounted and shipped to Paranal. The
a fast steering mount to assist the mirror the acquisition camera. Finally two mova- system reintegration at the VLT visitor
in compensating for the largest contribu- ble units, supporting illuminated fibres, focus located at the Nasmyth platform A
tion of the atmospheric tip-tilt. This mirror can be inserted into the optical beam for of UT3 Melipal started around mid-Feb
is also a spare unit from the MACAO sys- instrument calibration and testing. ruary and lasted for about one month. In
tems. A dichroic allows reflection of the this period around 15 people, including
visible part of the light in the direction of The MAD real-time computer provides Paranal staff, participated in the MAD in-
the wavefront sensor. The infrared light is acquisition from the wavefront sensor, stallation which was completed without
transmitted and folded down through a wavefront reconstruction and deform- major problems. In the second half of
hole in the bench, below which is located able mirror actuation up to a frequency of March we spent about two weeks in fully
the infrared imaging camera. CAMCAO is 400 Hz with no detector binning, and up characterising and calibrating the sys-
tem following the procedures established
Figure 3: MAD optical layout. The the year before during the laboratory sys-
MAD Optical Layout Collimator input beam from the VLT is folded by tem testing.
the deformable mirrors and split by
Folding Mirror IR Camera
F/15 focus the dichroic. The visible light is sent to
Folding Mirror the wavefront sensor while the infra- Finally in the evening of 25 March, after
Collimator red light feeds the CAMCAO camera concluding some software functional
located below the MAD bench. tests, we pointed at NGC 3293, a bright
IR/Visilbe Dichroic
VLT F/15 Optical
Focus Derotator open cluster, selected three suitable
DM @ 8.5 Km
guide stars and successfully closed the
DM @ 0 Km
MCAO loop.
WFS WFS
Selecting F/20 Focus
From the beginning we realised that the
WFS Objective
Mirror system was stable and reliable, a condi-
tion which lasted for the whole demon-
stration run. The run consisted of a mix of
half and full nights for a total of 8.5 effec- visible from Earth. Omega Centauri offers shown represent the Strehl ratio distribu-
tive nights spread over 12 nights. This several relatively bright guide stars suit tion in K-band (2.2 μm) in the field with
long period, originally not planned, had able for wavefront sensing and it is ex- three different correction modes: clas
two positive aspects: it increased the tremely crowded, allowing an efficient sical adaptive optics, that is, sensing and
chances of having good seeing; it permit- mapping of the correction quality over the correcting for a single star in the field;
ted collection of statistics on seeing, thus whole field of view. Ground Layer adaptive optics; and MCAO.
allowing estimation of the MAD perform-
ance under different conditions. In Figure 5 is shown a typical example
of the correction performance for a 2-arc- Figure 5: Strehl ratio maps (in % at 2.2 μm) for clas-
minute field under good seeing conditions sical (left), Ground Layer (middle) and Multi-Conju-
On-sky results (~0.7 arcseconds as given by the DIMM gate (right) Adaptive Optics. The useful corrected
monitor). Three guide stars of V magni- field of view for classical adaptive optics is reduced
to 20 arcseconds. In GLAO it enlarges reaching the
The main target selected for the correc- tude ~ 11.5 were used, equally spaced best performance at the centre. In MCAO the per-
tion performance evaluation was Omega and located on a circle of approximately formance is much better with peaks on the guide
Centauri, the brightest globular cluster 100 arcseconds diameter. The maps stars and a valley at the centre of the field of view.
25.0
22
.0
15 35
2.5
.5
. 0
90 .0 .5 90 90
15 17
35.0
12.5
0
5.
.0
.5
10
15
80 80 80 27 30
17
.0
7.5 25.0
.5
12.
7.5 .0
70 70 10 70
30.0
0
5.0
3 5.
.0
.0
32.5 .0 .5
25
27.5 25 22
35
arcsec
arcsec
arcsec
60 60 60
25
20.0 32
50 50 50 .5
17.50
27.5
15. 30
20.0 22 .5 25.0 .0 20
40 5
40 .5 12 40
17.
17.5
20
.5
.0
30 30 30 27
0
15.0
.
17
2.
10
.5 .0
5
25 15
.0
12.5
27.5
25
20 20 15 20 .5
22
12.5
10.0 .
25.0
0
.0
22.5
3 0.0
10 10 10 20
7.5
20.0
10.0
17.5
7.5 .5
15.0
5.
0 17 10
2. 5
0 0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110
arcsec arcsec arcsec
5
The Ground Layer Adaptive Optics this is that some obvious technical limita- A very impressive example of the gain
(GLAO) is a special case of MCAO when tions, imposed by the laboratory atmos- provided by MCAO is demonstrated
the guide stars sensed are the same but pheric model (with a few discrete turbu- in Figure 6, where the open loop and the
only one deformable mirror, conjugated lence layers), do not match the situation MCAO closed loop K-band images for
at the telescope pupil, is used for correc- on the sky (continuous turbulent struc- the same region of 20 × 20 arcseconds
tion. This technique does not achieve ture). This difference penalised the per- near the centre of Omega Centauri are
the peak Strehl ratio of MCAO, but it can formance estimation for GLAO. shown. The open-loop image has been
guarantee a moderate improvement in obtained with ISAAC and the stars have a
the concentration of the light for the ob- During the observing runs, continuous Full Width at Half Maximum of 0.6 arc-
served objects and is a simpler technical real-time data have been collected from seconds. The MCAO closed-loop image
implementation. The second-generation the atmospheric seeing monitors DIMM has been obtained with MAD using three
VLT instruments MUSE and HAWK-I will (seeing, coherence time) and MASS guide stars of V magnitude ~ 11.5 on a
be fed by GLAO modules, which justifies (atmospheric turbulence vertical profile) circle of 2 arcminutes in diameter. The
its study in the framework of MAD. for cross-correlating the MAD correc- 20 × 20 arcseconds region is at the cen-
tion performance with the instantaneous tre of this circle, that is, the closest guide
The advantage of MCAO with respect to atmospheric turbulence conditions. A star is at ~ 1 arcminute distance. The gain
classical adaptive optics is fairly clear: detailed analysis has shown that both in angular resolution is enormous and al-
for the latter the well-corrected area MCAO and GLAO exhibit the expected lows very close and faint stars in the clus-
(Strehl ratio above 20 %) will not extend performance, weakening with the wors- ter to be distinguished. The MCAO image
more than 20 arcseconds from the guide ening of the seeing, with MCAO dropping was obtained with 0.7 arcsecond seeing
star; for MCAO almost the full 2-arc- slower than GLAO. MCAO proved also and the Full Width at Half Maximum
minute field of view benefits from such a to be much more robust when atmos- of the star images ranges from 0.087 to
Strehl ratio improvement. Another typical pheric turbulence tends to concentrate at 0.107 arcseconds, with an average of
behaviour of MCAO is also evident: the higher altitudes. This trend is expected 0.098 arcseconds. The light concentra-
correction is effective inside the polygon since GLAO corrects mainly the ground tion is significant since on average 56 %
identified by the guide stars, with maxima atmospheric layer and the effectiveness of the light from a star is included in 3 ×
located on those stars and a ‘valley’ of the correction depends strongly on the 3 pixels (0.084 arcseconds). For a total
at the centre, but it quickly drops in the relative strength of the ground layer. On integration time of 600 seconds the meas-
outer regions of the field of view. the other hand, MCAO benefits from the ured limiting magnitude is K ~ 20.5 (3s),
deformable mirror conjugated to the which makes this the deepest ever image
For GLAO the correction behaviour is the upper layer and compensates more effi- in K-band of this globular cluster and
opposite: the performance peak is at ciently for the high-altitude atmospheric permits significant increase in the observ-
the centre of the field of view and drops turbulence. The same trend can be ob- able population of the cluster’s main se-
outwards. The absolute Strehl ratio val- served when considering the correction quence.
ues for GLAO are not much smaller than uniformity across the field of view. MCAO
the ones for MCAO at the field of view is more uniform than GLAO in terms of Figure 7 shows a 1 × 1 arcminute MCAO
centre while MCAO is clearly superior for the standard deviation of the Full Width at corrected K-band image centred on the
all the rest of the field. As a comparison, Half Maximum of image size over the field well-known Trapezium cluster, a massive
GLAO had higher performance than in of view, while for both correction modes star-formation region in the constellation
the laboratory testing, while MCAO per- the uniformity improves with the seeing of Orion. For this image three guide stars
formed as expected. Our explanation of conditions. of V magnitude ~ 10 to 12 have been
2007.258
– 80
– 90
∆DEC (mas)
–100
–110
1996.249
–120
–130
30 40 50 60 70 80
∆RA (mas)
Figure 7: Left: 1 × 1 arcminute K-band MAD image ries. Centre: Close-up view of the multiple system two rightmost ones) of θ1 Orionis B; the latest point is
of the region of the Orion Trapezium (north up, east θ1 Orionis B, the northernmost component of the five the one measured from MAD images. For previous
left). The FWHM is ~ 0.1 arcseconds varying slightly bright stars of the Trapezium group. The four bright- measurements see the Fourth Catalog of Interefero-
across the field. It is possible to distinguish several est companions are clearly resolved. Right: Orbital metric Measurements of Binary Stars (Hartkopf et al.
protoplanetary discs as well as identify close bina- evolution since 1996 for components 2 and 3 (the 2001 and http://ad.usno.navy.mil/wds/int4.html ).
s elected in a quite non symmetric config- The scientific data obtained during the sources for wavefront sensing will im-
uration. The seeing at the moment of first demonstration run have been re- prove the sky coverage for astronomical
the exposure was 1.2 arcseconds (DIMM leased to the community and are acces- objects, enhancing the potential of this
monitor) and, despite the non-optimal sible to anybody interested in looking technique. The first laser guide star based
configuration of the guide stars, the Full in more detail at the capabilities of such a MCAO instrument will have first light in
Width at Half Maximum of the objects technique (see http://www.eso.org/ 2008 at the Gemini Observatory, and
in the corrected image ranges from 0.090 projects/aot/mad/commdata/). quite likely its example will be followed by
to 0.120 arcseconds, with an average of other large telescopes.
0.100 arcseconds. The limiting magnitude Owing to the success of the MAD experi-
is K ~ 19 for an exposure time of 300 sec- ment, ESO decided to grant two science In the case of the E-ELT, the MCAO facil-
onds. demonstration runs of one week each ity has been recognised as a primary in-
and has released a call for proposals to strument and the related Phase A design
This example shows another great poten- the scientific community to exploit the has already started in the framework of
tial of MCAO, that is the field of view mul- science capabilities of the prototype be- a larger study of E-ELT instrumentation.
tiplexing for imaging a large portion of fore the final dismounting from the VLT.
the sky with very high angular resolution. The science demonstration runs will take
In the image it is possible to identify place in November 2007 and January References
simultaneously several protoplanetary 2008. Beckers J. M. 1988, in ESO conference “Very Large
structures blown away by the stellar wind Telescopes and their instrumentation”,
of the nearby stars. At the same time it is After the completion of the second run ed. M.-H. Hulrich, 693
possible to distinguish several binary or MAD will be dismounted and shipped Gilmozzi R. and Spyromilio J. 2007, The Messenger
127, 11
multiple stars and measure their positions back to Garching for reintegration. The Hartkopf W. I., McAlister H. A. and Mason B. D.
with very high accuracy. As an example, system will then be available to any re- 2001, AJ 122, 3480
in Figure 7 is shown the orbital evolution search group interested in performing Marchetti E. et al. 2006, SPIE 6272, 21M
for the components 2 and 3 of the mul further and more detailed tests in view of Ragazzoni R., Marchetti E. and Rigaut F. 1999,
A&A 342, L53
tiple system θ1 Orionis B, consisting of at future applications. Ragazzoni R., Marchetti E. and Valente G. 2000,
least five stars mutually orbiting around Nature 403, 54
each other. The position measured with Ragazzoni R., Farinato J. and Marchetti E. 2000,
MAD together with the ones previously The future of MCAO SPIE 4007, 1076
Vernet-Viard E. et al. 2005, Opt. Eng. 44, 6601
obtained, both with adaptive optics and
speckle interferometry, range over a total The scientific impact of MCAO has been
span of 11 years and show a clear trend recognised to be valuable both for Gal
in motion suggesting a very long-period actic and extragalactic astrophysics. The
orbit. capability to add Laser Guide Stars as
Ivo Saviane 1 (CV), asymptotic giant branch (AGB) stars, nary measurements have shown that the
Vilppu Piirola 2, 5 magnetic white dwarf (WD) stars, Ga instrumental linear polarisation is less
Stefano Bagnulo 3 lactic super star clusters), to active galax- than 0.1% at field centre, and about 0.4 %
Lorenzo Monaco1 ies (Seyfert, active galactic nuclei (AGN), at the edge, while FORS1 has an instru-
Damien Hutsemekers 4 BL-Lacs), and interacting galaxies. The ment linear polarisation reaching 1.5 % at
Seppo Katajainen 2 proposals came from seven countries the edges.
