Through Wall Imaging Using M-Sequence

Technical University at Kosice
Faculty of Electrical Engineering and Informatics

Department of Electronics and Multimedia Communications
Ing. Michal Aftanas
Through Wall Imaging Using M-sequence
UWB Radar System
Thesis to the dissertation examination
Supervisor: doc. Ing. Milos Drutarovsk y, CSc.
Program of PhD study: Infoelectronic
Field of PhD study: 5.2.13 Electronic
Form of PhD study: Daily
Kosice December 2007
Contents
Head Page i
Contents iii
List of Abbreviations iv
List of Symbols v
Introduction 6
1 UWB Radar Systems 7
1.1 History of Radar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.2 Radars Fundamentals and Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.3 UWB and M-sequence Advantages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.4 M-sequence UWB Radar System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2 Data Preprocessing 13
2.1 Through Wall Radar Basic Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.2 Through Wall Penetrating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.3 Through Wall Radar Data Representation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.4 Data Calibration and Preprocessing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
3 Basic Radar Imaging Methods 23
3.1 Backprojection vs. Backpropagation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
3.2 SAR Imaging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
3.3 Kirchho Migration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
3.4 f-k Migration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
3.5 Multiple Signal Classication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
3.6 The Inverse Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
4 Improvements in Radar Imaging 40
4.1 Cross-correlated Back Projection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
4.2 Fast Back Projection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
4.3 Migration by Deconvolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
4.4 SEABED and IBBST . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
4.5 f-k Migration Improvements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
4.5.1 Nonuniform FFT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
4.5.2 f-k Migration in Cylindrical Coordinations . . . . . . . . . . . 45
4.5.3 f-k Migration with Motion Compensation . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
4.5.4 f-k Migration with Surface and Loss Compensation . . . . . . 46
4.5.5 Prestack Residual f-k Migration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
4.5.6 f-k Migration with Anti-Leakage Fourier Transform . . . . . . 46
4.5.7 Lagranges Interpolation in f-k Migration . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
ii
CONTENTS iii
4.6 Migrations with Antenna Beam Compensation . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
5 Experiments with Through Wall Imaging 49
5.1 Review of Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
5.2 First Experiments with TWI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
Conclusion 55
Thesis for dissertation work 56
References 63
List of Abbreviations
1D One dimension
2D Two dimensions
3D Three dimensions
ADC Analog to Digital Converter
ART Algebraic Reconstruction Technique
AWGN Additive White Gaussian Noise
BHDI Beamspace High Denition Imaging
BST Boundary Scattering Transform
ECS Extended Chirp Scaling
EOK Extended Omega K
FFT Fast Fourier Transform
GPR Ground Penetrating Radar
HDVI High Denition Vector Imaging
IBST Inverse Boundary Scattering Transform
IFFT Inverse Fast Fourier Transform
IR Impulse Response
LAN Local Area Network
M-sequence MLBS Maximum Length Binary Sequence
MUSIC MUltiple SIgnal Characterization
NUFFT NonUniform Fast Fourier Transformation
RADAR RAdio Detection And Ranging system
RAW Unprocessed data
RX Receiver
SAR Synthetic Aperture Radar
SEABED Shape Estimation Algorithm based on Boundary Scattering Transform
and Extraction of Directly scattered waves
SMA SubMiniature version A connector
TWI Through the Wall Imaging
SNR Signal to Noise Ratio
TCP/IP Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol
TOA Time Of Arrival
TWR Through Wall Radar
TX Transmitter
T&H Track And Hold
UWB Ultra Wide Band
iv
List of Symbols
Convolution
Attenuation constant
c Speed of light in the vacuum
C
A
Crosstalk
d
TXRX
Distance between Tx and Rx
d
inwall
Thickness of the wall
Dirac delta function
r
Permitivity
E
rad
Radiated Electric eld
E
meas
Measured Electric eld
f Frequency
G(x
0
; x) Greens function, x
0
: source point , x: observation point
h
A
Measurement system transfer function
h
C
Clutter transfer function
h
T
Target transfer function
k Wavenumber
K Multiple response matrix
Eigenvalue
Impulse response
L
airwall
Loss due to air-wall interface
L
wall
Loss inside the wall
Permeability

Divergence
2
Laplacian
Angular frequency
Scalar waveeld in frequency domain
Scalar waveeld
r Distance from the antenna
Conductivity
T Time reversal matrix
t
TXRX
Wave travel time between Tx and Rx
t
inwall
Wave travel time inside the wall
tan Loss tangent of the wall
v Velocity of wave propagation
v
n
Eigenvector
v
wall
Velocity of wave propagation inside the wall
V
S
(t) Voltage time evolution applied to the TX antenna
V
R
(t) Received voltage from RX antenna
w Point spread function
x
o
Source point position
x Observation point position
Z
c
Impedances of the feed cable
Z
0
Impedances of the free space
[x
tr
, z
tr
] Transmitter coordinates
[x
re
, z
re
] Receiver coordinates
[x
T
, z
T
] Target coordinates
v
Introduction
Nowadays, rescue and security of people is very serious problem. Persons buried
under ruins caused by earthquake or under snow after avalanche can be nd very
hard with present technique. Lots of remen died inside building full of smoke with
zero visibility. In all of these scenes through wall radar can help on a large scale.
Seeing through the wall and clothes can help rapidly also in eld of airport se-
curity, police raid actions and lots of another. In this work I am focused on the
imaging algorithms in order to image interior of room including walls and objects
inside of the room. The eld of algorithms for through wall imaging is really poor,
most of algorithms for this purpose were derived from aircraft radars imaging, seis-
mology, ground penetrating radars imaging, sonars etc. There is a huge number of
modications and improvements in imaging algorithms in all elds.
In January 2007 started project ultra wideband radio application for localisa-
tion of hidden people and detection of unauthorized objects with acronym RADIO-
TECT, COOP-CT-2006 co-funded by the European Commission within the Sixth
Framework Programme with duration of two years. Our department is one of the
research team in this project. My contribution in this project should be to develope
new, or implement some already existing methods that allow to image the interior
of room behind wall. One of the most promising radar device used in this project is
M-sequence UWB radar developed at Technische Universitat in Ilmenau (the coor-
dinator of this project). I made through wall measurements with this radar and used
them for processing. That is the reason why I describe main features of M-sequence
UWB radar device in chapter 1. In chapter 2 basic through wall radar model, data
representation and preprocessing is described. Three basic imaging methods from
which most another methods are derived and they are described in section 3. In
the next section 4, review of some improved imaging methods that can be used for
through wall imaging are described. Simulated and real experiments with through
wall imaging are reviewed in section 5. My rst experience with through wall imag-
ing measurements and processing are shown in section 5.2. At the end of work
conclusion and proposed thesis are presented.
This thesis originated within the support of the project Ultra Wideband Radio
application for localisation of hidden people and detection of unauthorised objects
(Acronym: RADIOTECT) and project Digital Processing of UWB Radar Signals
(Acronym: DSP-UWB-RAD).
6
1 UWB Radar Systems 7
1 UWB Radar Systems
1.1 History of Radar
In 1904 Christian Huelsmeyer gave public demonstrations in Germany and the
Netherlands of the use of radio echoes to detect ships so that collisions could be
avoided, which consisted of a simple spark gap aimed using a multipole antenna.
When a reection was picked up by the two straight antennas attached to the sepa-
rate receiver, a bell sounded. The system detected presence of ships up to 3 km. It
did not provide range information, only warning of a nearby metal object, and would
be periodically spun to check for ships in bad weather. He patented the device,
called the telemobiloscope, but due to lack of interest by the naval authorities the
invention was not put into production [9]. Nikola Tesla, in August 1917, proposed
principles regarding frequency and power levels for primitive radar units. Tesla pro-
posed the use of standing electromagnetic waves along with pulsed reected surface
waves to determine the relative position, speed, and course of a moving object and
other modern concepts of radar [71]. The world war two moved forward developing
of airborne radars [16]. The next major development in the history of radars was the
invention of the cavity magnetron by John Randall and Harry Boot of Birmingham
University in early 1940s. This was a small device which generated microwave fre-
quencies much more eciently. The UWB (Ultra WideBand) term was at rst used
in the late 1960s Harmuth at Catholic University of America, Ross and Robbins at
Sperry Rand Corporation and Paul van Etten at the USAFs Rome Air Development
Center [7]. Till the end of 20th century there were lot of radar types for dierent
applications like airborne radars, ground penetrating radars, sonars and one which
will be discussed detailed in this paper - the through wall penetrating radar.
1.2 Radars Fundamentals and Applications
The term RADAR is derived from the description of its rst primary role as a RAdio
Detection And Ranging system. Most natural and man-made objects reect radio
frequency waves and, depending on the radars purpose, information can be obtained
from objects such as aircraft, ships, ground vehicles, terrain features, weather phe-
nomenon, and even insects. The determination of the objects position, velocity and
other characteristics, or the obtaining of information relating to these parameters by
the transmission of radio waves and reception of their return is sometimes referred
to radio determination. In most cases, a basic radar operates by generating pulses
of radio frequency energy and transmitting these pulses via a directional antenna.
When a pulse fall on object in its path, a small portion of the energy is reected
back to the antenna. The radar is in the receive mode in between the transmitted
pulses, and receives the reected pulse if it is strong enough. The radar indicates
the range to the object as a function of the elapsed time of the pulse traveling to
1.3 UWB and M-sequence Advantages 8
the object and returning. The radar indicates the direction of the object by the
direction of the antenna at the time the reected pulse was received [18].
Radar is an important tool in the safe and ecient management of the airspace
system. Safe and ecient air travel involves radars for short-range surveillance of
air trac and weather in the vicinity of airports, the long-range surveillance and
tracking of aircraft and weather on routes between airports, and the surveillance
of aircraft and ground vehicles on the airport surface and runways. The aircraft
height above ground is determined by radar altimeters that assist in safe and ecient
ight. Airborne Doppler navigation radars measure the vector velocity of the aircraft
and determines the distance traveled. Weather avoidance radars identify dangerous
weather phenomena and assist the pilot to avoid them. Some military pilots, who
train at low altitudes, use terrain-following and terrain-avoidance radars that allow
the pilot to closely y over the ground and y over or around other obstacles in his
path. Navy and coast guard ships employ navigation radars to assist in avoiding
collisions, assisting in making landfall, and piloting in restricted waters. Radars
are also used on shore for harbor surveillance supporting the vessel trac system.
Spaceborne radars have also been used for altimetry, ocean observation, remote
sensing, mapping, navigation, and weather forecasting. The familiar police speed-
gun radars are a well-known applications of radar for law enforcement.
Another big category of radar systems are ground penetrating and thorough wall
radar system. In general, they use shorter range but better resolution like airborne
radars. Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR) can by used e.g. for geological survey or
landmines detection. GPR allow the construction of subsurface 3D seismic images.
Detection of landmines is very serious problem in all over the world. One hundred
million uncleared landmines lie in the elds and alongside the roads and footpaths
of one-third of the countries in the developing world and leave over 500 victims a
week [26]. Through Wall Radar (TWR) system is in general used for rescue and
security activity. It oers ability to detect criminals including terrorists obscured
from view e.g. behind walls, to detect and locate trapped people after accidents or
catastrophes like burred building, earthquake, avalanche, etc. and to detect unlawful
objects hidden under clothes, including non-metallic objects. Another opportunity
of utilize the TWR is imaging interior of room and inside walls, this work will present
review of methods for this purpose.
1.3 UWB and M-sequence Advantages
We use UWB Maximum Length Binary Sequence (MLBS or M-sequence) radar sys-
tem, because it has many advantages in comparison with classical pulse, or contin-
uous wave radar. The main advantages of UWB radar are: The UWB signal can be
transmitted with no carrier, producing transmit signal require less power, improved
range measurement accuracy and object identication (greater resolution), reduced
radar eects due to passive interference (rain, mist, aerosols, metalized strips, ...),
1.4 M-sequence UWB Radar System 9
decreased detectability by hostile interceptor, availability of low cost transceivers
and many others [56], [84], [54].
The rst idea to use a very well known M-sequence in UWB radar was proposed
in 1996 by Jurgen Sachs from Technical University in Ilmenau and Peter Peyerl from
MEODAT GmbH Ilmenau, US patent No. 6272441 [93], [90]. The main advantages
of using M-sequence are: The use of periodic signals avoids bias errors, allows linear
averaging for noise suppression, M-sequence has low crest factor what allow to use
the limited dynamics of real systems and the signal acquisition may be carried out
by undersampling. Thus signals of an extreme bandwidth may be sampled using low
cost, commercial Analog to Digital Converters (ADC) in combination with sampling
gates.
1.4 M-sequence UWB Radar System
For illustration how M-sequence looks and what are its property, 3 shift stages for
generate M-sequence with period 7 chips will be used. It is given from (1.1), where
n is number of chips and N is number of generator shift stages [104].
n = 2
N
1 (1.1)
Then generated M-sequence in time domain is shown on Figure 1.1. Length of one
Period T
Clock period tc
Time
1
-1
A
m
p
l
i
t
u
d
e
Figure 1.1: M-sequence with 7 chips in period T
chip is t
c
that is clock period and M-sequence acquire amplitude values -1 and 1.
Autocorrelation function of this M-sequence is shown on Figure 1.2. It can be seen
that maximum amplitude is 2
N
1 so increasing number of chips will increase also
correlation gain. On Figure 1.3 spectrum of M-sequence can be seen.
UWB radar system with M-sequence generator [87], [123], [29], [93], [90], [92],
[94], [120], [91], [121], [119], [1], [86] is made up from 9 shift registers and 511 chips.
From Figure 1.4 can be seen that only 2 feedback connections and one summation
are needed. For illustration one period of ideal 511 chips length M-sequence is
shown on Figure 1.5 (top), the same but delayed and noised M-sequence with 6dB
SNR (middle) and output after correlation of these two signal (top and middle)
is shown in bootom of Figure 1.5. From so noised signal (Figure 1.5 middle) can
Time
-1
2
n
- 1
2 t
c
A
m
p
l
i
t
u
d
e
Figure 1.2: Autocorrelation function of M-sequence
f
c
2f
c
0
Usable Bandwidth
Frequency
Clock Rate
A
m
p
l
i
t
u
d
e