Harry Lehto 2 (Finland, Switzerland, UK, Germany, Italy,
Tommi Vornanen 2 Chile, and France), and ten institutes A copy of the current polarimetry unit
Andrei Berdyugin 2 altogether (just counting the PIs). For this was then built, to house a new quarter
Pasi Hakala 2 reason, more than one year ago it ap- wavelength (l/4) retarder plate in a safe
peared that expanding the polarimetric way. This allows to easily exchange the
capabilities of EFOSC2 would meet a two units, making operations relatively
1
ESO substantial demand of the European as- easy (see Figure 1). Exchanging the two
2
uorla Observatory, University of Turku
T tronomical community. units only requires a few minutes, and
Piikkiö, Finland in terms of both control software and ob-
3
Armagh Observatory, Armagh, Northern In April 2006 a proposal for a new polari- serving templates, the operation is com-
Ireland metric unit was then submitted to the Di- pletely transparent. The super-achromatic
4
University of Liège, Belgium rector of the La Silla Paranal Observatory, quarter wave retarder plate (of 50 mm
5
Vatican Observatory, Città del Vaticano, and it was accepted shortly afterwards. diameter × 12 mm thickness) was pur-
Rome, Italy The proposal was to offer the possibility chased from Astropribor Kiev at a special
to measure circular polarimetry with price, due to some minor defects of the
EFOSC2 in addition to the available linear glass, which do not compromise the
Starting from period P79, circular po polarimetry. EFOSC2 has a couple of ad- quality of the measurements. Having two
larimetry measurements can be carried vantages compared to FORS1. First, mutually exclusive units means that linear
out with EFOSC2 at the ESO 3.6-m recently we have been able to offer fast and circular polarisation will have to
telescope. Here we describe the moti- imaging polarimetry of point sources, be measured in two consecutive nights,
vations behind the upgrade of the in- reaching a sample rate of 12 sec (plus ex- if required, but this is not a concern for
strument, and a few results from the posure time), thanks to the possibility to most scientific cases. If absolutely needed
commissioning runs are used to show read only a corner of the CCD, and to the linear and circular polarisation can be
the excellent performance of the new faster retarder plate rotation. This is an measured simultaneously with the l/4
polarimetry unit. essential requirement for example in the plate (rotated in 22.5 ˚ steps), but then with
case of ‘intermediate polar’ cataclysmic only 50 % efficiency for linear, and 70 %
variables, since circular polarisation origi- efficiency for circular polarisation. The old
Reasons for having the new EFOSC2 nates close to the shock region near the and new units are displayed in Figure 1.
mode surface of the fast spinning WD. In some
cases significant variations can occur in
Polarisation originates whenever any kind a few minutes (e.g. GG Leo where circu- Commissioning and science verification
of anisotropy occurs in the radiative lar polarisation rises from zero to + 20%
source, e. g., scattering by matter, pres- in about 10 minutes). Furthermore, longer Due to the major problem with the dome
ence of collimated beams of particles, observing runs are easier to obtain at of the 3.6-m telescope (see the article
presence of a magnetic field, and so forth. La Silla, allowing monitoring programmes by Ihle et al. on page 18), which absorbed
Thus it occurs in many different physical to be carried out. Note also that prelimi- most of the resources of the mechanical
processes of emission of photons, and
in many different kinds of astrophysical
objects. Therefore, instruments offering
imaging and/or spectro-polarimetry are of
interest to a broad astronomical audi-
ence. Indeed there has been a recent in-
crease in the pressure on the polarimetric
modes of both FORS1 at the VLT and
EFOSC2 at the ESO 3.6-m telescopes.
Just in the two ESO periods P77 and
P78, about 1/3 of the EFOSC2 proposals
asked for the polarimetric mode, and
the subjects ranged from Solar System
objects (comets and Near-Earth Objects),
to planets and dust in nearby stars,
to stars in the Galaxy and the Magellanic Figure 1: A photograph
of the old (left) and new
Clouds (magnetic cataclysmic variables (right) polarimetry units.
Pc %
plate housed in the old unit. However the 0.0
unit was ready for the second commis-
sioning which happened in April, and just –1.0
before the first visitor run. Several sci
entific and calibration targets were ob-
served, and we illustrate here only a
few cases. Results for another target ob- 0.0 0.5 1.0
served in June are also included. Phase
Circular polarimetry of the asynchronous seen in the XMM-Newton and the ASCA
Polarimetry standards polar V1432 Aql light curves requires three hot spots on
the surface of the white dwarf (Rana et al.
During the second commissioning night Polars (AM Her objects) are a subclass of 2005). These peculiarities make V1432
on 17 April, several standard stars and magnetic cataclysmic variables (mCVs) Aql an important object for further study.
science targets were observed. In partic- and consist of a highly magnetic (B = 10–
ular imaging polarimetry in broadband 200 MG) WD accreting matter from a Circular spectro-polarimetry of V1432
filters (BVRi ) was obtained for the mag- low-mass companion. The WD rotates was carried out with EFOSC2 on 28 June
netic WD LP790-29, and the data were synchronously (or nearly so) with the 2007. Figure 2 shows the variations of
analysed with the following result: VB = orbital motion. The strong field of the WD broadband optical circular polarisation
5.50 ± 0.07 %, V V = 7.10 ± 0.05 %, VR = prevents the formation of an accretion over the 3.4 hr spin period of the WD.
9.28 ± 0.04 %, Vi = 7.12 ± 0.06 %. This is disc. Instead, the matter is channelled Fast excursions of positive (right handed)
consistent with West (1989), who meas- along the field lines, and flows onto the and negative circular polarisation are
ured VB = 5 %, V V = 6.5 % and VR = 10 %. WD surface through accretion columns seen, as the visibility of the cyclotron emis-
Another test was done by measuring (see e.g. Cropper 1990, for a review). sion regions on the spinning WD, and the
Hiltner 652, a highly linearly polarised The temperature of the accretion shock is angle between our line of sight and the
standard star. In this case we should Te ~ 10–40 keV, and the mildly relativistic magnetic field lines, change. The shape
measure null circular polarisation, and in- electrons of the hot magnetised plasma of the circular polarisation curves suggest
deed V V = 0.03 ± 0.03 % was computed. emit strongly polarised cyclotron radiation that there are two negative poles domi-
Hence we can conclude that the cross in the optical and near-infrared. nating during these observations, and the
talk between linear-polarisation and cir- field lines at the cyclotron emission region
cular polarisation is comfortably small. Asynchronous polars are important to un- are significantly inclined with respect of
Finally the measurement of WD1615-154, derstand better the magnetic braking the normal to the WD, i.e., accretion takes
an unpolarised standard, gives V V = 0.03 mechanism, which re-synchronises the place onto the WD relatively far from the
± 0.05 %, a result indeed consistent with WD with the orbital motion very rapidly magnetic poles. The accretion geometry
zero polarisation. (Ts < 100–1000 yr) after nova eruptions also changes during the 50-day beat pe-
(e.g. V1500 Cyg, BY Cam, V1432 Aql). An riod of the WD spin and orbital periods.
As an additional test, LP790-29 was re- especially interesting system is V1432 Aql These results demonstrate that circular
peated with the retarder plate at slight- (see e.g. Staubert et al. 2003; Rana et al. polarimetry is an efficient tool for probing
ly different angles with respect to the 2005; Andronov et al. 2006). It is unique the magnetic field and accretion geome-
adopted reference, and it was found that among asynchronous polars in the sense try in mCVs, and that EFOSC2 can detect
a few degrees of difference do not have a that the white dwarf spin period is about variations of circular polarisation of the
significant impact on the measurements. 0.3 % longer than the binary orbital cycle. order of 0.1 % or less.
During the first visitor night LP790-20 This is against the earlier plausible expla-
and WD1615-154 were observed again, nation that synchronism in polars is
obtaining consistent results: V V = 7.07 broken by transfer of a small amount of Spectro-polarimetry of the magnetic
± 0.09 % for LP790-29 and V V = 0.00 ± orbital angular momentum during the WD G99-37
0.04 % for WD1615-154. The linear-circu- common-envelope phase of a nova erup-
lar polarisation cross-talk was checked tion, which should speed up the WD For the science verification, a number of
again with the highly linearly polarised spin, as seen e.g. in V1500 Cyg = Nova targets were selected with known circular
standards Vela 1 95 and HD 155197, with Cygni 1975 (Schmidt, Liebert and Stock- polarisation properties. One of the most
results V V = + 0.03 ± 0.05 % and V V = man 1995). Another possible mechanism interesting objects is the DGp WD G99-37.
+ 0.03 ± 0.04 %. Again this is consistent is rotational braking of the white dwarf Circular polarisation in the optical con
with zero circular polarisation. during the mass-loss phase by the strong tinuum due to a strong m agnetic field was
magnetic field. The triple-hump profile discovered by Landstreet and Angel
2
Circular Polarisation (%)
0 10
–2 0.2
CP (%)
–4 0
Log Fν
0
G-band of CH – 0.2
– 0.4
4 000 6 000 8 000 10 000
Wavelength (Å) –10
(1971), and later Angel and Landstreet quence 135 ˚– 45 ˚– 45 ˚–135 ˚–135 ˚– 45 ˚– HD 94660 with EFOSC2, and measured
(1974) measured a field strength of 45 ˚–135 ˚. The 1? slit was used, together the mean longitudinal field via formula (1)
3.6 × 10 6 Gauss, using the Zeeman effect with grism #7, which allows to cover the of Bagnulo et al. (2001). The result is <Bz >
on the absorption G-band of CH at range ~ 330 nm to ~ 520 nm at 0.2 nm = – 2 105 ± 80 G (see Figure 4) which is
~ 430 nm. The effect on the circular po- px –1 dispersion. The data reduction was fully consistent with the values measured
larisation spectrum is shown in Figure 3 carried out using standard IRAF reduc- during the last few years with FORS1 at
(left panel), and it can be qualitatively tion packages for extracting the two polar the VLT (see Bagnulo et al. 2006).
understoodby looking at Figure 1 in Land- -ised spectra from each exposure, and
street (1980) and the inset in Bagnulo et our own routines to calculate the degree
al. (2001). A magnetic field parallel to the of circular polarisation from the expo- Acknowledgements
line of sight splits the band into two com- sures made at the two orientations of the We thank the La Silla Engineering Department (and
ponents symmetric with respect to the quarter-wave plate. in particular Gerardo Ihle and Juan Carlos Pineda)
central wavelength, and the two compo- and the SciOps engineer Emilio Barrios for their ded-
nents are circularly polarised in opposite The resulting spectrum of the circular po- ication to this project, that has made it a reality.
directions. So if the magnetic field was larisation (CP) is shown in Figure 3 (right
purely longitudinal, the absorption band panel), and the CP structure induced by References
would appear bluer than the central wave- the magnetic field across the CH band
length in left-polarised light, and redder at 415–440 nm can be clearly seen. This Andronov I. L., Baklanov A. V. and Burwitz V. 2006,
A&A 452, 941
in right-polarised light. As polarimetry demonstrates that useful measurements Angel J. R. P. and Landstreet J. D. 1974, ApJ 191,
measures the ratio (IL – IR ) / I, where IL of this star were obtained, and that we 457
and IR are the intensities of the left- and recovered the ~ ± 10 % maximum values Bagnulo S. et al. 2001, The Messenger 104, 32
right- polarised light, the spectrum of of the CP. Bagnulo S. et al. 2006, A&A 450, 777
Cropper M. 1990, Space Sci. Rev. 54, 195
circular polarisation will show the rapid Landstreet J. D. and Angel J. R. P. 1971, ApJ 165,
change across the G-band which is seen L67
in Figure 3. This polarised absorption Spectro-polarimetry of HD 94660 Landstreet J. D. 1980, AJ 85, 611
feature, at the wavelength range 0.42– Rana V. R. et al. 2005, ApJ 625, 351
Schmidt G. D., Liebert J. and Stockman H. S. 1995,
0.44 nm, peaks from + 10 % to – 10 %, so HD 94660 is a well-known chemically pe- ApJ 441, 414
it is relatively easy to measure. culiar star that shows an almost con- Staubert R. et al. 2003, A&A 407, 987
stant longitudinal magnetic field of about West S. C. 1989, ApJ 345, 511
The star was observed with EFOSC2 on – 2 kG. This star has been repeatedly
the night of 16 March. Briefly, eight observed with FORS1 in polarimetric
15-min spectra were taken with the 20? mode during various surveys of magnetic
Wollaston prism and the quarter wave fields to check the instrument behaviour
retarder plate scanning the angle se- (see Bagnulo et al. 2001). We observed
I (arbitrary units)
jump. All Balmer lines show a well-detected signal of
circular polarisation, and what appers as noise in 0.2
0.6
b etween the various Balmer lines is in fact mostly a
polarisation signal coming from hundreds of metal
lines not fully resolved by the instrument. The right 0.4
V/I (%)
panel shows how the magnetic field is calculated. 0
For a longitudinal field, the circular polarisation de- 0.2
pends linearly on the expression given in the ab-
scissa. The angular coefficient is the mean field, so 0 – 0.2
a linear regression of the spectro-polarimetric data
allows to compute <Bz > Q – 2 000 Gaus.
– 0.4
0.5
–1 × 10 – 6 0 10 – 6
– 4.67 10 –13 λ2 (1/I) (dI/dλ)
V/I (%)
– 0.5
Maintenance work on
the dome shutter of the
ESO 3.6-m telescope.
Below in the distance
can be seen the SEST
telescope, which is no
longer in active use
(photograph from 1996).
Cast Steel
Rubber
Mild Steel
∅ 650
∅ 200
C
8 8.7
333
composite structure 82
of the dome support
wheels.
200
Rail type A75 Rail top shape before machining of 1.5 to 1.8 mm
not flat on a plane but showed hills and then conduct a study of the situation After the unsuccessful attempts to find
valleys around its perimeter. of the rail with respect to the enclosure the proper rubber compound for the
shape and relative dome positioning. wheels, a more radical solution to the
The condition of the wheels and the rail Then the re-machining of the outer rim of dome wheel problem was considered:
resulted in unacceptable force during the wheels to the right shape was done, the design and fabrication of entirely new
rolling of the wheels, creating excessive together with the milling of the top sur- wheel units. Figure 6 shows a cut-away
stresses in the rubber and rail system. face of the rail (Figure 4, right) with the design of one of the new wheel units. The
The failure rate thus began to increase. help of a specially designed milling head construction is based on a double-wheel
(shown in Figure 5) attached to the rotat- carriage supported by friction springs
These conclusions were reached after a ing part of the dome itself. The centring and with the possibility to measure, via
survey campaign of the rail and wheels, of the dome was performed by adjusting load cells, the load applied in the respec-
conducted with the cooperation of Main- the two lateral wheels of each bogie. tive bogie. This is an advantage with re-
tenance and Engineering Departments When this was not possible the bogies spect to the original design because it al-
of the La Silla Paranal Observatory. The were re-positioned in order to have lows a constant control of the load along
close collaboration made possible a res- the wheels centred on top of the rail. All the rail track.
cue plan to correct these problems. these activities took place in October
2006, and gave the first results by deliv- The new wheels have so far been in-
First we had to make extensive measure- ering the dome and telescope back to stalled in eight positions out of 30, and
ments of the situation with a theodolite, the community on 4 November. Figure 7 shows one of the installed
Acknowledgements
Figure 5: The special
The Maintenance and Engineering Departments of milling head, fabricated
La Silla and Paranal made possible the return of the to machine the rail,
telescope to normal use with the minimum of effect attached to the dome.
on observations. The group of engineers and techni-
cians of both sites in La Silla Paranal Observatory
brought this project to a happy end.