[
d
B
]
Figure 1.3: Spectrum of M-sequence
z
-1
z
-1
z
-1
z
-1
z
-1
z
-1
z
-1
z
-1
z
-1
Figure 1.4: M-sequence generator with 9 shift registers
be very well obtain information about delay, that is common problem in radar
techniques. This is one of the biggest advantage of using M-sequence on radar
eld. Block schematic of complete M-sequence UWB radar system used in our
case is shown on Figure 1.6. System clock generate clock rate f
c
= 9 GHz. 9 stage
shift register generates 511 chips length M-sequence that is periodically transmitted.
Reected signal is received with two receive antennas and serve to the Track and
Hold (T&H) stages. T&H stages are controlled by clock rate divided by binary
divider. They divide clock rate n times so in our case it is 512 times. Because number
of chips is 511 with this very well made synchronization the undersampling with
factor 512 is provided. Undersampled signals are processed by ADC and averaged
by summators
, this is called hardware averaging and mostly is set to 256. So

averaged signal is correlated with transmitted M-sequence in signal processing block.
One can not forget, that very well synchronization is absolutely necessary to obtain
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500
1
0
1
One period of 511 chips length Msequence
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500
5
0
5
Delayed and noised Msequence
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500
0
200
400
600
Output of corelation receiver
Figure 1.5: Illustration of M-sequence correlation gain
System
clock
N-stage
shift register
Binary
divider
Signal
processing
/ADC/T&H
Clock rate f
c
M-sequence
Response
TX
RX1
RX2
Response
/ADC/T&H
Figure 1.6: Block schematic of M-sequence UWB radar system
correct information about shift between transmitted a received signal. In signal
processing block is furthermore made so called software averaging that is mostly set
to 7. Both averaging can be done because processed signal is periodic and averaging
is made up with respect to this period. First advantage of this averaging is that the
Adaptive White Gaussian Noise (AWGN) is reduced very well, the second is that
also data rate is reduced to acceptable level. With clock frequency f
c
= 9 GHz,
number of chips 511, undersampling factor 512, hardware averaging factor 256 and
software averaging factor 7 the output frequency is approximately 9809 chips per
second. It means that we practically receive approximately 19 impulse responses
per second. This is enough for detecting of moving people, or for capturing data
from man made moving radar measurements.
Final product is very robust in one box. It include two SMA connectors for re-
ceive antennas, one for transmit antenna, standard power supply connector (230V),
TCP/IP LAN connector and power supply switch. M-sequence UWB radar device
is shown on Figure 1.7:
Figure 1.7: M-sequence UWB radar device
In conventional pulse radar system one short pulse is transmitted and impulse
response of all targets, radar device and antenna system is received. In M-sequence
radar case M-sequence is transmitted periodically and in receiver part is received
signal correlated with ideal M-sequence . Output after correlation in ideal case
when transmitter is directly connected with receiver is also one short pulse with
duration one chip. Practically it means that measurement results from pulse radar,
or M-sequence radar are similar and all processing methods for calibration and
imaging can be done by the same way.
2 Data Preprocessing 13
2 Data Preprocessing
Before any imaging methods can be applied to the measured data they have to be
preprocessed. There are many special unwanted eects and unknowns that should
be reduced as much as possible. The main of these eects and methods to reduced
them will be described in next sections right after TWR basic model and data
representation will be described. Moreover one part of this section will be focused
on wave penetrating through the wall.
2.1 Through Wall Radar Basic Model
TWR basic model specify all processes which contribute to the measured data.
These processes are caused mainly by the measurement system, the measurement
environment and in small part also by measured objects. This model will be de-
scribed on TWR system with one RX and one TX stationary antenna.
Antenna signal eects will be shown for both RX and TX antennas. The electric
eld which is generated by the TX antenna is called

E
rad
and can be modeled by
[59], [100]:
E
rad
(r, , , t) =
1
2rc
h
TX
(, , t)
Z
0
Z
c
dV
s
(t)
dt
(2.1)
where r, , are spatial coordinates and t is time, Z
c
and Z
0
the impedances of the
feed cable and free space resp., and c the vacuum speed of light. The voltage time
evolution applied to the TX antenna is denoted V
S
(t),

h
TX
is the vectorial transfer
function for the emitting antenna and represents the convolution. The received
voltage from RX antenna V
R
is then:
V
R
(t) =
Z
c
Z
0
h
RX
(, , t)

E
meas
(t) (2.2)
where
h
RX
is the transfer function of the receiving antenna, and

E
meas
(t) is the eld
at the RX antenna. V
S
(t) and V
R
(t) are scalars due to the fact that the antenna
integrates all spatial components into one signal. The process that transforms

E
rad
into

E
meas
depends on the dierent travel signal paths and is denoted temporarily
as the unknown impulse response

X(r, , , t). The received voltage thus becomes:
V
R
(t) =
Z
c
Z
0
h
RX
(, , t)

X(r, , , t)

E
rad
(r, , , t) (2.3)
If we take the 1/r dependency out of the denition of

E
rad
we can combine all
antenna terms into one term

h
A
:
V
R
(t) =
1
r
h
A
(, , t)

X(r, , , t) (2.4)
2.2 Through Wall Penetrating 14
h
A
contains the contributions of the measurement system to the signal. It can be
accurately measured in lab conditions but it is very dicult and exacting challenge,
that require very precise measurements.
Antenna crosstalk eects means signal traveling directly from the transmitter
to the receiver. This signal is thus constantly present in all measurements and shall
remain constant for a xed antenna setup. The impulse response of the direct path
between both antennas will be expressed as

C
A
. The expression of he received eld
becomes:
V
R
(t) =
1
d
TXRX
h
A
(, , t)

C
A
+
1
r
h
A
(, , t)

X
1
(2.5)
where

X
1
represents the other (non-direct) paths between the antennas, and d
TXRX
is the direct distance between TX and RX. The rst term can be measured (cali-
brated) by pointing the antenna to the sky or to an absorber, so that

X
1
becomes
zero. It can thus be easily subtracted out of any measured data. The second term
contains the information about eventual target presence, and is thus the most in-
teresting one.
X
1
contains a combination of the impulse responses of target

h
T
and clutter
h
C
.
X
1
=
h
T
+
h
C
(2.6)
Here targets are behind wall scatterers we want to detect, while clutter is anything
else which adds misinformation to the signal. A typical clutter examples, presents
in most measurements are the multiple reections inside wall, multiple reections
between walls inside room, not constant permitivity in wave propagation, moving
trees in outside measurements, false objects received from behind antennas etc. The
model of the received signal (2.5) becomes:
V
R
(t) =
1
d
TXRX
h
A
(, , t)

C
A
(t) +
1
r
h
A
(t) (
h
T
(t) +
h
C
(t)) +n (2.7)
The last term n is added to represent measurement noise which is not added to the
signal due to a reection, but due to the measurement system itself.
Even if most variables in (2.7) can be measured, it is very dicult to measure
them precisely. In practical measurements only V
R
(t) is measured what is summation
of all this variables, this is the rst source of systematic error.
2.2 Through Wall Penetrating
Through wall imaging require wave penetrating through specic building materials
such as concrete blocks, clay brick, drywall, asphalt shingle, breglass insulation etc.
The transmitted signal is attenuated due to free space loss, scattering from air-wall
interface, loss in the wall, and the scattering from objects. The loss due to air-wall
interface L
airwall
depends on orientation of the electric eld with respect to the
2.2 Through Wall Penetrating 15
incident plane. If the electric eld is parallel to the incident plane, the loss can be
calculated by [116]:
L
airwall
= 20 log
10
_
2
_
r
sin
2
r
cos
i
+
_
r
sin
2
i
_
(2.8)
where
i
is the incident angle and
r
is the relative dielectric constant of the wall.
The propagation loss inside the wall L
wall
is related to the wall thickness h, its
dielectric property, and its loss tangent. L
wall
can be estimated by:
L
wall
= 20 log
10
[exp (h)] (2.9)
where is the attenuation constant of the wall and is given by:
=
2f
c
_
r
_
1
2
_
_
1 + tan
2
1
_
(2.10)
where
r
is the real part of the wall dielectric constant, and tan is the loss tangent
of the wall which is given by:
tan =