Figure 6: A cutaway
showing the design
of one of the new dome
support wheel units.
Florian Kerber, Francesco Saitta, Wavelength calibration during the calibration source for X-shooter UVB
Paul Bristow (all ESO) X-shooter operations and VIS arms – also for the NIR arm.
150
Counts
Counts
200
The Calibration and Modelling Support
Group in the ESO Instrumentation Divi- 20
colour-coded.
Results 20 000
Constanza Araujo-Hauck1 proceedings of the “High Precision Spec- The standard wavelength calibration
Luca Pasquini 1 troscopy in Astrophysics” workshop sources used in most spectrographs are
Antonio Manescau 1 (Santos et al. in press), held in September the hollow-cathode Thorium-Argon
Thomas Udem 2 2006 in Aveiro (Portugal). There is now (Th-Ar) lamps. These lamps have been
Theodor W. Hänsch 2 a general consensus that an even higher used for decades, because of their
Ronald Holzwarth 2, 3 precision is needed: numerous advantages. However when
Andreas Sizmann 3 – for the detection of earth-mass planets pushing the performance, a number of
Hans Dekker 1 in habitable zones around solar-type limitations arise, the most noticeable
Sandro D’Odorico1 stars and/or the unambiguous charac- being: line blending; long-term variability;
Michael T. Murphy 4 terisation of stellar systems with many and the high non-uniformity of the line
orbiting planets (like our own Solar distribution and intensity (see e.g. Lovis
System), which will require a long-term et al. 2006).
1
SO
E precision of better than 10 cm/sec.
2
Max-Planck Institute for Quantum – to resolve the currently controversial Prompted by the need to improve this
Optics, Garching, Germany issue of possible variation in the physi- calibration scheme, a group of research-
3
Menlo Systems GmbH, Martinsried, cal constants as derived from quasar ers from different institutes has started
Germany spectra and to increase the precision to look into other alternatives, finding
4
Institute of Astronomy, University of in order to compete with space-based that a significant step towards the ideal
Cambridge, United Kingdom constraints from atomic clock exper calibration source might be achieved
iments (e.g. from the planned ACES with the relatively new technology of laser
experiment by ESA), which requires an frequency combs (Udem et al. 2002;
A new technique for precise wavelength improvement of a factor between Murphy et al. 2007).
calibration of high-resolution spectro 10 and 100 over the present measure-
graphs using frequency combs has re- ments.
cently been proposed. After introducing – for measuring the change of the ex- The Laser Frequency Comb
the basic concepts and advantages of pansion rate of the Universe from Ly-a
this technique, we describe the ongoing forest quasar absorption spectra, which A laser frequency comb consists of
development between ESO and the requires a precision of a few cm/sec thousands of equally-spaced frequencies
Max-Planck Institute for Quantum Op- over a 30-year baseline (Grazian et al. over a bandwidth of several THz. It is
tics for a novel wavelength calibration 2007; Liske et al. 2007). based on the properties of femtosecond
system that aims, within three years, to (fs) mode-locked lasers. The shorter the
construct a laboratory demonstrator. One (if not THE) crucial subsystem in any laser pulses, the broader the range of
high-precision spectrograph is the wave- frequencies in the comb (see Figure 1).
length calibration source (Lovis et al.
The quest for improved wavelength 2006). The ideal calibration source should The resulting modes of the frequency
calibration have a very high density of lines that are comb have their origin in the repetitive
uniformly spaced and whose wavelength pulse train of the mode-locked laser.
With the advent of large (and extremely is known from first principles. All the lines The mode spacing, which is constant in
large) telescope collecting areas and should have similar intensity and should frequency space, is given by the pulse
superstable instruments, high-precision cover the whole spectral range of interest repetition frequency and resides in the
spectroscopy in astrophysics is becom- without blends. Crucially, they must be radio frequency domain. The repetition
ing a very exciting reality. Several areas stable and reproducible to an exceeding- frequency can readily be synchronised
of forefront research have been devel- ly high accuracy for many years. All of with a precise radio frequency reference
oped in the last decade, such as the de- this may appear excessive to some of our such as an atomic clock. These clocks
tection of planets around other stars, readers, but it is worth recalling that a provide by far the most precise measure-
the measurement of possible variations in precision of 1 cm/sec corresponds, on ments of time and frequency currently
physical constants, the determination of the focal plane of a typical high-resolution available, the most reliably determined
element isotope ratios and the proposed spectrograph, to a shift of a few tenths quantities in physics. Frequency combs
direct measurement of the expansion of nanometer, which compares to typi- therefore satisfy two requirements of
of the Universe. All share the requirement cal molecular sizes. Moreover, we aim to the perfect calibration source which other
of very high precision in the measurement maintain this precision over a period of methods do not: uniform line-spacing
of spectral line wavelengths. 10 years, or more! and long-term stability and reproducibil-
ity. The novelty of laser combs has been
High-precision wavelength measurements widely recognised, and the 2005 Nobel
require a high-resolution spectrograph Prize in Physics was awarded to Profs.
with special characteristics in terms of Ted Hänsch and John Hall, for their fun-
thermal and mechanical stability, detector damental and pioneering work in the de-
linearity and reproducibility. The reader velopment of the optical frequency comb
interested in more details can refer to the technique.
1
same spectral region (middle). In likely to be the most challenging part of
0.5 the lower frame is shown a zoom of this development, due to the high power
the comb spectra for a 1 nm window,
0 where the red solid line shows the required to carry out the nonlinear proc-
5 496 5 498 5 500 5 502 5 504 error array, exaggerated by a factor of esses at high-pulse repetition rates. To
1
25 (see Murphy et al. 2007). date there is no laboratory demonstration
of femtosecond laser sources with repeti-
0.5
tion rates larger than 10 GHz (Hoogland
0 et al. 2005).
5 499.6 5 499.8 5 500 5 500.2 5 500.4
Wavelength (Å) The proposed solution is shown in Fig-
ure 3. It consists of a High Repetition
The laser frequency comb has a number In Figure 2 we show the Th-Ar, the iodine Rate (HRR) fs source, a non linear fre-
of advantages over other traditional wave cell and the simulated laser frequency quency conversion, and a mode filter cav-
length calibration sources. It guaran- comb spectra over the same spectral re- ity that will be the last step to achieve
tees long-term stability over many years; gion for comparison. The advantage of the desired mode spacing. The latter item
the absolute wavelength of each line in the comb is evident. presents a major development challenge,
the comb is known a priori (i.e. without but has the significant advantage that the
the need for previous laboratory meas- line spacing can be varied to lower and
urements); and it has a very high preci- Implementing a Laser Frequency Comb higher free spectral ranges in multiples of
sion, only limited by the reference signal, calibration system the fundamental comb line spacing.
which could be an atomic clock or a
GPS receiver, depending on the required ESO and the Max-Planck Institute for On account of the common interest for
stability. Another interesting feature is the Quantum Optics (MPQ) have studied the ESO and MPQ, both organisations have
high density and equidistance of emis- technical feasibility of building a wave- agreed to start the research and develop-
sion lines, over a wide wavelength range, length calibration system based on a ment activities with the objective to build
both of which will allow tracing and mod laser frequency comb, which could be a laboratory prototype that meets the
elling of the wavelength solution at the used in present and future generations of requirements of a wavelength calibration
focal plane of the spectrograph with a high-resolution spectrographs. The re- source. This research will focus on dif
very high accuracy, enabling higher S/N quirements and specification were based ferent key aspects of the desired system:
detection in spectra. on a CODEX-like instrument (Pasquini identification of the high repetition rate
et al. 2006). The conclusion of that study light source, development of the non-lin-
is that none of the presently available ear conversion chain, and the filter mode
laser comb systems could provide all the cavity which will allow us to reach the de-
characteristics required by this applica- sired frequency mode spacing. A Ph.D.
tion, but the development of such a unit, thesis has been awarded on the subject
although challenging, is feasible. at MPQ and a postdoctoral position de-
It is expected that within three years this Figure 3 (above): Block diagram for Figure 4 (below): Laboratory set-up at MPQ to test
the proposed laboratory demonstrator the filter cavity. The red line represents the laser
research effort will result in a laborato-
of the calibration system based on a path. On the left, the Fabry Perot filter cavity. On the
ry system that meets the performance re- frequency comb. right, the different optical components for analysis,
quirements. A travelling unit to be tested, control and diagnostics.
feeding a spectrograph operating at
a telescope, could be available in a time-
frame of approximately four years.
M2 M1
References Mode Filter Cavity
Andreas Wicenec, Jens Knudstrup eight disk slots each. The disks used in
(ESO) 2001 had 80 GB and were close to the
optimal price/capacity ratio at that time;
they were filled up with one week of typi-
Considerations of the technical feasibil- cal WFI@2p2 operation and were then
ity and the cost implications of a disk- ready to be shipped to Garching via the
based archiving system to store digital diplo bag. The latter highlights another
observations coming from the ever key point of the NGAS concept, the ship-
growing suite of ESO telescopes and in- ping of hard disks and the full traceability
struments began in 2000. The so-called of the shipment procedure. In NGAS
Next Generation Archiving System operational terms, magnetic disks are
(NGAS) started archiving data in a pro- consumables and data can be migrated
totype system in 2001. Now the second freely from one disk to another. In fact
generation of NGAS hardware has been every file stored on NGAS is fully virtual-
installed in the new ESO data centre ised in the sense that access to a file is
and about 98 % of all data since 1998 solely controlled using a unique NGAS file
have been migrated onto disks hosted ID. There is no need to know the actual
on NGAS computers. In addition all computer, disk or directory path where
data currently produced by ESO instru- the file is located. A request for a file with
ments is directly archived onto NGAS a given ID can be issued to any NGAS
hosts both in La Silla and Paranal. Cur- computer available on the network; the
rently the ESO archive keeps about NG/AMS will figure out where the closest
125 TB of data online and the system available copy is available and deliver that
has been scaled up to cope with the copy to the requester.
next data wave coming from VISTA and
OmegaCAM. The last feature of the NGAS concept is
the interoperability of NG/AMS with other
components of the Data Flow System
The NGAS concept (DFS) and other client software or direct
Figure 1: Close-up view of some of the NGAS human users. In order to minimise the
machines of the primary archive cluster in the new implementation impact on both the NG/
The release of a white paper (Wicenec
ESO data centre.
and Pirenne 2000) describing the techni- AMS server and the clients, it was de-
cal feasibility and the cost implications netic ATA-100 disks as the archiving and cided very early on in the project to use
of a disk-based archiving system marked transport media; a highly flexible and an existing very simple protocol which
the start of a new chapter in a quite dif- modular software called NG/AMS, Next is as widely available as possible. Conse-
ferent area than commonly described Generation/Archive Management System. quently NG/AMS is actually implemented
in the ESO Messenger. This story is about The main goals of the whole system are as an HTTP server. All available com-
persistently storing digital observations scalability and the ability to process bulk mands can be issued through standard
coming from the ever growing suite of data within the archive itself. In fact HTTP clients, including web browsers.
ESO telescopes and instruments. The so- NGAS scales in a way so that it is possi- NG/AMS is supposed to be used through
called Next Generation Archiving System ble to process all the data in the archive software rather than directly by humans,
(NGAS) started out as an idea and a within an almost constant time. In the and the latter is not recommended be-
feasibility study. In the first Messenger ar- meantime technology advances have led cause the core NG/AMS does not pro-
ticle from December 2001 (Wicenec et to the usage of SATA2 rather than ATA- vide a real page-oriented web interface.
al. 2001), it was still described as a proto- 100 disks, but that is quite a minor detail.
type system. Early in July 2001 the Data On the technology side we had to change
Management Division (now Data Man- hardware components for newly pro- NGAS requirements
agement and Operations Division) in- cured NGAS computers several times,
stalled prototype versions of the archiving but the first computers installed at La Silla Back in 2001, a new archiving system had
and buffering units of NGAS in the control were only replaced and upgraded in 2005 to resemble the operational scheme of
room of the 2.2-m telescope in La Silla. in order to provide more redundancy the existing system as closely as possible
The two units were the on-site part of an and to be able to capture all data from all and be similar in terms of cost. For the
archiving system we were testing at the instruments operating at La Silla. costs, it is clear that one has to account
that time for high data rate/high data vol- At the same time the NGAS systems were for the pure hardware costs, as well as
ume instruments like the Wide Field moved to the RITZ (Remote Integrated the operational and maintenance costs.
Imager mounted at the 2.2-m telescope Telescope Zentrum). The hardware includes the costs for the
(WFI@2p2). The original NGAS concept consumable media, readers, writers (if
was built around two basic ideas: use On the Garching side, in the main archive, any) and computers. In order to be able
of cheap commodity hardware with mag- we started with eight computers, with to use magnetic disks as an archiving
media, the overall system has to fulfil a number is due to the fact that at the mo- (UKIRT) in Hawaii and the data from the
number of basic requirements: ment at least two copies of each file are APEX sub-millimeter telescope are also
– Homogeneous front-end (archiving at kept in the primary archive, because the archived on NGAS. In particular, the data
observatory) and back-end (science secondary archive is still in the process from WFCAM poses quite an addition-
archive) design; of being populated before becoming fully al load and required a special set-up, be-
– Access to archive scalable, i.e. the operational. In addition also the master cause, firstly, this instrument produces
number of entries and volume of calibration frames produced as a part of about 200 GB of data every clear night
data shall not affect the access time to the quality control process of most of and, secondly, the data is archived through
single data sets; the ESO instruments, as well as auxiliary the network from Cambridge, UK.