(2.11)
where is the conductivity, is the angular frequency, and is the absolute permit-
tivity of the wall. (2.10) shows that the loss in the wall is depends on its dielectric
constant and loss tangent. From (2.11) can be seen that loss tangent is a function of
frequency [116]. In praxis the waves are able to penetrate through the concrete walls
up to approximately 3 - 4 GHz. Higher frequencies are signicantly attenuated and
do not penetrate the wall. Radar with higher frequencies are used e.g. for detection
objects under clothes, because so high frequencies penetrate through the clothes,
but do not penetrate through the human body.
Example of through wall attenuation is shown on Figure 2.1. On this gure is
shown through the air measurement in comparison with through the wall measure-
ment. Both measurements were made under same conditions, only the dierence was
the 60 cm thickness concrete wall between antennas in through wall measurement.
Frequencies from 1 GHz to 3 GHz are attenuated almost constant approximately
by 20 dB. Frequencies around 4 GHz are attenuated around 60 dB what is more
than dynamic range of our radar device. Through wall limitation for approximately
3 GHz is also limitation for image resolution. The higher the frequency is used
the better image resolution can be obtained. This is why is not possible to obtain
big image resolution from through wall measurements. The resolution limitation is
around tenths of centimeters.
Another diagrams and tables of dierent wall penetrating looses and frequencies
characteristics can be found in [2], [4], [78], [63].
2.3 Through Wall Radar Data Representation 16
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Through the Air and Wall Measurements
Frequency [GHz]
A
m
p
l
i
t
u
d
e

[
d
B
]

Through the Air Measurement
Through the Wall Measurement
Figure 2.1: Through the air and through the wall measurement
2.3 Through Wall Radar Data Representation
3 types of data representation are used in most bistatic radar measurements, A-scan,
B-scan and C-scan [28], [59], [29]. Bistatic means that one antenna is transmitting
and another antenna is receiving, so not only one antenna is used for transmitting
and receiving like in monostatic case.
A-scan is obtained during the acquisition of one TWR time signal (one impulse
response), in our case it is 511 chips. It is assumed that radar system is stationary,
or moves very slowly. In reality all signals, arriving at the antenna at the same time
are superposed with a weight which is dependent on the direction of arrival (the
antenna pattern). An A-Scan thus contains for each time t all signals arriving from
all directions at that time. Figure 2.2 shows example of unprocessed A-scan. It is
measurement of metal plate(1m0.5m) 1 meter behind wall. X-axis represents time
propagation of one impulse response expressed in number of chips, Y-axis represents
amplitude of received signal.
One A-Scan provides only a very limited amount of information, therefore the
information in more than one A-Scan has to be combined. In order to have a more
complete view of the area under study, the TWR system shall be moved e. g. along
the wall. This movement is said to be part of a scanning, i.e. movement on a more or
less regular grid. If the movement is quasi linear, with a near constant velocity, then
a number of A-scans are acquired at positions of the measurement system which
are almost equidistant. This set of 1D A-Scans, can thus be assembled together
in a two dimensional (2D) structure, and visualized as an image. This 2D dataset
is called a B-scan. Usually it is visualized with the scanning direction (distance)
horizontally, and the time vertically. Figure 2.3 shows example of two the same
unprocessed B-scans. They dier only in colormap chosen in Matlab. It can be seen
2.3 Through Wall Radar Data Representation 17
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500
1
0.5
0
0.5
1
A
m
p
l
i
t
u
d
e
Time [Chips]
Ascan example
Wall
Metal plate
Crosstalk
Figure 2.2: Example of A-scan, metal plate behind wall
Impulse responses in scaning points
T
i
m
e

[
C
h
i
p
s
]
Bscan example

0 50 100 150
100
200
300
400
500
0.06
0.04
0.02
0
0.02
0.04
0.06
Impulse responses in scaning points
T
i
m
e

[
C
h
i
p
s
]
Bscan example

0 50 100 150
100
200
300
400
500
0.06
0.04
0.02
0
0.02
0.04
0.06
Front wall
Rear wall
Metal plate
Crosstalk
Front wall
Rear wall
Metal plate
Crosstalk
a) Colormap - Jet b) Colormap - HSV
Figure 2.3: Example of B-scan, metal plate behind wall, a) Colormap Jet, b) Col-
ormap HSV
that dierent colormap can be little beat confusing and can emphasize or attenuate
small amplitudes, therefore have to be chosen carefully. From this point of view
sometimes is better to show A-Scans step by step in points of interest or use 3D
image. Measurement system was moved 1 meter before front wall along 2 meters.
150 impulse responses was collected during movements.
B-scan can be represented also by 3D image, X-axis represents time propagation
of one impulse response expressed in number of chips, Y-axis represent movement
direction and Z-axis represents amplitude of received signal. Example of this image
is shown on Figure 2.4.
C-scan method can add one more dimension to the measured data. Finally, it
is possible to acquire a set of A-Scans, where for each acquisition the radar system
is placed at a well known position in a regular grid. This way a three dimensional
data set is obtained, with the scanning coordinates in X and Y direction, and the
2.4 Data Calibration and Preprocessing 18
Time [Chips] I
m
p
u
l
s
e