– Support bulk data processing; files and log files, are archived on NGAS.
– Processing capabilities should scale The archive system design and the use
along with archived data volume, i.e. of commodity hardware in both the pri- The NGAS implementation
it should be possible to process all data mary and the secondary archive meet
contained in the archive; the goal of keeping development, mainte- As already mentioned NGAS is an inte-
– An economical solution using commod- nance and operations costs low. grated hardware and software solution
ity parts to reduce overall costs. This for bulk archiving, archive management
consideration also includes power With the new VO-compliant science ar- and basic large-scale file processing.
economy, whereby unused servers are chive interfaces to be released by the end This means that both the hardware and
switched down after a configurable of this year, we expect that significantly software configurations have to be kept
idle time and then woken up for a re- more scientists will be able to exploit and under strict configuration control. For
quest, in order to save power; use the archived data beyond its original the hardware this includes not only the
– Possibility to use the magnetic disks as scientific intent. About 1 million requests single computers, but also the cluster
a transport medium for the bulk data. every month are served by the NGAS and network configuration, the racks, the
archive main servers. Most of these re- cooling concept, the connection to ex
The main goal of the first point is to limit quests are internal to ESO operations, ternal systems, like the quality control
maintenance costs, operational over- quality control processing and archive processing cluster and the secondary ar-
heads and the time-to-archive. Time-to- maintenance requests, but without the chive, and the compatibility between the
archive is the total time the complete online nature of the NGAS archive all front-end mountain-top systems and the
system needs until the data is online and these processes would need substantially primary archive.
retrievable (disregarding access restric- more time and staging disk space. The
tions) from the science archive. The sup- new VO compliant interfaces require also
port for bulk data processing is mainly direct access to the data, essentially The hardware
driven by the fact that ESO is already now through web links (URLs). This introduces
processing almost 100 % of all data, a new paradigm for access to ESO data As an integrated system where magnetic
in order to ensure the data quality for by external users, because up to now the disks are to be used as consumables,
service mode programmes, monitor the data is only served in an asynchronous we had to be more strict in the selection
telescope/instrument parameters and way and requesters receive e-mails upon and maintenance of the machines and
provide master calibration frames for the completion of their requests. In the future their components. In particular the re-
calibration database. the data will be almost directly served quirement to use the disks as a data
by NGAS to the global astronomical com- transport medium requires that the ma-
munity. In order to be able to cope with chines on the mountains and the ma-
NGAS archive facts and facets these new requirements, the network in- chines in Garching use compatible disk
frastructure of the NGAS cluster will be slots and disk trays. Since removing
The currently installed NGAS cluster for changed as well, in order to make full use and mounting disks is a very regular and
the primary archive can host up to of the intrinsic parallelism. standard procedure, the mechanics have
150 TB of data, distributed across 24 ma- to operate both smoothly and reliably
chines with 24 disks each (see Figure 1). On the front-end side NGAS is archiving and the parts have to be rigid enough to
In this configuration it is already prepared between 1000 and 6 000 new obser perform many mount/remove cycles. At
to start receiving and storing VIRCAM vations every night. This rate is mainly de- the same time the trays should be com-
and OmegaCAM data from VISTA and pendent on the number and type of in- pact, provide efficient cooling and not be
VST respectively, in addition to the data struments operated on the mountains too expensive. The disks are shipped in
stream from the VLT, VLTI, and La Silla and on the weather conditions. Some in- their trays and are then mounted in a dif-
telescopes. As of end July 2007, the pri- strument modes are quite demanding ferent machine, thus the slots have to
mary archive holds more than 7.2 million for the rate of archiving files, which may in be fully compatible. In order to have bet-
individual frames obtained by ESO in some exceptional cases rise to several ter control on such details we have cho-
struments (in general one observed frame hundreds of thousands of files per day. In sen a computer selection process which
results in one file in NGAS). The total num addition to the La Silla Paranal instru- involves the specification of computer
ber of files stored on NGAS at present ments, the raw data of the WFCAM in- parts rather than a model. All of the parts
amounts to almost 30 million. The large strument on the UK Infrared Telescope are commodity parts and thus easily
The machines are installed using a stand- In order to trace the location of every NG/AMS is very flexible and configurable.
ard Scientific Linux OS installation with file in the system, NGAS uses a database It provides 10 different plug-in types to
customised packages, and some cus- which contains information about all customise the behaviour of various parts
tomised system configuration, followed NGAS hosts, disks and files. There are of the system, these include plug-ins
by an installation of the NG/AMS soft- additional tables to control the history which are executed when the system
ware. NG/AMS is written in 100 % pure and the location of disks even if they are goes online and offline, when data is ar-
Python. Python is an object-oriented not on-line, have been retired or are cur- chived or registered, and for processing
scripting language in wide use; for more rently travelling to one of the sites. By de- and checksum calculation. For the pow-
information on Python see http://www. fault NGAS always keeps two copies of er-saving mode there is a plug-in which
python.org. The experience of writing and every file and this is rigidly controlled and causes the node to go to sleep and
maintaining a rather big server applica- checked throughout the operations. another one which wakes it up. NG/AMS
tion in Python is quite positive, mainly be- Without some effort and special permis- also provides a subscription service,
cause of the clarity and compactness sion it is not possible to remove a file if where one node can subscribe for data
of the language. Things like ‘Segmenta- that would result in less than two copies being newly archived on another node.
tion fault’ and the related, sometimes being available, and, anyway, being an
tedious, debugging sessions simply do archiving system, deleting files is a pro-
not occur and the very clear object orien- tected action. The consistency of the Figure 2: The current 24-machine NGAS cluster in its
tation of the language allows for a clean contents of the database and the files on new location, the ESO data centre. Each of the three
and proper design of even complex ob- disks is checked periodically; this in- racks weighs about 1 000 kg and uses a sophisti-
ject relations. The high-level built-in mod- cludes the calculation of a checksum for cated dual cooling system, located behind the nar-
row grey doors. The cluster can host up to 576 SATA
ules add to a very efficient way of pro- every file. If discrepancies are detected disks. With the currently used 400 GB disks this
gramming, resulting also in a comparably the software sends an notification e-mail translates to a total capacity of 156 TB in 48 RAID5
low number of code lines. to the archive administrators. disk arrays.
1
This is a fake URL.
Garching
Disk Shipping Primary Archive Cluster
Garching
Archiving and Cloning
Garching
PA Front-end
Garching
Archive Request
Garching
QC Processing Garching
Secondary Archive
Garching
ADP Processing
For this subscription mechanism there is alone NGAS archiving client and is thus Figure 3: Schematic view of the complete NGAS
data flow. The main data from the La Silla Paranal
a filter plug-in to be able to subscribe not a full NGAS installation. The Garching
observatory is archived on NGAS machines in the
only to data which fulfils certain criteria. installation is a bit more complex with observatory and then shipped to Garching. This part
In addition the latest version of the ALMA the complete primary archive and a num of the observatory data flow is highlighted with blue
branch of the software also provides a ber of archiving and disk handling units. letters and lines. The green letters and lines highlight
data flowing from and to the NGAS primary archive
mechanism to register and execute new There are several external applications,
cluster, to post observation requests, quality control
commands. This flexibility enables the which use NGAS to archive or request and advanced data product processing. The black
usage of NG/AMS in many different situa- data. These include the standard archive letters and lines mark custom configurations for pre-
tions and hardware set-ups. The core requests, where the ESO request handler imaging data from Paranal and for the data from the
UK WFCAM camera.
software is completely independent of is the application which executes the
the hardware and can be run even on a actual retrieval. The quality control (QC)
laptop. processing is executed on its own cluster vanced Data Products (ADP) processing
of machines and retrieves almost all of the ESO Virtual Observatory Systems
observed frames from NGAS using a di- department. Also in this case a large
NGAS operations rect client. After finishing the process, the fraction of the whole archive is requested,
QC scientists of the Data Flow Opera- processed and the results are archived
As can be seen in Figure 3 NGAS, is op tions department also archive the results and registered.
erated at three different ESO sites. Both on NGAS. This involves mainly the master
observatory sites have a small three- calibration frames, but a new applica- The secondary archive essentially is a
machine cluster, where only one machine tion supporting the archiving and proper back-up of the whole NGAS cluster on a
is actually used for archiving data, one registration of the quality control science Sony Petabyte tape library. A special
is a disk handling unit and one is a spare. products is currently being tested. An- application has been developed to inter-
The direct archiving from Paranal and other heavy user of the NGAS archive is face NGAS with the commercial appli
Cambridge, UK, is done using a stand- the processing carried out by the Ad- cation, called ProTrieve, controlling the
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Terrestrial anti-ν
reach, with ton-scale detectors, 10 – 46 cm2 10 4
Reactor anti-ν
in 7–8 years. Therefore, there is a fair 1 Background from old supernova
chance to detect dark matter particles in
the next decade – provided the progress 10 –4
10 –16
Andrew J. Fox 1 tent of DLAs and sub-DLAs at high red- redward of the Lyman-a forest and so are
Patrick Petitjean 1, 2 shift has been carefully studied, providing subject to a much lower level of contami-
Cédric Ledoux 3 a means to trace the process of cosmic nation. The O vi sample is much smaller
Raghunathan Srianand 4 metal enrichment over a large fraction of (12 systems), since in many cases the O vi
the age of the Universe. lines are blended with the Lyman-a for-
est, the series of intervening H i absorp-
1
Institut d’Astrophysique de Paris, We recently began a programme to look tion lines found at wavelengths shortward
Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Paris, for a hot ionised medium in DLAs and of the quasar’s Lyman-a emission line.
France sub-DLAs. Two separate processes could We dealt with the confusion of separating
2
LERMA, Observatoire de Paris, France create such a medium, we reasoned. If O vi from H i interlopers by adopting a
3
ESO DLAs do represent high-redshift galax- series of systematic steps to identify gen-
4
Inter-University Centre for Astronomy ies, then star formation and subsequent uine DLA O vi absorbers. These steps
and Astrophysics – IUCAA, Ganesh Type II supernova explosions will create included verifying the doublet ratio be-
Khind, Pune, India super-bubbles of hot, shock-heated in tween the two O vi lines, and checking to
terstellar plasma. Sufficiently powerful su- see whether candidate O vi identifications
pernovae can drive winds that enrich the could be caused by intervening Lyman-a,
The neutral discs of high-redshift galax- surrounding intergalactic medium with Lyman-β, or Lyman-γ forest absorbers,
ies give rise to the Damped Lyman-a metals. The separate process of accre- by looking in each case for correspond-
(DLA) systems seen in the spectra of tion and shock-heating of infalling interga- ing absorption in the other Lyman series
background quasars. We show for the lactic gas could also lead to the produc- lines. We detect O vi in 12 of 35 DLAs
first time that a hot phase of gas is tion of a hot ionised medium, though this (34 %) with O vi coverage. In the remaining
present in DLAs, observable in the ab- process is predicted to be less important 66 % of cases, we cannot tell whether
sorption lines of five-times-ionised oxy- at high redshift: hydrodynamical simula- O vi is present or not due to the blending.
gen. This plasma phase, which could tions have shown that the fraction of all Thus a conservative estimate of the
harbour a considerable fraction of all baryons in the temperature range 10 5 to fraction of DLAs with O vi is > 34 %. N v is
the metals produced by star formation 10 7 K rises from a few per cent at z = 3 to detected in 3/9 systems with data cov
at these epochs, can be explained as ≈ 30 % at z = 0 (Davé et al. 2001). ering the appropriate wavelength range.
the feedback from star formation taking
place in the neutral discs. The ultraviolet (UV) lines available for
studying highly ionised interstellar plasma Example of DLA spectra
are the O vi λλ 1031, 1037, N v λλ 1238,
Studying galaxy halos at high redshift 1242, C iv λλ 1548, 1550, and Si iv λλ In Figure 1 we show the absorption line
1393, 1402 Å doublets. O vi, which traces profiles of three example DLA systems
To obtain observations of galaxies at high gas in the temperature range 10 5–6 K, with O vi detections. Within each column
redshift, one can pursue deep imaging is of particular interest since it is the most of this figure we show a Si ii or Fe ii line
in the optical and infrared, or look for ab- highly ionised of all the species with chosen to trace the neutral gas, together
sorption-line signatures in the spectra of UV lines. Furthermore, oxygen is the third with all the available high ionisation data.
background QSOs. These two methods most abundant element in the Universe Our model fits are included on the plot
are complementary, but whereas direct (after hydrogen and helium), and the O vi in red. We do not include all the spectra
imaging is biased towards bright objects, lines are intrinsically strong, rendering here: the full spectra are available in
absorption lines select galaxies irrespec- them easy to observe. O vi systems are Figure 1 in Fox et al. (2007a). There is
tive of brightness. If the sight line toward only accessible from the ground at z > 2, considerable variation in the appearance
a particular QSO intersects the neutral where the transitions become redshifted of the highly ionised absorption lines in
disc of a galaxy, a Damped Lyman-a enough to pass the atmospheric cut-off the DLAs. The O vi absorbers range from
(DLA) absorption system will be observed near 300 nm. cases with a single, optically thin com
in the quasar spectrum. This name re- ponent to cases with a series of saturated
flects the strong damping wings of the components. The C iv profiles range from
Lyman-a transition seen in these sys- Observations and sample selection cases with one or two components
tems. Observationally, DLAs are defined spanning < 100 km s –1 to cases with over
as those QSO absorbers with H i column A large data set of DLA spectra has been 15 components spanning several hun-
densities N(H i) > 2 × 10 20 cm –2. Those built up using the Ultraviolet-Visual dred km s –1. It is interesting to note that
absorbers with slightly lower H i column Echelle Spectrograph (UVES) on VLT UT2 the mean integrated O vi column density
densities (between 10 19 and 2 × 10 20 cm –2) in the years 2000 to 2006. The data set in our 12 detections, log N (O vi) = 14.54,
are referred to as sub-DLAs. DLAs re currently consists of 123 DLAs and sub- is of similar order to the mean O vi column
present the largest reservoirs of neutral DLAs. We formed two subsamples from density seen in the halo of the Milky Way,
gas (and hence fuel for star formation) the data: all the DLAs with detections in even though the metallicities of the DLAs
in the redshift range 0–5 (see review by the C iv line, and all the DLAs with detec- in our sample are typically only one-for
Wolfe et al. 2005). Since the advent of tions in O vi. The C iv sample, containing tieth of the solar value. This implies that-
10-m-class telescopes, the chemical con 73 systems, is larger since the lines lie the total ionised hydrogen column densi-
C IV 1550 C IV 1550
B
O VI 1031
B B
O IV 1031 O IV 1031
B
B B B B
O VI 1037
O IV 1037
O IV 1037 B
B
B B
B B B B
B
B
ties are much higher in DLAs than in the O vi b-value is 14 km s –1, with the majority Similar trends are found with O vi, but
Milky Way. of cases over 20 km s –1. This suggests we display the C iv results since the sam-
that the plasma has a multi-phase struc- ple sizes are much larger and the correla-
ture, with the O vi arising in a hot, colli- tions are more significant. We interpret
Gas temperature sionally ionised phase, and the narrow these correlations as providing evidence
C iv components arising in cooler clouds, for star formation in the DLA host galax-
In each DLA, the absorption line profiles which may be embedded in the hot ies. In this picture, star formation in the
of each high-ionisation line usually con- phase. neutral DLA discs will lead to EUV radia-
sist of several individual components. tion from hot stars that can photoionise
Using the freely available VPFIT software carbon in the galaxy’s interstellar medi-
package, we determined the properties Evidence for star formation um (ISM) to the triply-ionised state, giving
of each individual component for the O vi rise to the narrow C iv lines. Star forma-
sample. In Figure 2 we show the distribu- We find that the bulk properties of the tion also leads to supernovae, resulting
tions of the component line width, and plasma depend strongly on the metallicity in: (i) the release of metals generated by
compare the results for O vi, C iv, and Si iv. of the neutral gas. This is revealed by the stellar nucleosynthesis; (ii) the production
These distributions offer information on detection of correlations between [Z/H] of superbubbles containing million-de-
the physical conditions in the absorbing and: (1), C iv column density; (2) total C iv gree plasma, that can interact with cool
gas. line width; and (3), maximum C iv velocity. or warm clouds to produce gas at tem-
These correlations are shown in Figure 3. peratures where triply-ionised carbon and
Many of the C iv and Si iv components
in DLAs have narrow line widths (b < 0.4
10 km s –1) implying that the kinetic tem-
perature in the gas is too low to pro- 0.3
O VI (solid) 31 comps
C IV (dotted) 64 comps
duce the high ionisation by collisions with Si IV (dashed) 49 comps
electrons. Instead, these components Figure 2: Normalised histograms of
Fraction
five-times-ionised oxygen are created within the DLA halos. When using our
15.5
through electron collisions, giving rise to median values N(H ii, Hot)/N(H i) > 0.4 and
the broad C iv and O vi lines; and (iii) the 15.0 N(H ii, Warm)/N(H i) > 0.1, we find that
deposition of mechanical energy into the the contribution from the hot and warm
If this is true, one expects that the more play a significant role in the metal budget.
metal-rich galaxies will reside in deeper 100 The total amount of metals released by
potential wells, so that their ionised out- z = 2 can be calculated by integrating the
flows do not become winds and escape, observed star-formation history of the
but rather are decelerated and exist in Universe, and using the metal yields from
gravitationally-bound halos. Indeed, this models of stellar nucleosynthesis. Us-
mechanism has been suggested to be 10 ing the star-formation rate from Bouwens
–3 –2 –1 0
the origin of the mass-metallicity relation. [Z/H] et al. (2004), the resulting number ex-
However, we detect C iv outflows in DLAs pressed in units of the critical density is
at all values of [Z/H], as shown in the 1000 Ω SFH
Z ≈ 3 × 10 –5. Stars in galaxies appear
bottom panel of Figure 3. The maximum to contain ≈ 20 % of the total, the con
outflow velocities reach over 500 km s –1 tribution from the ISM in galaxies (H i in
|vmax | (C IV) in km/s
in eight high-metallicity systems. This in- DLAs) is ~ 1 %, and the IGM contains
dicates that some mechanism is capable a further ≈ 5–25 %. The remaining metals
of driving galactic winds even out of the 100 (≈ 50 % of the total) are yet to be found,
deepest potential wells. leading to a situation referred to as the
“missing metal problem” (Bouché et al.
2007, and references therein). Hot, low-
Total ionised column density metallicity, low-density gas is a possible
10 solution to the missing metals problem.
–3 –2 –1 0
By making corrections for ionisation and [Z/H] For plasma with a density of 10 –3 cm –3, a
for metallicity, we can convert, for each metallicity of 0.01 solar, and a tempera-
absorber, the measured O vi and C iv Figure 3: Correlations between metallicity and (1) ture of 10 6 K, we calculate the cooling
high ionisation species column density (top panel,
column densities to H ii column densities. time to be ≈ 12 billion years, i.e. approxi-
> 6 σ significance), (2) high ionisation line width (mid-
The ionisation corrections are derived dle panel, at 3.4 σ significance), and (3) maximum mately the Hubble time, showing that
from models, and the metallicities have outflow velocity (bottom panel, at 3.1 σ significance), gas and metals can become essentially
been measured in Ledoux et al. (2006). in a sample of 73 DLAs and sub-DLAs. The metal- locked up in hot halos.
licity is measured in the neutral phase of the gas. The
We assume that the neutral, warm, and
solid lines show linear least-squares bisector fits to
hot phases all share the same common the data. If ƒ (O vi) in the DLA plasma were as low
metallicity, and further that the relative as 3 × 10 –3, which is the case for plasma
elemental abundances are in their solar Contribution to Ω in collisional ionisation equilibrium at
ratios. When the hot hydrogen column 10 6 K (Gnat and Sternberg 2007), then
densities are computed, the numbers are The contribution of H i in DLAs to the cos- the O vi-bearing plasma around DLAs
strikingly large. We find log N(H ii) in the mic density has been calculated as ≈ 1 × would contain enough metals to solve the
O vi phase ranges from > 19.5 to > 21.1, 10 –3, fairly flat with redshift (Prochaska et missing metals problem. The widths of
and log N(H ii) in the C iv phase ranges al. 2005). By making use of our new es the broader O vi lines in our sample are
from > 18.4 to > 20.9. These lower limits timates for the amount of ionised gas that consistent with the thermal broadening
are typically on the same order as the accompanies the neutral gas in DLAs, expected at 10 6 K. However, since metals
H i column in the neutral gas, although we we can compute the contribution of the will also be found in both the neutral and
observe a considerable dispersion (over hot gas in DLAs to the closure density. ionised phases of other categories of
two orders of magnitude) in the value of This calculation has the advantage of not quasar absorption line system, it is un-
N(H ii)/N(H i). depending on the distribution of gas likely that ƒ (O vi) will take a value as low
Renato Falomo 1 The first two effects may yield directly Observations and data analysis
Aldo Treves 2 a redshift z of the object, while the third
gives only a lower limit to z. Optical spectra were collected in service
mode with FORS1 on the VLT. The ob
1
INAF – Osservatorio Astronomico di Because of the difficulty of observing servations were obtained in service mode
Padova, Italy spectral features, alternative procedures from April 2003 to March 2004 with UT1
2
Università dell’Insubria, Como, Italy for distance estimates have been pro- and from April to October 2004 with UT2.
posed. One is based on the observed We used the 300 V + l grism combined
properties of the host galaxy (imaging with a 2? slit, yielding a dispersion of
BL Lacertae objects are active galactic redshift). This follows from the fact that, at 110 ˚A/mm (corresponding to 2.64 Å/pixel)
nuclei dominated by non-thermal least locally, the host galaxies are all and a spectral resolution of 15–20 Å cov-
continuum emission and characterised giant ellipticals with a rather narrow distri- ering the 3 800−8 000 Å interval. The see-
by absence or extreme weakness of bution in absolute luminosity (Sbarufatti ing during observations was in the range
emission lines. These properties in sev- et al. 2005b). Recently the absorption in 0.5−2.5?, with an average of 1?. Detailed
eral cases hinder the determination of the TeV band due to EBL has been also information on the observations and the
their distance and thus the assessment used as a redshift probe (Aharonian et al. sample objects are given in Sbarufatti et
of the properties of the class. High 2006; Albert et al. 2007). al. (2005a, 2006).
signal-to-noise optical spectra of these
sources obtained with the VLT help Because of the imminent launch of the The detection and the measurement of
to overcome these difficulties and allow gamma-ray satellites AGILE and GLAST, very weak spectral features are difficult to
one to obtain new redshifts and set and of the flourishing of TeV astronomy assess because they depend on the
stringent limits on the distance for pure (HESS, MAGIC, CANGAROO, VERITAS), choice of the parameters used to define
lineless objects. one expects a substantial increase in the spectral line and the continuum. In
the number of BL Lac object candidates. order to apply an objective method for
The measurement of their redshift be- any given spectrum, we evaluate the mini-
The class of BL Lac objects comes mandatory, since it is not only an mum measurable equivalent width (EWmin )
important step for the study of the cos- defined as twice the rms of the distribu-
The absence or weakness of emission mological evolution of the class, but tion of the EW values measured in 30 Å
lines in the optical spectra is one of the also for tracing the interaction with the wide bins from the normalised spectrum
defining characteristics of BL Lac ob- host galaxy, and for probing of the EBL. (avoiding all strong spectral features).
jects, together with the high polarisation,
large amplitude and rapid flux variabil- Motivated by the above considerations The procedure for calculating EWmin was
ity. The standard interpretation of these we have undertaken a programme of applied to all featureless or quasi-feature-
properties, originating from Blandford spectroscopic observations of BL Lac less spectra to find faint spectral lines. All
and Rees back in 1968, is that BL Lacs objects using the capabilities of the features above the EWmin threshold, rang-
are radio loud active galactic nuclei VLT. The main advantage of these obser- ing from 1 Å to 0.1 Å, were considered
(AGN) where the relativistic jet is pointing vations with respect to previous pro- as line candidates and were carefully vis-
close to the observer direction, so that grammes is the significant improvement ually inspected and measured. Based on
the continuum emission is significantly in terms of the signal-to-noise (S/N) of the detected lines and the shape of the
enhanced and the line equivalent width is the spectra that directly translates into a continuum it is possible to characterise
depressed. BL Lacs therefore offer one better capability to detect very weak the spectroscopic properties of the ob-
of the best opportunities to study relativ- spectral features, and largely overcomes jects, confirm or dispute the BL Lac clas-
istic jets, which are manifest from the the results obtained with four-metre-class sification and derive new redshifts.
radio-band to 100 MeV gamma-rays. The instruments. This programme makes
atmospheric Cherenkov technique has feasible the redshift detection of faint
demonstrated that BL Lacs may emit also sources at z ~ 1 and beyond, and of rela- Examples of high S/N spectra of BL Lacs
in the TeV band. These extremely ener- tively nearbyand bright ones, where the at the VLT
getic photons interact with the Extraga- beaming effect on the continuum emis-
lactic Background Light (EBL), producing sion is such that spectral lines can be un- As a direct consequence of the improved
electron/positron pairs. This effect limits observable. signal-to-noise of the optical spectra col-
the direct detection of such photons to lected at the VLT, we are able to detect a
relatively nearby objects (z < 0.5). number of spectral features, either emis-
sion from the gas surrounding the nuclear
In the picture of the dominance of rela region or absorption lines of the host
tivistic jet emission, though weak, various galaxy. Examples of high S/N VLT spec-
types of lines are expected: (1) fluores- tra are shown in Figures 1 and 2. In the
cence emission typical of AGN; (2) stellar first case (PKS 0808+019) the high S/N
absorption of the host galaxy; (3) absorp- spectrum shows clearly two weak emis-
tion in the haloes of intervening galaxies. sion lines (EW = 3–5 Å) of a moderately
Flux (× 10 –16 )
1 trum. Telluric bands are indicated by
circled plus signs.
In a third case we show the spectrum of
the BL Lac object PG 1553+11. This is 0.5
Mg II
C III]
1.1
galaxy is apparent from the high-res
Normalised Flux
Mg I
1.1
ing on the relative contribution of the two
Normalised Flux
DIB
DIB
DIB
DIB
1.05
Figure 4. Using this approach it becomes
Normalised Flux
ZBLLAC – a web page for the spectra of 1.3 Figure 3: Comparison of the observed
Mg I
Fe I, Fe II
Hβ
Ca II
G-band
Ca + Fe
b-band
1.2 optical spectra (dotted line) of BL Lac
BL Lac objects 1.1 objects with a best fit model (solid
1.0 line) composed by a template host gal-
The optical spectra of BL Lacs obtained 0.9 0224+018 z = 0.456 axy spectrum plus a non-thermal con-
0.8
at the VLT have been made available 2.4 tinuum component described by a
power law. The figure clearly illustrates
to the astronomical community through a 2.2
2.0 the effect on the observed spectrum
spectroscopic library at the web page: 1.8 of the different contributions from the
http://www.oapd.inaf.it/zbllac/index.html. 1.6
0316–121 z = 0.443 nucleus that occur in 0316–121 and
10
This includes most of the objects ob- 0557–385.
9
served at the VLT and others with good
8
quality spectra. For each object in the
7
database we give basic data (coordi- 0557–385 z = 0.302
Flux
6
nates, V-band magnitude, the redshift or 5
1212+078 z = 0.137
a lower limit to it), the optical spectrum 4
University Pittsburgh Press, 328 for the object with nuclear apparent
Falomo R. and Treves A. 1990, PASP 102, 1120 magnitude R = 17.7 assuming a stand-
Sbarufatti B. et al. 2005a, AJ 129, 599 ard host galaxy (M R = – 22.9; Sbarufatti
Sbarufatti B., Treves A. and Falomo R. 2005b, 0
et al. 2005b). Dotted lines encompass-
ApJ 635, 173 ing this curve correspond to a varia-
Sbarufatti B. et al. 2006, AJ 132, 1 tion of 0.5 mag. The intersection of the
Scarpa R. et al. 2000, ApJ 532, 740 two solid lines gives the lower limit:
Urry C. M. et al. 2000, ApJ 532, 816 –1 z > 0.5. Full details on the method are
described in Sbarufatti et al. (2006).