r
e
s
p
o
n
s
e
s
A
m
p
l
i
t
u
d
e
Crosstalk
Front wall
Metal plate
Rear wall
Figure 2.4: Example of B-scan, metal plate behind wall, 3D image
time/depth coordinate in the Z direction. The problem is that there is one more
dimension to show (also in A-scan and B-scan), the amplitude of received signal.
Imagine 4 dimensions in one image is not so easy, so in praxis only one X-Y plane
in specic depth Z is shown.
2.4 Data Calibration and Preprocessing
There are several types of calibrations and preprocessing methods that help us to
remove some unwanted artifacts from measured data like nding time zero, crosstalk
removing, oversampling, deconvolution techniques, multiply echoes removing, tar-
get resonances etc. Most of these calibrations and preprocessing operations are
extremely important and aects the imaging results on a large scale. For example
crosstalk do not contain any information about scanned object, but mostly represent
biggest part of signal. Time zero estimation is very important for correct focusing
measured hyperbolas back to the one point, what will be described in section 3, if
time zero estimation will be incorrect even in a few chips, artifacts after imaging
will be considerable.
One have to mentioned that through wall imaging is much more problematic
like detection or localization of moving objects. Whereas in moving objects detec-
tion background subtraction can be applied what solve lot of problems, in imaging
antenna system is moving and all what is measured is background and it can not
be subtracted. Background subtraction eliminates inuence of antennas, radar elec-
tronics, walls etc. on measured objects. Therefore the calibration in imaging have
to be done with great precision and it signicantly manipulates the results.
Time zero is the time instant (or corresponding digitized sample) where the
actual signal starts. TX antenna transmit M-sequence periodically around. The
exact time at which the TX antenna starts emitting the rst chip from M-sequence
is time zero (t
0
) [59]. This time depends on antennas cables lengths and in our
case moreover from one unpredictable value, because M-sequence generator starts
generating every time on another chip position after power supply is reconnected.
Finding time zero in our case means rotate all received impulse responses so they
will have rst chip corresponded with spatial position of TX antenna. There are
several methods how to nd number of chips to rotate all impulse responses. Most
often used method is with using crosstalk signal, that is very well described in
[117]. Principle is very simple, whichever measured object can be used, position
in data that corresponded to well known spatial position of object have to be nd.
Alternatively, since the geometry of antenna system is known, and the transmission
medium of the cross talk is air, the time needed for the signal to arrive at RX can
be easily estimated as:
t
TXRX
= d
TXRX
/c (2.12)
with t
TXRX
the estimated travel time, d
TXRX
the known distance between the an-
tennas and c the velocity of propagation in air. As can be seen in Figure 2.2 the
crosstalk has both a negative and a positive peak. The study [117] has shown that
the best and most reliable part of the crosstalk response to estimate its position is
the rst peak.
After the cross talk has been used to determine time zero, it may be removed out
from the data. The cross talk is the part of the signal that travels directly between
the emitting and receiving antennas, it is the rst and often the largest peak in the
A-Scan signal. The removal of this cross talk is thus important. The cross talk can
be obtained by measuring with radar at the free space, or with absorbers around.
This reference measurement can be then subtracted out from the data. In praxis it
is very dicult to made a good quality cross talk measurements. It can be made
in anechoic chamber room like it is shown on Figure 2.5 a), then the result is very
close to ideal, but is not usable, because the whole system is positioned dierently
than during normal measurements. Due to this change in positioning it is possible
that the alignment of the antennas changes slightly due to mechanical relaxation of
the system. Better results are obtained often when crosstalk measurement is done
during normal measurements with absolutely same arrangement of whole system.
However, in this case it is very dicult to made measurement in free space. The
crosstalk measurement inside building is shown on Figure 2.5 b), it can be seen that
lots of another artifacts like oor, roof, near walls etc. are present. In this case only
a few chips are used like reference for crosstalk removing, e.g. from chip 80 to 150.
Cutting in time domain will cause unwanted eects in frequency domain, so some
windowing function should be used. On Figure 2.6 examples of data (metal plate
behind front wall) before a) and after b) crosstalk removing can be seen.
Eort to remove inuence of antenna and whole system impulse response to
the measured data is the most complex calibration process. There are lots of less or
more complicated methods how to do it, described here [98], [28], [100], [101], [89],
[5], [39]. However, the main principle is every time the same. Long impulse response
50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500
1
0.5
0
0.5
1
Crosstalk mesured in anechoic chamber room
Time [Chips]
A
m
p
l
i
t
u
d
e
50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500
1
0.5
0
0.5
1
Crosstalk mesured inside building
Time [Chips]
A
m
p
l
i
t
u
d
e
Crosstalk
Another artifacts
a) b)
Figure 2.5: a) Example of crosstalk measured in anechoic chamber room with horn
antennas b) Example of crosstalk measured inside building with double horn anten-
nas
50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500
1
0.5
0
0.5
1
Before crosstalk removing
Time [Chips]
A
m
p
l
i
t
u
d
e
50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500
1
0.5
0
0.5
1
After crosstalk removing
Time [Chips]
A
m
p
l
i
t
u
d
e
Front wall
Front wall
Metal plate Metal plate Crosstalk
a) b)
Figure 2.6: Metal plate behind front wall a) Before crosstalk removing b) After
crosstalk removing
of antenna causing that every subject that reect the wave and is received by this
antenna is presented in data also in long area. Inuence of antenna impulse response
to the received signal can be reduced by deconvolving whole data with this impulse
response in frequency domain. This is time consuming process and require lots
of experience for adjusting lots of parameters when is made manually. Therefore,
there were made some automatic optimization processes [98], [28] pages 298 - 310,
[39], that reduce manually adjusting parameters and improve deconvolution quality.
Example of manually made antenna deconvolution is shown on Figure 2.7. It can
be seen that after deconvolution main energy form front wall and metal plate is
concentrated in one peak, that will improve imaging results.
When the target is known (e. g. land mine problem), the impulse response
of this target can by measured and then used for deconvolution. There are several
methods [28] like optimum or least squares ltering, wiener ltering, matched lter-
ing, minimatched ltering etc. which performances are compared by Robinson and
50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500
1
0.5
0
0.5
1
Before deconvolution
Time [Chips]
A
m
p
l
i
t
u
d
e
50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500
0.4
0.2
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
After deconvolution
Time [Chips]
A
m
p
l
i
t
u
d
e
a) b)
Front wall
Front wall
Metal plate
Metal plate
Figure 2.7: Metal plate behind front wall a) Before deconvolution b) After decon-
volution
Treitel [88]. The selection of a suitable lter depends on the characteristics of the
signal. As the sample data set is composed of signal, noise and clutter, the question
of the stability of the lter must be considered. There are lots of mathematical
optimization methods how to propose a good solution described in [28].
Multiple echoes or reverberations are very often produced in through wall
radars. These can occur as a result of reections between the antenna and the
wall or within cables connecting the antennas to either the receiver or transmitter.
The eect of these echoes can be considerably increased as a result of the applica-
tion of time varying gain. This can be easily appreciated by considering the case of
an antenna spaced at distance d from the wall. Multiple reections occur every 2d
(twice the separation) and will decrease at a rate equal to the product of the wall
reection coecient and the antenna reection coecient. This problem may be
partially overcome by suitable signal processing algorithms which can be applied to
the sampled time series output from either time domain or frequency domain radars.
The general expectation is that all the individual reections will be minimum delay.
This expectation is generally reliable because most reection coecients are less
than unity, hence the more the impulse is reected and re-reected the more it is
attenuated and delayed [28]. As a result, the energy is concentrated at the beginning
of the train of wavelets. The simplest method of removing multiple reections is by
means of a lter of the form:
F(z) =
1
1 +z
n
(2.13)
In essence, this lter subtracts a delayed (by n) and attenuated (by ) value of
the primary wavelet from the multiple wavelet train at a time corresponding to the
arrival of the rst reection. An alternative method of resolving overlapping echoes
is based on the use of the MUltiple SIgnal Characterization (MUSIC) algorithm
[102], [21]. It is a high resolution spectral estimation method and is used to es-
timate the received signals covariance and then perform a spectral decomposition.
Although computationally intensive, evaluation of the technique by Schmidt [102]
gave promising results.
The application of analytical methods of target discrimination started with the
application of Pronys method [82] to target recognition. The basis of the technique
is that every object will possess a unique resonant characteristic. Hence every target
can be identied in terms of its resonant characteristic. In its basic form Pronys
method is inherently an ill conditioned algorithm and is highly sensitive to noise. It
can, therefore, be understood that for targets behind the wall what is lossy medium,
the high frequency signal information is low and hence the signal to noise ratio is
such as to make Prony processing very vulnerable. Indeed, Dudley [36] points out
that since all real data are truncated only approximations to the resonances are ever
available even in the limit of vanishing noise. Recent developments have improved
the robustness of the method and is very often used in praxis. There are two
realizations of the Prony method, the classical or the eigenvalue method and details
of these methods are discussed in [20].
All of these preprocessing methods are applied individual on A-scan. There are
several B-scan or C-scan processing methods mostly based on migration of the data
and will be described in the next chapter.
3 Basic Radar Imaging Methods 23
3 Basic Radar Imaging Methods
In this chapter I will try to mention some basic methods in so big eld like radar
imaging is. Most of basic imaging methods like Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR)
or lot of migration methods were developed for airborne radar system, ground pen-
etrating radar, tomography, seismology or even for sound waves. They passed a
long way of successive changes, improvements and adapting for specic uses. This
caused that many times they changed their names but not fundamental or they
acquired new names but not the base, what can lead to confusing situation. Like a
good example the concept SAR can be mentioned: In airborne the SAR imaging
process is mostly refereed with synthesize a very long antenna by combining signals
received by the radar as it moves along its ight track and compensating Doppler
eects [27], on the other hand, in GPR is SAR imaging process mostly mentioned as
convolving the observed data set with the inverse of the point target response [48].
What dont have to look like the same from rst point of view.
To obtain corrected image from preprocessed radar data most often some mi-
gration techniques are used. The task of imaging algorithms is to transform time
domain in to the depth domain, where depth means the coordination from antenna
to the target direction, in order to reduce unfocused nature of data before imaging.
The migration algorithms perform spatial positioning, focusing and amplitude and
phase adjustments to correct the eects of the spreading or convergence of raypaths
as waves propagates. All migration algorithms are based on a linearisation of the
wave scattering problem. This means that the interaction of the eld inside the
scatterer and between dierent scatterers present in the scene is neglected. This
approximation is known from optics as the Born approximation [38], [19].
3.1 Backprojection vs. Backpropagation
This approach is not observed in all publications, but most often backprojection is
associate with geometrically based methods. On the other hand, backpropagation
is associated with wave equations based methods. Very good subdivide of basic
imaging methods into these two categories is shown in [59].
Backprojection Algorithms: This class of algorithms contains the conventional
SAR algorithm as well as simple migration algorithms as diraction summation
migration.
Backpropagation Algorithms: This class of algorithms contains most migration
algorithms (including the well known Kircho migration) as well as the wave
equation based, non-conventional SAR.
The rst migration methods were geometric approaches. After the introduction
of the computer, more complex techniques, based on the scalar wave equation were
introduced. A good overview of these techniques is given in [118] and [11].
3.2 SAR Imaging 24
3.2 SAR Imaging
In this chapter conventional geometrically based bistatic synthetic aperture radar
imaging will be described. Synthetic aperture radar means that antenna system is
moving during data acquisition.
All geometrically based imaging methods perform only spatial positioning and
focusing, the amplitude and phase adjustments can not be done, because the wave
equation is not regarded.
The basic 2D SAR spatial model is shown on Figure 3.1 a). Transmitter has
coordinates [x
tr
, z
tr
], receiver [x
re
, z
re
] and point target [x
T
, z
T
]. Transmitted wave
is reected from target to all directions uniformly. Because antenna beam is wide
signal reected from target is received not only when antenna system is exactly over
the target, but in all positions that allow to see the target. This will cause that
pointed target will be represent in acquired B-scan as hyperbola, like it is show
in Figure 3.1 b). Time Of Arrival (TOA) is the time when wave is ying from
RX TX RX TX
x Direction
z
D
i
r
e
c
t
i
o
n
[z , y
T T
]
H
1
H
2
Motion
x Direction
t
D
i
r
e
c
t
i
o
n
A(x,t) B(x,z)
a) b)
Figure 3.1: a) 2D SAR spatial model b) B-scan of pointed target
transmitter to target and from target to receiver. It is given by the (3.1) where the
v is velocity of wave propagation. This hold for constant velocity, so all system is
in homogeneous medium.
TOA =
_
(x
tr
x
T
)
2
+ (z
tr
z
T
)
2
+
_
(x
T
x
re
)
2
+ (z
T
z
re
)
2
v
(3.1)
The signal A(x, t) received in given time can be reected from all points that lies on
the locations where TOA is constant. The process that transforms measured data
set A(x, t) to the real spatial data B(x, z) is called migration. These computations
can be made in measured scene A(x, t) or in output scene B(x, z). In praxis when
data are sampled the rst method is mostly used. First of all, the spatial grid with
specied resolution in B(x, z) scene is created. One point A(x
n
, t
n
) is added to all
points that have the corresponding constant TOA in B(x, z). This is done for all
3.2 SAR Imaging 25
points from A(x, t). The points that have the same TOA are on hyperbola H with
focuses at transmitter and receiver position (Figure 3.1 a)). Mathematically this
process can be written like:
B(x
i
, z
i
) =
1
N
N
n=1
A(x
n
, TOA
n
) (3.2)
where A(x
n
, TOA
n
) are all points that have the same TOA, that is computed by
(3.1) for target position [x
i
, z
i
].
This method geometrically focus hyperbolas from A(x, t) in to the one point
in B(x, z). Of course this is not ideal approach and this methods produce a lot of
artifacts.
Conict in names of basic imaging methods become evident in simple geomet-
rical approach. This method is often called also back projection [109], [51], [58], [31]
[66] or diraction summation [75], [88], [73], [83], [76]. Moreover this geometrical
approach is often incorrectly called Kirchho migration [30], [23], [22] [122], [125].
Though the topic is through wall imaging so at least some wall has to be
considered. Because the wall has another permitivity and permeability like free
space the wave inside the wall will changed the velocity. Wave traveling through
medium with another permitivity or permeability will cause wave diraction and
refraction. On Figure 3.2 SAR model with wall is shown.
RX TX
x Direction
z
D
i
r
e
c
t
i
o
n
[x , z
T T
]
Wall
e
r
d 1
inwall
d 2
inwall
Figure 3.2: Spatial SAR model with wall
The accurate calculation of the total ight time is a critical step. The velocity
of the signal inside wall is slower than in free space and this will cause the longer
ight time. How to correct the velocity changing inside wall is described by Defence
Research and Development Canada in [44] and [43]. The time for wave to travel a
given distance d
inwall
inside a wall is given by:
t
inwall
=
d
inwall
v
wall
(3.3)
3.3 Kirchho Migration 26
where v
wall
is the velocity of the signal inside the wall. The velocity of the electro-
magnetic signal is related to the wall permitivity and permeability given by [15]:
v
wall
=
1
wall
wall
=
1
rwall
rwall
=
c
rwall
rwall
(3.4)
where c is the speed of light in free space,
wall
and
wall
are the permeability and
permitivity of the wall,
0
and
0
are the permeability and permittivity of free space,
and
rwall
and
rwall
are the relative permeability and permitivity of the wall. For
non-magnetic materials such as concrete wall, the relative permeability is equal to
one. Hence the velocity in concrete wall can be given by:
v
wall
=
c
rwall
(3.5)
and than:
t
inwall
=
r
d
inwall
c
(3.6)
Time delay caused by through concrete walls penetrating is expressed by comparison
with free space propagation:
t
delay
=
d
inwall
v
inwall
d
inwall
c
=
d
inwall
c
(
wall
1) (3.7)
Including t
delay
in to the basic SAR imaging algorithm (3.2) allow correct changing
velocity inside the wall and the output image will be better focused and position of
target will be corrected as well. Specic results before and after velocity correction
are shown in detail in [44] and [43]. Using these methods assumes to know relative
permitivity of wall and its thickness as well as assume that there are not another
objects with another wave velocity like in free space. This method is promising in
case when same small objects behind robust wall are investigated. However, in this
case it is a really big challenge even if this velocity model works perfectly. There
is often not only one wall and knowledge about its permitivity or thickness is not
certainty in praxis, especially in case of bury walls after earthquake or in police or
reman raid when knowledge about object is insucient or neither zero.
3.3 Kirchho Migration
Kirchho migration is based on solving scalar wave equation. Partial dierential
equations called separation of variables based on Greens theorem is used to solve this
scalar wave equation. Kirchho migration theory provides a detailed prescription
for computing the amplitude and phase along the wavefront, and in variable velocity,
the shape of the wavefront. Kirchho theory shows that the summation along the
hyperbola must be done with specic weights and, for variable velocity, then the
hyperbola is replaced by a more general shape.
Kirchho migration is mathematically complicated algorithm and is deeply sub-
scribed e. g. in [73] and [118] and applied for landmine detection in [40]. In this
chapter only short overview of mathematical description will be provided with fo-
cusing on physical interpretation of method.
Gausss theorem [42] and Greens theorem [17] is used for Kirchho migration
description. Gausss theorem generalizes the basic integral result (3.8) in to the
more dimensions (3.9).
b
_
a
(x)dx = (x)
b
a
= (b) (a) (3.8)
_
V

.

Advol =
_
V

A.

n dsurf (3.9)
Where

A is a vector function that might physically represent something like uid
ow or electric eld and

n is the outward pointing normal to the surface bounding
the volume of integration (Figure 3.3).

.

A is denotes the divergence of

A. (3.9)
n
Volume
Figure 3.3: Volume vector and normal to the bounding surface
generalizes (3.8). In many important cases, the vector function

A can be calculated
as the gradient of a scalar potential

A =

. In this case Gausss theorem becomes:
_
V
2
dvol =
_
V
n
dsurf (3.10)
In the case when =
1
2
, the
=
2
1
+
1
2
and (3.8) becomes:
b
_
a
[
2
1
+
1
2
]dx =
1
2
|
b
a
(3.11)
or
b
_
a
1
dx =
1
2
|
b
a
b
_
a
2
dx (3.12)
An analogous formula in higher dimensions arises by substituting A =
2
1
into
(3.9). Using the identity

.a
b =

a.
b +a
2
b leads to:
_
V
_
2
.
1
+
2
1
_
dvol =
_
V
1
n
dsurf (3.13)
Similar result can be obtained when A =
1
2
:
_
V
_
1
.
2
+
1
2
_
dvol =
_
V
2
n
dsurf (3.14)
Finally, subtracting (3.14) from (3.13) yields to:
_
V
_
dvol =
_
V
_
1
n

1
2
n
_
dsurf (3.15)
(3.15) is known as Greens theorem. It is a fundamental to the derivation of Kirch-
ho migration theory. It is a multidimensional generalization of the integration
by formula from elementary calculus and is valuable for its ability to solve certain
partial dierential equation.
1
and
1
in (3.15) may be chosen as desired to conve-
niently express solutions to a given problem. Typically, in the solution to a partial
dierential equation like the wave equation, one function is chosen to be the solution
to the problem at hand and the other is chosen to be the solution to a simpler ref-
erence problem. The reference problem is usually selected to have a known analytic
solution and that solution is called a Greens function [73].
In general, the scalar waveeld is a solution to the Helmholtz scalar wave
equation:
_
2
+k
2
_
= 0 (3.16)
where
2
is the Laplacian and k is the wavevector. When the wave travels through
the medium from point x
0
to the point x this Helmholtz scalar wave equation can
be expressed with the aid of Greens function G(x
0
, x) by:
_
2
+k
2
_
G(x
0
, x) = (x
0
x) (3.17)
where the (x
0
x) is a Dirac delta function. Greens function describes how the
wave changes during travel from point x
0
to the point x.
Now the Kirchho diraction integral will be described. Let the be a solution
to the scalar wave equation:
2
(x, t) =
1
v
2
2
(x, t)
2
t
(3.18)
where v is the wave velocity and dont have to be a constant. When Greens theorem
from (3.15) is applied to the (3.18) with the aid of Helmholtz equation, Hankel
functions, piece of luck and good mathematical skill (the complete process can be
nd in [73]) the Kirchhos diraction integral can be obtained:
(x
0
, t) =
_
V
_
1
r
_
n
_
t+r/v
0
1
v
0
r
r
n
_
t
_
t+r/v
0
+
1
r
2
r
n
[]
t+r/v
0
_
dsurf (3.19)
where r = |x x
0
|, x
0
is the source position and v
0
is a constant velocity. In many
cases this integral is derived for forward modeling with the result that all of the
terms are evaluated at the retarded time t r/v
0
instead of the advanced time.
This Kirchho diraction integral expresses the waveeld at the observation point
x
o
at time t in terms of the waveeld on the boundary V at the advanced time
t + r/v
0
. It is known from Fourier theory that knowledge of both and
n
are
necessary to reconstruct the waveeld at any internal point.
In order to obtain practical migration formula two essential task are required for
convert (3.19). First, the apparent need to know
n
must be addressed. Second,
the requirement that the integration surface must extend all the way around the
volume containing the observation point must be dropped. There are various ways
to make both of these arguments. Schneider [103] solved the requirement of
n
by
using a dipole Greens function with an image source above the recording place, that
vanished at z = 0 and cancelled the
n
term in (3.19). Wiggins in [111] adapted
Schneiders technique to rough topography. Docherty in [35] showed that a monopole
Greens can also lead to the accepted result and once again challenged Schneiders
argument that the integral over the innite hemisphere can be neglected. After all,
migration by summation along diraction curves or by wavefront superposition has
been done for many years. Though Schneiders derivation has been criticized, his
nal expressions are considered correct.
As a rst step in adapting (3.19) it is usually considered appropriate to discard
the term 1
1
r
2
r
n
[(x)]
t+r/v
0
. This is called the near-eld term and decays more
strongly with r than the other two terms. Then, the surface S = V will be taken
as the z = 0 plane, S
0
, plus the surface innitesimally below the reector, S
z
, and
nally these surfaces will be joined at innity by vertical cylindrical walls, S
, Figure
3.4. On Figure 3.4 the geometry for Kirchho migration is shown. The integration
surface is S
0
+ S
z
+ S
, only S
0
contributes meaningfully to the estimation of the
backscattered eld at vx
0
. Though the integration over S
may contribute, but it

can never be realized due to nite aperture limitations and its neglect may introduce
unavoidable artifacts. With these considerations, (3.19) becomes:
(x
0
, t) =
_
S
0
_
1
r
_
z
_
t+r/v
0
+
1
v
0
r
r
z
_
t
_
t+r/v
0
_
dsurf (3.20)
where the signs on the terms arise because n is the outward normal and z is increasing
downward so that n = z.
Source
S
0
X
s X
X
0
S
z
r
Scatterpoint
Image source
S
S
Figure 3.4: The geometry of Kirchho migration; from [73]

Now,
z
must be evaluated. Figure 3.4 shows the source waveeld being
scattered from the reector at x
0
which is called the scatterpoint. A simple model
for is that it is approximately the waveeld from a point source, placed at the
image source location, that passes through the scatterpoint to the receiver. This
can be expressed as:
(x, t)
1
r
A(t r/v) =
[A]
tr/v
r
(3.21)
where A(t) is the source waveform at the scatterpoint. Using the chain rule, applying
near-eld term and substituting into (3.20) the result is obtained:
(x
0
, t) =
_
S
0
2
vr
r
z
_
t
_
t+r/v
0
dsurf (3.22)
where v = v
0
. Since r =
_
(x x
0
)
2
+ (y y
0
)
2
+ (z z
0
)
2
, the
z
can be written
as:
r
z
=

z
_
(x x
0
)
2
+ (y y
0
)
2
+ (z z
0
)
2
=
z
r
= cos (3.23)
where is the vertical angle between the receiver location and ray to the scatterpoint.
With this, the nal formula for the scattered waveeld just above the reector is:
(x
0
, t) =
_
S
0
2 cos
vr
_
t
_
t+r/v
dsurf (3.24)
Fact that (3.24) is a form of direct waveeld extrapolation, but not recursive is
reason why it is not yet a migration equation. A migration equation have to estimate
reectivity, not just the scattered waveeld and for this purpose a model relating the
waveeld to the reectivity is required. The simplest such model is the exploding
reector model [70] which asserts that the reectivity is identical to the downward
3.4 f-k Migration 31
continued scattered waveeld at t = 0 provided that the downward continuation is
done with v = v/2. Thus, an wave migration equation follows immediately from
equation (3.24) as:
(x
0
, 0) =
_
S
0
2 cos
vr
_
t
_
r/v
dsurf =
_
S
0
4 cos
vr
_
t
_
2r/v
dsurf (3.25)
Finally this is a Kirchho migration equation. This result was derived by many
authors including Schneider [103] and Scales [99]. It expresses migration by sum-
mation along hyperbolic travelpaths through the input data space. The hyperbolic
summation dont have to be seen at the rst point of view, but it can be indicated
by [
t
]
2r/v
, notation means that partial derivation is to be evaluated at the time
2r/v.
t
(x, t) is integrated over the z = 0 plane, only those specic traveltimes
values are selected by:
t =
2r
v
=
2
_
(x x
0
)
2
+ (y y
0
)
2
+ (z z
0
)
2
v
(3.26)
which is the equation of a zero-oset diraction hyperbola.
In addition to diraction summation, (3.25) requires that the data be scaled by
4cos/(vr) and that the time derivative be taken before summation. These addi-
tional details were not indicated by the simple geometric theory of section 3.2 and are
major benets of Kirchho theory. It is these sort of corrections that are necessary
to move towards the goal of creating bandlimited reectivity. The same correction
procedures are contained implicitly in f-k migration that will be described in section
3.4. Kirchho migration is one of the most adaptable migration schemes available.
It can be easily modied to account for such diculties as topography, irregular
recording geometry, pre-stack migration, converted wave imaging etc. Computation
cost is one of the few disadvantages of this method.
3.4 f-k Migration
Wave equation based migration can be done also in frequency domain. Mr. Stolt
in 1978 showed that migration problem can be solved by Fourier transform [106].
The basic principle will be described for 2D problem. Completely mathematically
solution is very precisely shown in [106] or in [73], so only the basic relations and
principle of the method will be shown in this work.
Scalar waveeld (x, z, t) is a solution to:
2