–2
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
z
Spectroscopic data
Hard
with measured redshift
mation remains constant up to z ~ 1, con- in the ECDF-S. Blue
trary to late-type galaxies, which show symbols show the loca-
tion of the sources clas-
an increase in the star-formation rate with 0.5 sified as unobscured
increasing redshift. AGN based on their op-
tical spectra (presence
HR (H–S)/(H+S)
Soft
sion lines) often miss a large number of
sources, those in which obscuration in –1
the line of sight is present. In order to ob-
tain a more complete AGN sample, X-ray 10 40 10 41 10 42 10 43 10 44 10 45 10 46
and IR observations are critical, as the ef- Hard X-ray Lum (erg s –1 )
fects of obscuration are less important
at these wavelengths. One of the MUSYC
fields, the ECDF-S, was completely cov-
ered by Chandra observations. Based on
the data analysis and reduction of Virani with clear X-ray and near-IR detections, The structure of our Galaxy
et al. (2006), 651 unique X-ray sources but no detectable optical counterpart.
were found in that field. An identification Two competing hypotheses have been Unlike most deep surveys, MUSYC has
programme is ongoing using IMACS and proposed to explain these sources: either been designed with Galactic science
VIMOS. So far, ~ 250 X-ray sources have they are at very high redshift, z > 6 so in mind. Multiple epochs of optical imag-
been observed. that the Lyman break is moved beyond ing are being used to conduct a prop-
the optical bands; or they are highly ob- er-motion survey to find white dwarfs and
Combining the spectroscopic redshifts scured AGN at z ~ 2–3 with underlumi- brown dwarfs in order to study Galactic
with the optical, near-IR and X-ray fluxes nous host galaxies. In either case, given structure and the local Initial Mass Func-
provides important clues about the their X-ray fluxes, these sources should tion. The Galactic programme also in-
AGN population. In Figure 5, we show the host an AGN. In the ECDF-S we found 12 cludes the study of stellar statistics. One
hard X-ray luminosity (in the 2–8 keV X-ray sources not detected in the com- of the first results was the measure-
band) versus ‘Hardness ratio’ diagram. bined BVR image, but clearly detected ment of the Galactic scale height from a
The hardness ratio, defined as (H–S)/ in the K-band image. Contrary to the sample of M and K stars selected on
(H+S) where H and S are the count rates sources in the CDF-S proper/GOODS-S the basis of their photometric properties.
in the hard and soft, 0.5–2 keV, bands, is field, which are very faint even in the The Galactic thick disc has a scale height
a measure of how hard the observed near-IR bands (K > 21 mag), our sources of ~ 900 parsecs, while the halo, which
X-ray spectrum is. As can be seen in that are on average brighter, with four of them does not have an exponential distribution,
figure, the most luminous sources are having K < 20 and thus follow-up studies has a power law fall-off coefficient of – 3.5
in general also harder, and are also clas- are possible. In particular, our ongoing to – 4.5.
sified as unobscured AGN based on their near-IR spectroscopy programme using
optical properties (presence of broad Gemini-S+GNIRS and SINFONI at the
emission lines). This shows that there are VLT will provide secure redshifts and References
relatively more unobscured AGN at higher confirm the nature of these sources. Cur- Gawiser E. et al. 2006a, ApJS 162, 1
luminosities, and, as expected, these rently, no EXO has a measured spectro- Gawiser E. et al. 2006b, ApJ 642, L13
sources have softer X-ray spectra, as ob- scopic redshift. Kriek M. et al. 2006, ApJ 649, L71
scuration makes the observed X-ray Kriek M. et al. 2007, ApJ, in press, astro-ph/0611724
Marchesini D. et al. 2007, ApJ 656, 45
spectra harder. Quadri R. et al. 2007a, ApJ 654, 138
Quadri R. et al. 2007b, AJ, in press,
One very interesting class of objects are astro-ph/0612612
the Extreme X-ray to Optical sources Van Dokkum P. G. et al. 2006, ApJ 638, L59
Virani S. et al. 2006, AJ 131, 2373
(EXOs), which are defined as sources Webb T. M. A. et al. 2006, ApJ 636, L17
Michael Hilker 1 ade, thanks to several large spectro- ties. Unlike globular clusters which are
Holger Baumgardt 2 scopic surveys in nearby galaxy clusters. characterised by a more or less constant
Leopoldo Infante 3 size (~ 3 pc half-light radius), the sizes
Michael Drinkwater 4 Compact objects with masses greater of UCDs increase with luminosity rea-
Ekaterina Evstigneeva 4 than those of normal globular clusters ching half-light radii of ~ 100 pc. Some of
Michael Gregg 5 were only discovered about 10 years ago. the brighter UCDs exhibit a small low-
In 1999, two bright compact objects surface-brightness envelope with exten
were confirmed as members of the For- sions up to several hundred parsecs.
1
ESO nax cluster in a spectroscopic survey Most of the brightest UCDs have slightly
2
rgelander-Institut für Astronomie,
A that was designed as a follow-up of a subsolar metallicities ([Fe/H] ~ – 0.5 dex),
Universität Bonn, Germany photometric investigation of dwarf ellipti- similar to the ‘red’, metal-rich bulge GCs
3
Departamento de Astronomía y Astrofí- cals in the Fornax cluster (Hilker et al. of giant galaxies.
sica, Pontificia Universidad Católica de 1999). One year later, in 2000, a system-
Chile, Santiago de Chile, Chile atic spectroscopic survey within a two- In summary, one might say that the name
4
Department of Physics, University of degree field centred on Fornax revealed ‘ultracompact dwarf galaxies’ (UCDs) ap-
Queensland, Brisbane, Australia five compact members in the magnitude plies to old stellar systems in the transi-
5
Department of Physics, University of range –13.5 < MV < –12.0 (Drinkwater tion region between globular clusters and
California, Davis, California, USA et al. 2000) which were one year later compact dwarf galaxies.
dubbed ‘Ultracompact Dwarf Galaxies’
(UCDs) by Phillipps et al. (2001). In Fig-
High-resolution spectra from the Ultra ure 1 we show the location of the seven Formation scenarios for UCDs
violet and Visual Echelle Spectrograph brightest UCDs in the Fornax cluster.
(UVES) were used to derive internal An important question that is keeping
velocity dispersions of Ultracompact We now know several physical properties UCD researchers busy is whether UCDs
Dwarf galaxies (UCDs) in the Fornax of UCDs thanks to significant growth in should be regarded as galaxies or
cluster of galaxies. The velocity disper- this research field. After the first discovery whether they are more closely linked to
sions, together with highly spatially re- of UCDs in the Fornax cluster (summa- globular clusters. Various formation
solved luminosity profiles from Hubble rised in a Nature article by Drinkwater et scenarios have been suggested that re-
Space Telescope imaging (ACS cam- al. in 2003), many surveys were devel flect the different viewpoints. The four
era), allowed us to derive the dynamical oped to search for UCDs in different en most promising are:
masses of the UCDs. We show that the vironments and at fainter magnitudes.
mass-to-light ratios of UCDs in Fornax Bright UCDs were also found in the Virgo 1. UCDs are the remnant nuclei of galax-
are consistent with those expected for cluster, and fainter ones in both clusters. ies that have been significantly stripped
pure stellar populations. No dark matter With absolute magnitudes in the range in the cluster environment (‘threshing’
contribution is needed. Thus, these MV = –13.5 to –11.0 they are up to 3 mag scenario, e.g. Bekki et al. 2003). Good
UCDs seem to be the result of star-clus- brighter than ω Centauri, the most mas- candidates for isolated nuclei in the
ter formation processes within galaxies, sive globular cluster (GC) of the Milky local environment are the Galactic
rather than being compact dwarf galax- Way, but about 3 mag fainter than M32. globular clusters ω Centauri and the
ies formed in dark-matter halos. Their sizes are related to their luminosi- giant star cluster G1 in Andromeda.
0.5
Normalised Flux
Normalised Flux
1
The kinematic analysis of the spectra was
performed using a direct-fitting method 0.5
(van der Marel and Franx 1993). First, the
spectra were placed on a logarithmic UCD3
0
wavelength scale and normalised. Then,
the reference star spectra were con-
Normalised Flux
1
volved with Gaussian velocity dispersion
profiles in the range 2 to 60 km s –1. All
0.5
UCD spectra were fitted with all sets of
Na I (D2) Na I (D1)
smoothed ‘template’ spectra. In this HD20038
0
process the template spectra are shifted
in wavelength and scaled to match the
Normalised Flux
1
redshifts and absorption strengths of the
UCD spectra. The best-fitting Gaussian
0.5
velocity dispersion profile is determined
by χ 2 minimisation in pixel space. Fig- UCD3 + HD20038 (shifted, broadened and scaled)
0
ure 4 illustrates the fitting method for the 5 860 5 880 5 900 5 920 5 940
brightest UCD in the Na doublet region. λ(Å)
The reference spectrum (middle panel) is
shifted, broadened and scaled to match To derive the masses of the UCDs a new mass distribution and the projected ve-
the target spectrum (lower panel). modelling program has been developed locity dispersion profile that simultane-
that allows to choose between different ously fit the observed velocity dispersion
The velocity dispersions of the Fornax representations of the surface brightness and the light profile of UCD2 are shown.
UCDs, derived from this method, range profile of UCDs (i.e. Nuker, Sersic or King
between 22 and 30 km s –1, with errors laws) and corrects the observed velocity
of 1–3 km s –1. These velocity dispersions dispersions for observational parameters
are larger than those of ‘normal’ globular (i.e. seeing, slit size). The light-profile
clusters (~ 5–15 km s –1). parameters of the UCDs were obtained Figure 5: Model output for UCD2. Grey dots repre-
from Hubble Space Telescope imaging sent 100 000 test particles. Blue dots are those
(Evstigneeva et al. 2007). In general, ‘stars’ whose centres fall into the analysed slit area.
The red circle (and red dashed line on the right) indi-
Mass modelling King models are good representations of cates the projected half-light radius of UCD2. The
globular cluster light profiles. UCDs, how- right panels show, from top to bottom, the three-di-
As outlined above, the masses and ever, are better fitted by Nuker or gen mensional density distribution, the cumulative mass
mass-to-light ratios of the UCDs are im- eralised King laws, especially in the outer distribution and the projected velocity dispersion
profile for three different light-profile representations
portant physical parameters for under- parts. Figure 5 illustrates the model out- of UCD2. The vertical short dashed line indicates
standing their origin. In particular, the put of our program. The three-dimen- the radius of 1 ACS pixel and the dotted line half the
mass-to-light ratio (M/L) can be used as sional density distribution, the cumulative slit width.
an indicator for the presence of dark
matter and/or the violation of dynamical
equilibrium. If UCDs were the counter-
parts of globular clusters – thus a single
UCD2 (generalised King) gen. King
stellar population without significant 400
log (ρ(r))
–5 Sersic
amounts of dark matter – one would ex- Nuker
pect M/L values as predicted by stand-
–10
ard single stellar population models (e.g. 200
Maraston 2005). If UCDs are of cosmo-
M (< r) (× 10 7 M � )
Galaxy D (Mpc) log (O/H)+12 N (O7V) N(WN) N(WC) Reference Table 1: Summary of southern star-
NGC 300 1.9 8.6: 800 ≥ 16 ~ 15: Schild et al. 2003; Crowther et al. 2007 forming galaxies whose WR pop-
ulations have been surveyed with
NGC 1313 4.1 8.2 6 500 ≥ 51: ~ 33: Hadfield and Crowther 2007
FORS1/2 to date. The O star contents
M83 4.5 9.0? 40 000 ≥ 470 ≥ 560 Hadfield et al. 2005 are based upon a SFR for an assumed
NGC 3125 11.5 8.4 3 600 200 40 Hadfield and Crowther 2006 O7 V Lyman continuum flux of 10 49 per
second, omitting regions excluded
from our WR surveys, i.e. the outer
disc of NGC 300 and the nuclear star-
burst of M83.
[O III]
[O III]
survey (Hadfield and Crowther 2007),
At solar metallicity, stars initially more together with average LMC template
5
massive than ~ 25 MA apparently end spectra (shown in red) from Crowther
He II
Hβ
and Hadfield (2006).
their lives as either a nitrogen-rich (WN) 4
or carbon-rich (WC) WR star. WN and NGC 1313 #21
NV
He II
E(B–V) = 0.29
WC stars are believed to be the immedi- 3
ate progenitors for a subset of Type Ib
(H-poor) and Type Ic (H and He-poor) su- 2
NGC 1313 #33
E(B–V) = 0.29
pernovae, respectively. Alternatively,
lower-mass binaries may produce Type Ib 1
A1
A2
Figure 3: Comparison of a 10 × 10 arcsec
(200 × 200 pc) region of NGC 1313 centred upon a
WO star imaged by FORS1 (He ii λ 4686 filter, top)
and HST/ACS (F435W/WFC, bottom). The WO has a
F435W magnitude of 23.4 mag, suggesting M F435W
~ – 5.2 mag for a distance modulus of 28.0 mag
(4.1 Mpc) and A F435W ~ 0.6 mag.
Silvia Protopapa 1 acterise the ice content of the surfaces the signal of Pluto and Triton in M-band
Tom Herbst 2 and to search for similarities and differ- and of Charon in L-band in three nights.
Hermann Böhnhardt 1 ences.