1
v
2
t
2
= 0 (3.27)
where v is the constant wave velocity. It is desired to compute (x, z, t = 0) what
is wave in time zero - time when doted point with coordinates [x, y] start radiating.
While (x, z = 0, t) is given by measuring and it expressing wave in position z = 0
where the antennas are positioned. Waveeld can be expressed also in frequency
(k
x
, f) domain, than (x, z, t) is computing from inverse Fourier transform:
(x, z, t) =
__
(k
x
, z, f) e
2i(k
x
xft)
dk
x
df (3.28)
where cyclical wavenumbers and frequencies are used and the Fourier transform
convention uses a + sign in the complex exponential for spatial components (k
x
x)
and a sign for temporal components (ft). If (3.28) is substituted into (3.27), some
mathematical trick can be done and the result is:
__ _
2
(z)
z
2
+ 4
2
_
f
2
v
2
k
2
x
_
(z)
_
e
2i(k
x
xft)
dk
x
d
f
= 0 (3.29)
If v is constant, then the left-hand-side of (3.29) is the inverse Fourier transform
of the term in curly brackets. From Fourier theory is known that if signal in one
domain is zero than also in another domain will be zero. This results to:
2
(z)
z
2
+ 4
2
k
2
z
(z) = 0 (3.30)
where the wavenumber k
z
is dened by
k
2
z
=
f
2
v
2
k
2
x
(3.31)
(3.30) and (3.31) are a complete reformulation of the problem in the (k
x
, f) domain.
The boundary condition is now (x, z = 0, t) which is the Fourier transform, over
(x, t), of (x, z, t). (3.30) is a second-order dierential equation with exact solution
e
2ik
z
z
, Thus the unique solution can be written by substitution:
(k
x
, z, f) = A(k
x
, f) e
2ik
z
z
+B(k
x
, f) e
2ik
z
z
(3.32)
where A(k
x
, f) and B(k
x
, f) are arbitrary functions of (k
x
, f) to be determined
from the boundary condition(s). The two terms on the right-hand-side of (3.32)
have the interpretation of a downgoing waveeld, A(k
x
, f) e
2ik
z
z
, and an upgoing
waveeld, B(k
x
, f) e
2ik
z
z
. Downgoing is mean like in z direction and upgoing in
z direction.
It is now apparent that only one boundary condition (x, z = 0, t) is not enough
and the solution will be not unambiguous. To remove this ambiguity the two bound-
ary condition are needed for example and
z
, but this is not known in our case
so the migration problem is said to be ill-posed and another trick have to be used.
If both conditions were available, A and B could be found as the solutions to for
z = 0 and it will be specied as
0
as well as /z will be specied as
z0
:
(z = 0)
0
= A +B (3.33)
and
z
(z = 0)
z0
= 2ik
z
A 2ik
z
B (3.34)
The solution for this ill-posed problem and ambiguity removing will be done by
assumption the one-way waves. In the receiver position the wave can not be down-
going, only upgoing. This allows the solution:
A(k
x
, f) = 0 and B(k
x
, f) =
0
(k
x
, f) (k
x
, z = 0, f) (3.35)
Then, the waveeld can be expressed as the inverse Fourier transform of
0
:
(x, z, t) =
__

0
(k
x
, f)e
2i(k
x
xk
z
zft)
dk
x
d
f
(3.36)
and the migrated solution is:
(x, z, t = 0) =
__

0
(k
x
, f)e
2i(k
x
xk
z
z)
dk
x
d
f
(3.37)
(3.37) gives a migration process as a double integration of
0
(k
x
, f) over f and
k
x
. Even if it looks like the solution is complete, it has the disadvantage that
only one of the integrations, that over k
x
, is a Fourier transform that can be done
by a fast numerical FFT. The f integration is not a Fourier transform because
the Fourier kernel e
2ft
was lost when the imaging condition (setting t = 0) was
invoked. However another complex exponential e
2ik
z
z
show up in (3.37). Stolt
suggested a change of variables from (k
x
, f) to (k
x
, k
z
) to obtain a result in which
both integrations are Fourier transforms. The change of variables is dened by (3.31)
and can be solved for f to give:
f = v
_
k
2
x
+k
2
z
(3.38)
Performing the change of variables from f to k
z
according to the rules of calculus
transforms (3.37) will yield into:
(x, z, t = 0) =
__

m
(k
x
, k
z
)e
2i(k
x
xk
z
z)
dk
x
dk
z
(3.39)
where
m
(k
x
, k
z
)
f(k
z
)
k
z
0
(k
x
, f(k
z
)) =
vk
z
_
k
2
x
k
2
z
0
(k
x
, f(k
z
)) (3.40)
(3.39) is Stolts expression for the migrated section and forms the basis for the f-k
migration algorithm. The change of variables has reform the algorithm into one
that can be accomplished with FFTs doing all of the integrations. (3.40) results
from the change of variables and is a prescription for the construction of the (k
x
, k
z
)
spectrum of the migrated section from the (k
x
, f) spectrum of the measured data.
On Figure 3.5 same examples of transformation from (k
x
, k
z
) to (k
x
, f/v) space
and vice versa are shown. The v is constant wave velocity. This geometric relation-
0
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.08
0.1
f/v
-0.06 -0.02 0 0.02 0.06
k
x
k =.04
z
k =.06
z
k =.02
z
wavelike
0
0.02
0.04
0.06
f/v=.06
k
z
-0.06 -0.02 0 0.02 0.06
k
x
f/v=.04
f/v=.02
(k ,f/v)
x
(k , )
x
k
z
Figure 3.5: Comparison images in (k
x
, f/v) space - left side, with (k
x
, k
z
) space -
right side; from [73]
ships between (k
x
, k
z
) and (k
x
, f/v) can be explained as follows: In (k
x
, f/v) space,
the lines of constant k
z
are hyperbolas that are asymptotic to the dashed boundary,
they are transform in to the (k
x
, k
z
) space like curves of constant f/v - semi-circle
and vice versa. At k
x
= 0 and k
z
= f/v these hyperbolas and semi-circles intersect,
when the plots are superimposed. Conceptually, it can also be viewed as a conse-
quence of the fact that the (k
x
, f) and the migrated section must agree at z = 0 and
t = 0.
On a numerical dataset, this spectral mapping is the major complexity of the
Stolt algorithm. Generally, it requires an interpolation in the (k
x
, f) domain since
the spectral values that map to grid nodes in (k
x
, k
z
) space cannot be expected to
come from grid nodes in (k
x
, f) space. In order to achieve signicant computation
speed that is considered the strength of the Stolt algorithm, it turns out that the
interpolation must always be approximate. This causes artifacts in the nal result.
The creation of the migrated spectrum also requires that the spectrum be scaled by
vk
z
/
_
k
2
x
+k
2
z
like it is shown in (3.40).
The f-k migration algorithm just described is limited to constant velocity. Its
use of Fourier transforms for all of the numerical integrations means that it is com-
putationally very ecient.
Stolt provided an approximate technique to adapt f-k migration to non constant
wave velocity v(z). This method used a pre-migration step called the Stolt stretch,
after this step classical f-k migration has followed. The idea was to perform a one-
dimensional time-to-depth conversion with v(z) and then convert back to a pseudo
time with a constant reference velocity. The f-k migration is then performed with
this reference velocity. Stolt developed the time-to-depth conversion to be done
with a special velocity function derived from v(z) called the Stolt velocity. This
method is now known to progressively lose accuracy with increasing dip and has
lost favor. A technique that can handle this problem more precisely is the phase-
shift method of Gazdag and is described here [45]. Unlike the direct f-k migration,
phase shift is a recursive algorithm that process v(z) as a system of constant velocity
layers. In the limit when layer thickness is going to be innity small, any v(z)
variation can be modeled. This method has quite complicated geometrically and
long mathematically representation that is very precisely described in [45] and really
userfriendly described in [73]. Hove does it work for one layer will be described in
this work.
The method can be derived starting from (3.36). Considering the rst velocity
layer only, this result is valid for any depth within that layer provided that v is
replaced by the rst layer velocity, v
1
. If the thickness of the rst layer is z
1
, then
the waveeld just above the interface between layers 1 and 2 can be written as
(x, z = z
1
, t) =
__

0
(k
x
, f)e
2i(k
x
xk
z1
z
1
ft)
dk
x
d
f
(3.41)
where
k
z1
=
f
2
v
2
1
k
2
k
(3.42)
(3.41) is an expression for downward continuation or extrapolation of the waveeld
to the depth z
1
. The waveeld extrapolation expression in (3.41) is more simply
written in the Fourier domain to suppress the integration that performs the inverse
Fourier transform:
(k
x
, z = z
1
, f) =
__

0
(k
x
, f)e
2ik
z1
z
1
(3.43)
Now consider a further extrapolation to estimate the waveeld at the bottom of
layer 2 (z = z
1
+ z
2
). This can be written as:
(k
x
, z = z
1
+ z
2
, f) = (k
x
, z = z
1
, f)T(k
x
, f)e
2ik
z2
z
2
(3.44)
where T(k
x
, f) is a correction factor for the transmission loss endured by the wave
as it crossed from layer 2 into layer 1.
If this method want to be applied in praxis, phase shift algorithm [73] have
to be under study more deeply in order to prevent many of unwanted eects and
correct implementation.
The Fourier method discussed in this section is based upon the solution of the
scalar wave equation using Fourier transforms. Though Kirchho methods seem
supercially quite dierent from Fourier methods, the uniqueness theorems from
partial dierential equation theory guarantee that they are equivalent [73]. However,
this equivalence only applies to the problem for which both approaches are exact
solutions to the wave equation and that is the case of a constant velocity medium,
with regular waveeld sampling. In all other cases, both methods are implemented
with diering approximations and can give very distinct results. Furthermore, even
in the exact case, the methods have dierent computational artifacts [73].
3.5 Multiple Signal Classication 36
3.5 Multiple Signal Classication
MUltiple SIgnal Classication (MUSIC) is generally used in signal processing prob-
lems and was rstly introduce by Therrien in 1992 [108]. It is a method for estimat-
ing individual frequencies of multiple time harmonic signals. The use of MUSIC in
imaging was rst proposed by Devaney in 2000 [32]. He applied the algorithm to the
problem of estimating the locations of a number of point-like scatterers. Detailed
description is in [32], [21] and [62].
MUSIC for image processing has been developed for multistatic radar systems.
It is the way equations based method. The basic idea of MUSIC is the formulation
of the so called multistatic response matrix which is then used to compute the
time reversal matrix whose eigenvalues and eigenvectors are shown to correspond
to dierent point-like targets. The multistatic response matrix is formulated using
frequency domain data, which is obtained by applying the Fourier transform to the
time domain data.
N antennas are centered at the space points R
n
, n = 1, 2, ..., N. The positions
of the antennas are not necessarily restricted to be in the same plane or regularly
spaced. The n-th antenna radiate a scalar eld
n
(r, ) into a half space in which are
embedded one or more scatterers (targets). M (M N) is the number of scatterers
and X
m
is the location of the m-th target in the space. Born approximation is again
considered [38], [19]. The waveform radiated by the n-th antenna, scattered by the
targets and received by the j-th antenna is given by:
n
(R
j
, ) =
M
m=1
G(R
j
, X
m
)
m
()G(X
m
, R
n
) e
n
() (3.45)
where G(R
j
, X
m
) and G(X
m
, R
n
) are the Greens functions of the Helmholtz equa-
tion in the medium in which the targets are embedded in direction from transmitter
antenna to the target and from the target to the receiving antenna respectively.
m
() represents the strength of the m-th target and e
n
() is the voltage applied
at the n-th antenna. In this formula, the signal is only considered for a single
frequency . However, the extension for multiple frequencies is obviously. The
multistatic response matrix K is dened by:
K
nj
=
M
m=1
G(R
j
, X
m
)
m
()G(X
m
, R
n
) (3.46)
The scattered waveform emitted at each antenna is measured by all the antennas,
so the elements of the multiple response matrix K can be calculated by:
K
nj
=