Observing procedure
1
ax-Planck Institute for Solar System
M Pluto, Charon and Triton with NACO at
Research, Lindau, Germany the VLT The Pluto-Charon binary and Triton
2
Max-Planck Institute for Astronomy, were used in the visible as the reference
Heidelberg, Germany Scientific aim sources for the adaptive optics correc-
tions. For Pluto-Charon the NACO slit
The observations of the Pluto-Charon (width 172 mas) was set along the orbi-
We present new reflectance spectra of binary and of Triton were obtained with tal position angle of the binary, to acquire
Pluto and Triton taken with the ESO the adaptive optics instrument NACO them both simultaneously. For Triton the
adaptive optics instrument NACO at the at the ESO VLT during 3–7 August 2005. slit was placed at the parallactic angle.
VLT and covering the wavelength range For Pluto-Charon the aim was to resolve The acquisition of the targets was per-
1–5 µm. Apart from known and ex- the binary system and to measure spec- formed in K-band and a suitable offset
pected absorption bands from methane tra of the two objects, for the first time correction, depending on the zenith dis-
ice, our data reveal new absorption individually. So far, such type of spectra tance, was applied to achieve the opti-
bands centred around 4.0 µm and could only be obtained from disentan- mum slit position of the objects in L- and
4.6 µm never detected before. The latter gling unresolved and occultation (Charon M-band (though sacrificing slightly the
absorption could be related to the pres- occulted by Pluto) measurements of the JHK signal – at least for higher airmasses
ence of CO ice at the body surfaces. system. Moreover, and even more impor- – by slit losses due to wavelength-de-
Charon’s spectrum is also measured in tant, we intended to extend the wave- pendent atmospheric refraction). The
the wavelength range 1–4 µm, for the length coverage of the surface spectros- usual A-B-B-A nodding (with some jitter)
first time simultaneously with, but iso- copy beyond K-band, i.e. we were aim- was applied for the observations. In order
lated from, that of Pluto. The non-detec- ing for Pluto spectra up to 5 µm and for to remove at once the telluric and solar
tion of Pluto’s moonlets (unknown at the Charon at least up to 4 µm, with the goal features from Pluto/Charon and Triton’s
time of observation) in acquisition im- to detect further surface ice absorption spectra, observations of the nearby solar
ages of Pluto-Charon provides a lower bands predicted from models of the avail- analogue star HD 162341, recorded ap-
limit of 18.8 mag for the K-band bright- able JHK spectra and to search for sig- proximately once per 1.5 hour, were per-
ness of Hydra and Nix. natures of yet unknown ices. Triton, vis formed. In this way every Pluto-Charon
ible from the VLT at the same time, was a and Triton observation had an associated
welcome object for comparison, since its ‘before’ and ‘after’ set of calibration star
Dwarf planets and New Horizons JHK spectrum is similar to that of Pluto observations, made with similar sky con-
(but different from Charon), and at least ditions and identical instrument and AO
Things are changing in the outer Solar as well known as the former. Like Pluto, settings.
System: Pluto got ‘degraded’ by the the 3–5 µm region of Triton is still unex-
IAU from a ‘real’ planet to a dwarf one. plored for this object, considered to be a
Shortly before this terrestrial decision, Kuiper Belt object captured by Neptune. Data reduction
NASA launched the New Horizons space-
craft to approach Pluto and Charon in Besides the usual data reduction for IR
2015 – and possibly one or two, yet un- Telescope and instrument set-up spectroscopy, special attention was paid
detected, Kuiper Belt objects thereafter. to the wavelength calibration and the
Also, recently, two new small moons, NACO at the VLT Unit Telescope 4 spectrum curvature correction of the
Nix and Hydra, were discovered around (Yepun) was our first choice for this pro- NACO data. The former applies because
Pluto. Despite all these changes, Pluto gramme since it combines the high spa- no arc lamp spectra for L- and M-band
and Charon, remain of high scientific tial resolution of adaptive optics, needed are available in NACO; hence, atmos-
interest, in particular since they can be to resolve Pluto-Charon (variable along pheric emission and absorption features
considered – together with Neptune’s the orbit from 0.5–0.9?), and at the same were used as wavelength reference in-
moon Triton – as the best prototypes for time benefits from considerable signal- stead. The latter results from differential
the ice worlds in the outer Solar Sys- to-noise improvements for the spectros- atmospheric refraction over the large
tem and the Kuiper Belt. Best, because copy. Moreover, NACO allowed to cover wavelength range and was corrected by
these three objects are bright and thus the full wavelength range from 1–5 µm pixel shifts of the spectra applying the
accessible for Earth-based observations at once with the intended spectral resolu- atmospheric refraction formula. Thereaf-
not easily possible for other bodies of tion using the prism L27_P1. Neverthe- ter, we used optimum extraction to im-
that kind. Here, we present new IR ob- less, the NACO exposure time calculator prove signal-to-noise ratio over aperture
servations of Pluto, Charon and Triton indicated that, even with the great advan- extraction. In order to recover from the
performed with the VLT in order to char- tages of adaptive optics and low-disper- unavoidable slit losses in the short wave-
sion prism, it would be difficult to measure length region, we combined the extracted
Geometric Albedo
bands at 2.5–2.8 and 4.1–4.4 µm.
the albedo at fixed wavelengths and 0.6
CH 4
ν3
Known compounds 0.2
Gerardo Avila 1 of Balmer emission lines in Be stars and graved in a reflective nickel plate is used
Vadim Burwitz 2 even detection of exoplanets (Kaye 2006). to check the position of the star in front of
Carlos Guirao 1 the slit. A Phillips ToUcam webcam moni-
Jesus Rodriguez 1 Following this evolution, we therefore de- tors the image of the star on the slit plate.
Raquel Shida 1, 3 signed an echelle spectrograph light A doublet collimates the telescope beam
Dietrich Baade 1 enough to be attached directly to small to a 79 l/mm, 63˚ echelle grating. Then
telescopes. The weight should not ex- the diffracted beam reaches a diffraction
ceed 2 kg (without the CCD camera) and grating acting as cross-disperser. Finally
1
ESO the size should be reasonably commen- an objective is used to project the spec-
2
ax-Planck-Institut für Extraterres-
M surate with that of typical amateur tele- trum on the CCD. The camera is an SBIG
trische Physik, Garching, Germany scopes. Thanks to the availability of low- ST-1603ME with an array of 1530 × 1020
3
ST-ECF cost echelle gratings and light-weight pixels of 9 µm. The spectrum is com-
(but still relatively bulky) CCD cameras, posed of 29 complete orders covering a
we could achieve these objectives. The range between 390 and 750 nm. The in-
BACHES is a low-cost, light-weight development of the instrument was a strument has been designed to match
echelle spectrograph suitable for obser- collaboration between a group from ESO F/10 apertures and the slit width projects
vations of bright stars coupled with and the mechanical workshop for ap- on to 2.4 pixels. Figure 2 shows the spec-
small telescopes up to 35 cm (14?) in di- prentices of the Max-Planck-Institut für trum of a thorium lamp. The measured
ameter. The resolving power reaches extraterrestrische Physik in Garching. resolving power (l/Δl) is between 18 000
19 000 in a continuous spectral range and 19 000 over the entire spectral range.
between 390 and 750 nm. The through- The first light of BACHES took place in
put of the instrument including the September 2006 with observations of The data reduction is carried out with an
telescope and detector is 11 % peak at bright stars like Albireo and Deneb with adapted version of the ECHELLE pack-
500 nm. With this efficiency spectra a 35-cm Celestron telescope. In March age in MIDAS. The process performs the
of stars of visual magnitude 5 can be 2007 we initiated observations of Be following steps: bias level and dark cur-
obtained in 15 min exposure with a S/N stars (primarily z Tau). rent subtraction; removal of hot pixels;
of 50. One of the goals of the instru- wavelength calibration with a thorium-ar-
ment is to monitor the spectral variabil- gon lamp; extraction of the 1D spectrum;
ity of Balmer emission lines in Be stars. The instrument rebinning to wavelength units. MIDAS
scripts are used to automate the identifi-
BACHES (‘pothole’ in Spanish) stands cation of the thorium-argon lines for
The availability of key components such for BAsic eCHElle Spectrograph. Figure 1
as diffraction gratings and high-sensitivity shows the instrument attached to a Figure 1: BACHES attached to a Celestron CGE 11?
CCD cameras at affordable prices now 25-cm telescope. A 25 × 100 µm slit en- telescope with a Losmandy Equatorial G-11 mount.
allows the construction of inexpensive but
fairly high-performance spectrographs.
Acknowledgements
31 March 2007
References
Robert A. E. Fosbury 1 While the radio-loud, obscured quasars galaxy. The workshop reported here
Carlos De Breuck 2 (the radio galaxies) have been known was designed to explore the results of
Vincenzo Mainieri 2 and studied for decades, new and sen- these rapid observational developments
Gordon Robertson 2, 3 sitive X-ray and mid-infrared surveys and the nature of the relationships be-
Joël Vernet 2 are now beginning to reveal large num- tween the stellar and AGN components.
bers of their radio-quiet counterparts
beyond the local Universe. Consequent-
1
ST-ECF, ESO ly, we are approaching the compilation Introduction
2
ESO of a relatively complete census of AGN
3
University of Sydney, Australia of all types covering a large fraction of Research areas in astronomy occasion-
cosmic time. This is revealing a remark- ally experience a period of rapid growth
ably intimate connection between the due either to the development of some
supermassive black hole and its host new observational capability or to the si-
and Compton-thin AGN. These sources, from the central BH. There was always are seen. This source size corresponds
however, fall short of matching the XRB a suspicion however – now amply con- to about 10 Schwarzschild radii for a BH
peak intensity at 30 keV, which can in- firmed by observations – that, lurking with a mass ~ 3 × 10 7 MA.
stead be accounted for by a large (as nu- within the class, some objects were being
merous as that of Compton-thin AGN) obscured instead by larger-scale struc- Our conception of the form of the torus
population of heavily obscured, Comp- tures within the host galaxy. Distinguish- has been derived from many artist’s im-
ton-thick objects. ing these pseudo type 2s is being done pressions, but what really shapes it?
using an arsenal of techniques. In con- Even a sub-Eddington AGN can produce
At the very limits of detection, the stack- trast to the torus, the extended obscura- a radiative force that is comparable to
ing of sources detected in one waveband tion usually has a rather small A V (a few, gravity in the material that would com-
in order to characterise the average be- but enough to hide the BLR). It is also prise a torus. The opacity in the MIR can
haviour in another can be remarkably illu- Compton-thin, unlike some (parts) of the be some 10 to 30 times that from Thomp-
minating. For instance, the stacking of tori. A clear indicator of a proper torus, son scattering, making it possible to sup-
faint MIR sources reveals a hard X-ray however, is provided by a MIR signature port a geometrically thick obscuration.
spectrum indicative of large absorbing of hot dust over a range of temperatures In addition to regular doughnuts, clumpy
columns. up to that of dust sublimation. But per- or otherwise, with radial temperature gra-
haps the most striking recent result is the dients and gradients within clumps,
One obvious question which arises from spatial resolution in the MIR – using MIDI the old idea of warped discs is still there
this new survey capability is whether on the VLTI – of structures that can be in the running. We know that such struc-
we discover any qualitatively new type of identified with the warm torus material in tures exist because we see them, albeit
source? The answer seems to be not Circinus (Figure 2) and NGC 1068. As ex- on larger scales, in a number of galaxies.
really, although there are certainly objects pected, these are oriented perpendicular
turning up with AGN characteristics in to the ionisation cones and outflows. In So what fraction of the type 2s are simp-
some wavebands that appear rather bor- Centaurus A, however, the MIR emission ly type 1s which happen to be pointing
ing in some of the more traditional win- is unresolved and can probably be asso- away from us? Well, the prevailing opinion
dows. ciated with synchrotron emission from the seems to be that about half of them are
footprint of the jet. really of the ‘host-obscured’ variety that
Studies of individual sources benefit from will reveal their AGN to an observer with
the sheer power of the large ground- Another fascinating observation, illus- only a modest degree of determination.
based telescopes, more recently coupled trated with X-ray monitoring observations There are, however, powerful, deeply ob-
to Integral-Field Spectrographs (IFS) of NGC 1365, involves watching a Comp- scured sources – ULIRGs – that can fight
fed with AO. The astonishing detail with ton-thin cloud moving at about 10 4 km/s hard not to reveal their power sources.
which the hosts are now being studied eclipsing the nuclear X-ray source – hav- The debate always used to be: “Are they
was one of the clear highlights of the ing a size of less than ~ 10 14 cm – over AGN or Starburst powered?” Now we are
workshop. Kinematic maps, analyses of a period of about two days. During the more likely to ask about the current bal-
stellar populations and element abun- eclipse, the broad iron emission line dis- ance between these two intimately-re-
dances from the spatially resolved ISM appears while strong iron absorption lines lated processes.
emission lines are all active new fields.
Particularly exciting was the application of
the VLTI to imaging the obscuring torus in λ = 11.0 µm Flux distribution
nearby sources.
200
Nature of obscuration
Figure 2: Flux distribution of the emis-
The type 2 (obscured) AGN were always 100 sion from warm dust in the nucleus of
recognised as being a heterogeneous the Circinus galaxy. The emission was
DEC in mas
Markus Kissler-Patig 1 various reasons. The main one is prob “How are the stellar and cluster initial
Tom Wilson 1 ably the distance of the studied objects. mass functions related and how are they
Nate Bastian 2 Star formation can be studied in great influenced by the star-formation history?”
Francesca D’Antona 3 detail close-by, i.e. in our Milky Way where
Richard de Grijs 4 distances are expressed in parsecs, and The first question of the workshop was
Dirk Froebrich 5 the studied regions enclose typically a posed and introduced by Marina Rejkuba.
Emmanuel Galliano 6 few hundred stars. In contrast, suitable It is an indisputable fact that star for
Preben Grosbøl 1 targets for studying the formation of mas- mation is hierarchical. The empirical evi-
Kelsey Johnson 7 sive star clusters are only available in dence indicates that the initial mass func-
Eric Keto 8 neighbouring galaxies and distances to tion (IMF) of young embedded stellar
Ralf Klessen 9 them are rarely smaller than a few million clusters is a universal power law with a
Tom Megeath 10 parsecs – the studied objects enclose slope of 2.0, and that the stellar IMF
Marina Rejkuba 1 up to hundreds of millions of stars. The follows a universal segmented power law
Jürgen Steinacker 11 scales in which the two communities typ- in many different environments. The
Hans Zinnecker 12 ically think are thus different and the time validity of the power-law form for the IMF
had come to try to connect them. Fur was questioned in the discussion, but
ther, ALMA – the large sub-mm array – is opinions remain divided. The theoretical
1
ESO now within reach and will boost both arguments for the universal stellar IMF
2
University College London, fields, exactly allowing to connect the two were presented by Ralf Klessen, while
United Kingdom scales thanks to an increased sensitivity Hugues Sana and Jorge Melnick showed
3
Osservatorio di Roma, Italy and angular resolution. the pitfalls and problems in empirical de-
4
University of Sheffield, United Kingdom termination of the stellar IMF in clusters
5
University of Kent, United Kingdom The format we have chosen for the work- and in the field. Andrés Jordán discussed
6
Universidad de Chile, Santiago de shop was a new one: we built the pro- the form of the initial old cluster-mass
Chile, Chile gramme of the workshop around a num function.
7
University of Virginia, Charlottesville, ber of questions to be addressed in
Virginia, USA dedicated sessions. We summarise here The fact that the clusters undergo mass-
8
Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astro- some (not all) of the discussed points. loss and disruption on short timescales,
physics, Cambridge, Massachusetts, All presentations are available for down- leads to the composite nature of the field-
USA load from the workshop web site www. mass function. Whether this composite
9
Universität Heidelberg, Germany eso.org/star07. IMF is steeper, or has the same slope as
10
University of Toledo, Ohio, USA
11
Max-Planck-Institut für Astronomie,
Heidelberg, Germany
12
Astrophysikalisches Institut Potsdam,
Germany
the star cluster IMF, has been shown to mass cluster stars affect the ISM and the clouds and the distribution of OB stars in
depend on the answer whether 20 clus- young sources in their neighbourhood. other galaxies. This analysis suggested
ters with 10 4 MA can produce the same hierarchical structure with no preferred
IMF, with the same maximum stellar mass, scale. Mark Gieles showed a minimum
as one cluster with 2 × 10 5 MA. With re- “What is the demographics of star forma- spanning tree analysis of the Small Mag-
spect to this point the two major theoreti- tion in our Galaxy and others?” ellanic Cloud where they segregated
cal works of Elmegreen and of Weidner sources by age. The youngest stars
and Kroupa disagree. Unfortunately, due In studies of galactic star formation, showed clear hierarchical structure while
to the often poorly known star-formation young stars have traditionally been sepa- the distribution of the oldest stars was in-
history of the observed field, and the rated into two demographic groups: iso- distinguishable from a random structure,
problems to establish the frequency of bi- lated stars and clustered stars. This pic- indicating that structure is erased as the
naries in the population, the observational ture is evolving for many reasons. Tom stars migrate from their birth sites. In
evidence seems to be still inconclusive. Megeath posed this question. He showed summary, the discussion of this question
Until the errors of the IMF derivation can Spitzer surveys of the giant molecular motivated the need to find Galactic ana-
be reduced, the question remains open. clouds in the nearest 1 kpc revealing the logues of extragalactic clusters and asso-
presence of large clusters, small groups, ciations. Furthermore, it demonstrated
and large numbers of relatively isolated the need for new methodologies for ana-
“What are the effects of stellar feed- stars. These surveys suggest that isolated lysing structure on many different spatial
back?” stars and dense clusters are extremes of scales, such as the minimum spanning
a continuum. Galactic studies provide the tree or wavelet-based multi-resolution
In this session negative feedback effects, opportunity to study physical processes techniques.
namely the destruction of clusters, were in great detail and trace the distribution of
addressed. During the collapse and frag- low-mass stars which dominate the mass
mentation of a molecular cloud into a but are undetected in extragalactic ob- “How did star formation proceed in
star cluster, only a modest amount of the servations. Detected extragalactic clus- Globular Clusters?”
gas is turned into stars. The stellar winds, ters are much more massive than clusters
photoionisation, and supernovae from near the Sun such as the Orion Nebula In recent years, research on these very
massive stars inject enough energy into Cluster. Frédérique Motte suggested that old systems has shown that they are
the gas to remove it extremely rapidly our Galaxy contains large clusters which not the ‘simple stellar populations’ we
(in less than a dynamical crossing time). overlap with the continuum of observed thought they were; this topic was intro-
This rapid gas removal can leave a clus- extragalactic ones. Arjan Bik presented a duced by Francesca D’Antona. There
ter significantly out of equilibrium. If the programme to obtain infrared spectro- is precise spectroscopic evidence that
star-formation efficiency is low enough scopic maps of young embedded clus- chemical anomalies are present, gener-
(~ 30 % of the initial fraction of gas turned ters in our Galaxy; infrared spectroscopy ally involving about 50 % of the stars in
into stars) the entire cluster can become of the massive stars are needed to deter- each globular cluster (GC). Anomalies are
unbound. mine the membership, age and size of found in practically all clusters observed
these highly reddened Galactic regions. so far. Anomalies are also present among
Nate Bastian reviewed the physics and unevolved stars, so that they cannot be
some recent observations of this proc- Finally, there was a discussion of how imputed to ‘in situ’ mixing in giants. In
ess. In particular he discussed recent best to characterise the clusters, asso particular, sodium is enhanced and oxy-
N-body simulations of the effects of gas ciations and complexes of star formation gen depleted with respect to the normal
removal on the early evolution of clusters. in our Galaxy and others. Nate Bastian values in the field population II. This, in
He also reviewed recent attempts to introduced the minimum spanning tree the end, means that about half of the
quantify the amount of infant cluster mor- analysis (see Figure 2) and applied this to stars in the clusters (a second generation)
tality, with most studies finding values Spitzer surveys of nearby molecular are born from matter contaminated by
of 60–90 % of young clusters being dis-
rupted in the first 40 Myr of their lives.
45 � 63 ° 00�
Announcement of a Workshop on
The workshop will take place a few with UKIDSS, and to share knowledge and an opportunity to discuss the future
weeks after the UKIRT Infrared Deep Sky gained in working with the data and ideas direction.
Survey (UKIDSS) large Third Data for exploiting the archive efficiently, in
Release (DR3). The purpose of the work- an informal atmosphere. The emphasis Registration will be open from 15 Sep-
shop is to provide a forum, bringing to- will be on work in progress. The work- tember 2007 at http://www.ukidss.org/
gether European astronomers working on shop will include science and technical esoworkshop.
(or planning to work on) UKIDSS data, talks, and tutorials, as well as a sum-
to hear about science being undertaken mary of the current status of the surveys,
Francesca Primas, Petra Nass, Until recently, requests for target/set-up additional (if they want to add new tar-
Olivier Hainaut, Michael Sterzik (all ESO) changes/additions were handled manu- gets, but please note that additional tar-
ally, via the submission of an e-mail to gets does not mean additional time);
the observatories (for Visitor Mode runs), BACK = back-up (when observations of
As stated in the ESO Call for Proposals, to the User Support Department (for the main science targets may be at risk
targets and constraints requested at time Service Mode runs), sometimes even via due to specific atmospheric conditions –
of proposal submission (i.e. at Phase 1) an e-mail to private accounts. In order this applies only to Visitor Mode runs).
are binding, because once the proposals to have a better overview of the requests At time of submission, the requester re-
have been evaluated by the Observing and properly log them in one central ceives an acknowledgement message,
Proposal Committee, the requested tar- place, we have now developed and de- and later on the official answer with the
gets and constraints become one of ployed a new web-based form for approval or rejection of (or part of) the
the major inputs to finalise and optimise the submission of these requests, which request. Response time may vary, de-
the scheduling of the telescopes. How- is available at http://www.eso.org/ pending on the urgency of the request.
ever, part of the success of an observa- observing/p2pp/ProgChange/.
tory comes also from the ability to bal- The form was publicly released on 3 July
ance operational efficiency (hence rules As for other services we provide (e.g. 2007 (announced under the “What’s New”
and procedures) and scientific return. Service Mode run status progress report section of the USD P2PP public web
In other words, target and/or instrument pages), access to the form requires a page), simultaneously with the start of the
set-up changes are allowed also after P2PP (Phase 2 Preparation tool) pass- Phase 2 preparation for Period 80. After
Phase 1, but only after they have been word and valid run ID, and the selec- a smooth transition period for Service
carefully scrutinised. Their approval is sub tion between a target or an instrument Mode runs, the new procedure for target/
ject to the following conditions: set-up change. Once the user and the set-up change requests is now in place
a) all requests must be accompanied by a run are verified, the list of the Phase 1 tar- also for Visitor Mode runs, as reflected in
sound and robust scientific justification; gets is displayed and a few fields need the Paranal and La Silla Science Opera-
b) no conflict is found with already ap- to be filled out: a scientific/technical justi- tions pages for Visiting Astronomers
proved (thus protected) targets/set-ups fication in support of the request; co- (http://www.eso.org/paranal/sciops/vm_
from other programmes; ordinates of the new targets or the newly backup.html and http://www.ls.eso.org/
c) the impact on the telescope schedule requested instrument set-up. If the lasilla/sciops/). We are still working on
due to the requested change is insig- change request is for targets, users also the form and small changes in its appear-
nificant. need to specify a target type, to be cho- ance will certainly appear in the coming
sen among: REPL = replacement (when semesters, because it is only with experi-
they wish to discard and replace one ence that possible shortcomings can be
or more of their Phase 1 targets); ADDI = identified.
Personnel Movements
Richard Hook (ST-ECF/ESO) tual Observatory (VO) tools as well as ex- shop/webshop/webshop.php?show=
on behalf of the Scisoft Team tended support for longer-wavelength sales§ion=cdroms. We also continue
data handling from submillimetre facilities to support a mirror of the Scisoft collec-
such as APEX. tion in China (http://scisoft.lamost.org/).
The Scisoft bundle is a collection of as- Note that only requests from China, to be
tronomical software intended mostly A list of the items included in the new delivered in China, are accepted by the
for ESO users but which is also distrib- version, and where there are changes Chinese mirror site.
uted to other interested parties. It in- from the previous one, is given on the
cludes most of the packages needed by web pages. Scisoft VII was built on, and Scisoft is a collaboration involving many
working observational astronomers, with intended to be used on, Fedora Core 6 people. I would particularly like to thank
emphasis on those widely used for Linux, but is likely to run on many simi- Mathias André and Jean-Christophe
handling optical and infrared data sets. lar modern Linux systems. We no longer Malapert for their help with the prepara-
Scisoft is installed on almost all the maintain a version of Scisoft for other tion of the release. I would also like to
scientific computers running Linux at ESO architectures such as Solaris or HPUX, thank Markus Dolensky for proposing the
Garching and widely at the ESO sites in but a similar version for Mac OSX, pro- addition of VO content and Mark Allen
Chile. More complete details can be duced independently of ESO, is also (CDS, Strasbourg) for selecting the VO
found on the Scisoft web pages at http:// available through a link on the Scisoft tools we include. We are grateful to
www.eso.org/scisoft. web page. Chenzhou Cui of the National Astronomi-
cal Observatory, Chinese Academy of
We are pleased to announce the availabil- Scisoft VII can be either downloaded Sciences, for his continued support of
ity of Scisoft VII (June 2007). This new from the ESO ftp site (ftp://ftp.eso.org/ the Chinese mirror. Finally a special word
version of the collection includes many scisoft/scisoft7/linux/fedora6/) or the en- of thanks goes to Peter Stetson (HIA,
updates and additional packages and tire collection may be requested on DVD Canada) for allowing us to include DAO-
also incorporates some new features. For through the ST-ECF on-line shop at Phot and related tools in the collection.
the first time we have a collection of Vir- http://www.spacetelescope.org/hubble-
Nearly a decade ago astronomers from at Oxford University) and Chris Lidman to honour and encourage educational
two competing teams announced that (ESO Chile) were ESO Fellows when excellence, social justice and scientific
they had found evidence for an acceler- they contributed to the work of the Super- achievements that better the human con-
ated cosmic expansion. The Gruber nova Cosmology Project, while Jason dition.
Prize in Cosmology 2007 honours this Spyromilio and Bruno Leibundgut (both
achievement and has been awarded ESO Garching) participated in the High-z In the meantime research on Dark Energy
to two groups: the Supernova Cosmology Supernova Search Team. has become a major cosmological enter-
Project team, led by Saul Perlmutter prise. Characterising the nature of Dark
(Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory), and the The citation by the Gruber foundation Energy has direct implications on particle
High-z Supernova Search Team, led by reads: “Saul Perlmutter and Brian physics as well. The original work on
Brian Schmidt (Australian National Univer- Schmidt and their teams: the Supernova the cosmic acceleration has been contin-
sity). Their results were based on the Cosmology Project and the High-z Su- ued and expanded by several active
observations of distant Type Ia superno- pernova Search Team, independently dis- teams. Many of the scientists in the origi-
vae and were obtained with the major covered that the expansion of the Uni- nal teams are members of these new
telescopes at the time (Riess et al. 1998, verse is accelerating. Their discovery led efforts working towards determining the
AJ 116, 1009; Perlmutter et al. 1999, to the idea of an expansion force, dubbed equation of state of Dark Energy. Most
ApJ 517, 565). Both teams used the Dark Energy. And it suggested that the of these experiments make extensive use
3.6-m telescope and the NTT to contrib- fate of the Universe is to just keep expand- of the VLT, together with Keck, Gemini
ute photometry and spectroscopic clas ing, faster and faster.” and the Magellan telescopes, for the
sifications of the supernovae. Four people spectroscopic classification and exami-
at ESO were directly involved in the two The Peter and Patricia Gruber Foundation nation of possible evolutionary trends of
teams and are recognised as co-recipi- is a private, United States-based philan- the supernovae.
ents of the Gruber Prize. Isobel Hook (now thropic organisation established in 1993
Fellows at ESO
Julia Scharwächter