n
(R
j
, )
e
n
()
(3.47)
The main idea of MUSIC is to decompose a selfadjoint matrix into two or-
thogonal subspaces which represent the signal space and the noise space. Since the
3.6 The Inverse Problem 37
multistatic response matrix is complex, symmetric but not Hermitian (i.e. it is not
self-adjoint), the time reversal matrix T is dened from the multistatic response
matrix:
T = K
nj
K
nj
(3.48)
where means the complex conjugation. The time reversal matrix has the same
range as the multistatic response matrix. Moreover, it is selfadjoint. The time
reversal matrix T can be represented as the direct sum of two orthogonal subspaces.
The rst one is spanned by the eigenvectors of T with respect to non-zero eigenvalues.
If noise is presence, this subspace is spanned by the eigenvectors with respect to
eigenvalues that greater than a certain value, which is specied by the noise level.
This space is referred to as the signal space. Note that its dimension is equal to
the number of the point-like targets. The other subspace, which is spanned by
the eigenvectors with respect to zero eigenvalues (or the eigenvalues smaller than a
certain value in the case of noisy data), is referred to as noise subspace. That is,
denote by the eigenvalues:
1

2
...
M

M+1
...
N
0 (3.49)
of the time-reversal matrix T and v
n
, n = 1, 2, ..., N are the corresponding eigen-
vectors. Then the signal subspace is spanned by v
1
, , v
M
and the noise subspace is
spanned by the remaining eigenvectors. For detection of the target the vector g
p
is
calculated from form the vector of the Greens functions:
g
p
= (G(R
1
, p) , G(R
2
, p) , ..., G(R
N
, p))
(3.50)
The point P is at the location of one of the point-like targets if and only if the
vector g
p
is perpendicular to all the eigenvectors v
n
, n = M + 1, , N. In practice,
the following pseudo spectrum is usually calculated by:
D(P) =
1
N
n=M+1
|(v
n
, g
p
)|
2
(3.51)
The point P belongs to the locations of the targets if its pseudo spectrum is very
large (theoretically, in the case of exact data, this value will be innity).
Take in to the account wall in this case can be done by applying Greens function
that consider wall, what is a big challenge.
3.6 The Inverse Problem
Radar devices generally produce an image which requires considerable skill, ability
and experience in interpretation of data to detect and localise multiple targets.
Mathematical methods that can provide this has to allow detection and localisation
of the objects as well as the ability to retrieve information about its shape, dielectric
permittivity and conductivity.
Inverse problem is method that estimate both the location and the physical
parameters of the targets like permittivity and conductivity. The main idea is to use
some basic imaging method that estimate initial conditions for inverse problem and
then solve inverse problem what leads to estimate location and physical parameters
of the targets. There are many various mathematically more or less complicated
models how to solve inverse problem and in the last time this topic becomes an
individual science discipline. In conjunction with radar imaging some of good works
can be nd in [28] - chapter 7.9, [59] - chapter 6, or [79], [6], [12], [14], [25]. In this
work only basic principle will be introduced.
From this point of view, migration can be mean as an approximate solution
to the general elastic waveeld inversion problem [46]. Full elastic inversion uses
the entire measured waveeld as input into a mathematical process that seeks to
estimate the elastic parameters of the device under test. This is called an inverse
problem because it is opposite to the classical forward modeling problem (subsection
3.3) of predicting the measured waveeld response of a known elastic device under
test model. Generally, a forward problem can be reduced to nd the solution to a
partial dierential equation, in this case the elastic wave equation, given specica-
tions of the coecients of the equation as functions of position and given appropriate
boundary conditions. Though often this is a very dicult process, it is usually more
easily accomplished than the corresponding inverse problem. The inverse problem
usually involve estimating the coecients of a partial dierential equation given its
response to a known source. Often, these inverse problems are ill-posed which is a
mathematical term for a problem whose inputs are insucient to determine all of
its expected outputs. In addition, to being ill-posed, inversion problems are gener-
ally nonlinear and practical schemes are typically linearized approximations. The
need to nd approximate solutions has lead to a large number of dierent migration
algorithms that are generally distinguished by the kind of approximations made. A
true inversion technique would derive the velocity model from the data as part of
the inversion. Migration requires the velocity model as input to focus, and adjust
amplitudes. In order to be a useful process, it should be true that migration requires
only an approximate, or background, velocity model and that more detailed velocity
information can be extracted from a successful migration than was input to it [73].
The possibility of looking at the interior of an object is based on the fact
that the incident wave penetrates inside the object itself, collects information about
its interior and nally is scattered, delivering such information to the receivers. Al-
though the capability of penetrating objects is part of the features of microwaves,
there exists, however, a class of impenetrable objects. Rigorously speaking, im-
penetrable are objects made up of perfect conductors, whereas objects made up
of strong conductors are almost impenetrable, in the sense that the impinging
wave penetrates inside the object only to a shallow depth [55]. For such a class of
objects, it is thus possible to reconstruct only the objects shape but not to look
inside them. This is what happens at optical frequencies, when the impinging elec-
tromagnetic radiation does not signicantly penetrate inside objects of which our
eyes are capable of seeing only the shape but not the interior [28]. Nevertheless, the
inverse problem methods refer only with penetrable objects.
A practical implementation of inverse problem can be nd e.g. in [59]. In this
case it is used for landmine detection. At the rst step, the position and overall
shapes of the objects is computed in a fast manner. For this purpose the MUSIC
algorithm [102], [21] is used. After this rst step the method chosen to solve the
linearized problem is the Algebraic Reconstruction Technique (ART) [64], [57] which
is a widely accepted fast linear solution method. ART is used to determine the
parameters of the objects, e.g. the parameter values of trinitrotoluene in landmine.
Both MUSIC and ART algorithms was developed for a monofrequency method and
in [59] Kempen introduced these algorithms with multifrequency approach. The
results from practical example of landmine detection are showed in [59]. It can
be seen that results obtained by inverse problem are better than by conventional
Kirchho migration.
Short review of using MUSIC and ART algorithm for diraction tomography
can be found in [60].
Anyway, one has to mention that inverse problem require huge computation
cost which make impossible to use this method real time with present computing
technique.
4 Improvements in Radar Imaging 40
4 Improvements in Radar Imaging
In previous chapter four basic imaging approaches were described. In this chapter
some improved methods, that increase image quality, decrease computational cost,
or are better in something else are shown. Though the topic of radar imaging is very
extensive, and spread in many branch, only some of the improvements with focus
on the methods that are most relates to through wall imaging are shown.
4.1 Cross-correlated Back Projection
Senglee Foo and Satish Kashyap from Defence Research & Development Canada
came with rst idea to use cross-correlation in back projection [41] in 2004. The
principle is the same like classical geometrical approach described in chapter 3.2, but
with one improvement. N receive antennas and one transmit antenna are moving
during measurement like one antenna array. In addition, one more receive antenna
is stationary during measurement and is used like a reference antenna. The classical
back projection can be described by:
o(x, z) =
1
N
N
n=1
R
n
_
d
TX
+d
RX
n
v
_
(4.1)
where d
TX
is distance from TX to the examined point, d
RX
n
is distance from exam-
ined point to the n-th receiver, v is propagation velocity, R
n
is the amplitude of n-th
receiver and o(x, z) is migrated image in examined point. These summations will
lead to creating unwanted eect in points where point of scatterer are not present.
Cross-correlated back projection can be described by:
o(x, z) =
1
N
N
n=1
R
n
_
d
TX
+d
RX
n
v
_
R
ref
_
d
TX
+d
RXref
v
_
(4.2)
where R
ref
is amplitude from reference receiver. Since two dierent delay terms
in conjunction have to match the actual scattering scenario, the probability to add
wrong energy to an image pixel, which does not coincide with the point scatterer,
will be drastically reduced. Rudolf Zetik et al. in [124] in 2005 showed the modi-
cation of Foos method in two steps. First, he didnt use signal from receiver at all
positions, but only at antenna positions in which can antenna receive signal from
examined point. By another words it can be said that he took to the account the
antenna pattern beam by integration only over the duration T (e.g. eective width
of the impulse):
o(x, z) =
1
N
N
n=1
T/2
_
T/2
R
n
_
d
TX
+d
RX
n
v
+
_
R
ref
_
d
TX
+d
RX
n
v
+
_
d (4.3)
4.2 Fast Back Projection 41
While Foo used reference antenna the stationary one, Zetik used like reference
antenna the same antenna, but with signal received some time before in SAR mea-
surement. This will provide same purpose, but with one less antenna necessity.
Even more Zetik came with idea to use one more reference receiver e.g. in some
time after actual measurement. The nal modied cross-correlated back projection
can be expressed by [124]:
o(x, z) =
1
N
N
n=1
T/2
_
T/2
R
n
_
d
TX
+d
RX
n
v
+
_
R
ref1
_
d
TX
+d
RX
n
v
+
_
R
ref2
_
d
TX
+d
RX
n
v
+
_
d
(4.4)
This modied cross-correlated back projection reduce the unwanted artifacts better
than classical cross-correlated back projection and shows better results on experi-
mental examples that can be seen in [124].
4.2 Fast Back Projection
Fast back projection algorithm was rstly developed for tomography by Amir Boag
et al. [15] and later modied for airplane SAR imaging by Shu Xiao et al. in
[112]. The main advantage of this method is the smaller computation complexity
in comparison with classical back-projection described in chapter 3.2. Classical
back projection require O(N
3
) operations to generate N projections for N N
image whereas fast back projection requires only O(N
2
log N) operations. The fast
back projection algorithm is performed in two parts. First, the received data are
recursively factorised into a number of decimated data-sets for subimages of the
reconstructed image. An example of factorisation is shown on Figure 4.1 (upper
side), the resultant hierarchy of data-sets is shown on lower side.
Figure 4.1: An example of factorisation (upper side) and the resultant hierarchy of
data-sets (lower side)
4.3 Migration by Deconvolution 42
Second, each data-set is back-projected to the corresponding subimage. A
computational gain is achieved through decimating the data in the factorisation
step. However, doing so introduces an error that degrades the image quality [53].
There were made lot of modications in fast projection algorithm, like ltered back-
projection [8], fast factorised back-projection [34], [109], quadtree back projection
[74], omega-k quadtree back projection [24], etc. However none of these methods
has better accuracy like classical back projection, or faster computations like f-k
migration.
4.3 Migration Technique Based on Deconvolution
This method is described by Bert Scheers and Marc Acheroy (ELTE Department,
Royal Military Academy) and Andre Vander Vorst (Hyperfrequences UCL, Belgium)
in David Daniels book [28] chapter 7.5.1 and in Bart Scheers PhD thesis [100]. It is
applied for landmine detection. None of methods mentioned above include system
aspects of the radar like the waveform of the excitation source, the impulse response
of the antennas, the antenna pattern, etc. Furthermore, most of the migration
methods consider the ground as being loss-less and without dispersion. It can be
expected that a migration technique that takes into account the characteristics of the
radar system and possibly the characteristics of the ground would perform better
and this is the case of this method. Bert Scheers described this method on the
radar-ground-target model, however, it can be also used for radar-wall-target
model.
A time-domain model of the radar system is used for the forward modeling.
The time-domain model is obtained by considering the total system radar-ground-
target as a cascade of linear responses, resulting in a time-domain radar range
equation. The time-domain radar range equation allows to calculate the received
voltage at the output of the receiving antenna in terms of excitation voltage, radar
characteristics and target. Radar range equation involves the pulse generator, the
antennas modeled by their normalized impulse response, the 1/R spreading losses,
the transmission coecients on the airground interface, the propagation through the
ground and the scattering on the target in the ground. Mathematically the time
domain radar range equation is expressed as [100]:
V
rec
(t) =
T
ag
T
ga
8
2
d
t
d
r
c
g
d
(t) h
N,T
x
(a
i
, t)
1,1
(a
i
, a
s
, t) h
N,R
x
(a
s
, t)
dV
s
(t)
dt
(4.5)
where V
s
(t) is the excitation voltage applied at the transmitting antenna, a
i
is the
direction of radiation of the transmitting antenna towards the target, a
s
is the direc-
tion of the scattered eld from the target towards the receiving antenna, h
N,T
x
(a
i
, t)
is the normalised Impulse Response (IR) of the transmitting antenna in the direction
a
i
, h
N,R
x
(a
s
, t) is the normalised IR of the transmitting antenna in the direction
a
s
, g
d
(t) is the impulse response representing the two-way path length loss and the
dispersion in the ground,
1,1
(a
i
, a
s
, t) is the IR of the target (the time equivalent
4.4 SEABED and IBBST 43
of the square root of the target radar cross-section), d
t
is the total path length from
the transmitting antenna to the target, d
r
is the total path length from the receiving
antenna to the target, T
ag
is the transmission coecient at the air-ground inter-
face (air to ground), T
ga
is the transmission coecient at the air-ground interface
(ground to air).
Antennas IR can by obtained by precisely antenna measurements in free space
or anechoic chamber room and ground IR can be modeled as a lowpass lter [100].
The migration method is based on the deconvolution of the recorded data with the
point-spread function of the radar system, calculated using the time-domain model:
(x, y, t) = b(x, y, t)
x,y,t
w(x, y, z
0
, t)
1
(4.6)
where

(x, y, t) denotes the spatial image of (x, y, t) at point z
0
i.e. the migrated
image, b(x, y, t) is the recorded C-scan that is migrated and w(x, y, z
o
, t) is the point
spread function for a xed depth z = z
o
. Solving (4.6) is a classical ill-posed problem
and solution is provided by the same way like in f-k migration in section 3.4 but in
three dimensions. The migrated image is given by the inverse 3D Fourier transform:
(x, y, t) =
1
2
___

(k
x
, k
y
, )e
i(k
x
x+k
y
yt)
dk
x
dk
y
d (4.7)
The aim of migration is to focus reections on objects back into the true physical
shape of the object but also into its true position. From results shown in [59] can be
seen that this method reconstructs object position much closer to the true position
like classical f-k migration. Moreover, from image obtained by this method can be
clearly seen that the object is oblique.
4.4 SEABED and IBBST
Shape Estimation Algorithm based on Boundary Scattering Transform (BST) and
Extraction of Directly scattered waves (SEABED) algorithm was introduced by
Takuya Sakamoto et al. [95] in 2004. Algorithm uses very simple geometrical ap-
proach without velocity compensation based on Inverse Bistatic Boundary Scatter-
ing Transform (IBST) [96]. First, from measured raw data (B-scan) the image of
the wave front is derived. This means to nd peaks, so the image of front wave
contains only 2 amplitudes, amplitude zero where is nothing and amplitude 1 where
is front wave. When this image is obtained correct, then transformation from this
f(X, Y, Z) space (before imaging) to the real f(x, y, z) space (after imaging) can be
done by simple geometrical approach [95]:
x = X Z
dZ
dX
y = Y Z
dZ
dY
z = Z
1
_
dZ
dX
_
2
(4.8)
4.5 f-k Migration Improvements 44
SEABED was developed for monostatic approach. Shouhei Kidera et al. in [61] in
2006 introduce IBBST what is bistatic modication of SEABED. Transformation
from f(X, Y, Z) space to the real f(x, y, z) space can be done by:
x = X
2Z
3
Z
x
Z
2
d
2
+
_
(Z
2
d
2
)
2
+ 4d
2
Z
2
Z
2
X
y = Y +Z
Y
_
d
2
(x X)
2
Z
4
_
/Z
3
z =
_
Z
2
d
2
(y Y )
2
(Z
2
d
2
) (x X)
2
/Z
2
(4.9)
where d is distance between transmitter and receiver.
SEABED method was used for detecting the contours of objects behind wall
by Sebastian Hantscher et al. in [49] in 2006. The results are compared with
kirchho migration and f-k migration on very simple scenario, the cylinder was
positioned behind a wall with a smooth surface [49]. Really great improvement in
computational time, even ten times faster than f-k migration was obtained. It is
because number of points with nonzero amplitude in f(x
w
, z
w
) space is very small.
Also the shape of cylinder is very similar to the true one. But this was very simple
and idealized experiment, processing with real and practical data will probably
brings problems, due to non ideal wave front estimation.
4.5 f-k Migration Improvements
f-k migration obtained title of most often used migration method in praxis due to
its fast computation and very precise image results. This is the main reason why
f-k migration has lots of improvements and modications. Some of them will be
described in this section.
4.5.1 Nonuniform FFT
Important contributions to this method are from Dutt and Rokhlin [37], G. Beylkin
[13] and Qing H. Liu and N. Nguyen in [69]. NonUniform Fast Fourier Transfor-
mation (NUFFT) is based on classical Stolt migration with some improvements.
Stolt migration require for using FFT algorithms equally spaced input data. In
many practical situations, however, the input data is nonuniform (i.e., not equally
spaced), that is why the regular FFT can not be applied. NUFFT propose an ap-
proach to achieve the fast Fourier transform for nonuniform data by using an another
class of matrices, the regular Fourier matrices [80]. This algorithm, with the same
complexity like Stolt migration O(N
2
log N) where N is the number of data points,
is more accurate, because approximation error is minimized in the leastsquare sense.
Stolt migration require so called stolt interpolation which is cumbersome and reduces
the computational eciency of the Stolt algorithm. NUFFT does not require Stolt
interpolation. Simply, NUFFT rstly compute Fourier coecients with using the
regular Fourier matrices, with this coecients compute uniform FFT and than scale
results back in to the nonuniform space. However, from mathematical point of view
it is not so simple and it is detailed described in [69].
Very nice review of more NUFFTs methods in comparison with classical f-k
migration tested on simulated data were done by B. Subiza et al. in [107].
4.5.2 f-k Migration in Cylindrical Coordinations
f-k migration transformed in to the cylindrical coordinate system was described by
Mark A. Haun et al. in [50] in 2000. He obtain a three-dimensional, frequency-
domain imaging algorithm for cylindrical geometry by making suitable approxima-
tions to the point spread function for wave propagation in cylindrical coordinates and
obtaining its Fourier transform by analogy with the equivalent problem in Cartesian
coordinates. The focus is treated as a diverging source by the imaging algorithm,
which then forms images on deeper cylindrical shells. Computer simulations and
experimental results using wire targets show that this imaging technique attains
the resolution limit dictated by the operating wavelength and the transducer char-
acteristics. Simulations were done with microprobe rotating around own axle and
ve point reectors. Measurements were done with three 100 m thick wire targets
located beyond the transducer focus.
4.5.3 f-k Migration with Motion Compensation
f-k migration with integrated motion compensation for airborne measuring was de-
scribed by A. Reigber et al. in [85] in 2006. In the case of airborne measurements,
wavenumber-domain processing is limited because of its inability to perform high-
precision motion compensation. Extended Chirp Scaling (ECS) [77] algorithm has
proven to be very powerful, although it has certain limitations concerning long
aperture syntheses and highly squinted geometries. Reigber in this paper analyti-
cally derived a new stripmap SAR data-processing algorithm, called Extended k
(EOK). The EOK algorithm aims to combine the high focusing accuracy of the
wavenumber-domain algorithm with the high-precision motion compensation of the
ECS algorithm. The EOK algorithm integrates a three-step motion compensation
correction in the general formulation of the wavenumber-domain algorithm, leading
to a new airborne SAR processing scheme, which is also very robust in the cases of
long synthetic apertures and high squint angles. It oers the possibility of processing
wide-band, low-frequency airborne SAR data up to near wavelength resolution. The
performance and accuracy of the EOK SAR data-processing algorithm were demon-
strated using simulated data in dierent data collection scenarios and geometries
as well as using interferometric data acquired by the airborne experimental SAR
system of DLR at L-band.
4.5.4 f-k Migration with Ground Surface and Non Loss-Free Compen-
sation
Standard f-k migration assumes that the ground surface is at and the medium is
loss-free which are not true in reality. Xiaoyin Xu and Eric L. Miller in [114] adapt
it to rough ground surface and lossy medium. When implemented in the Fourier
domain, the wave equation becomes the Helmholtz equation. It is then straight-
forward to incorporate a complex index of refraction in the Helmholtz equation to
describe wave phenomenon in lossy medium [33]. Here the f-k migration is gener-
alized to the case of rough ground surface and lossy medium. In the framework of
Tikhonov regularization [39], [65], an algorithm was developed that optimally alters
the wave propagation velocity and the complex index of refraction to take into ac-
count of the ground roughness and lossy medium. In the process of searching the
optimal velocity and complex index of refraction, the algorithm is constrained to
produce an image of minimum entropy. By minimizing the entropy of the result-
ing image, better results are obtained in terms of enhanced mainlobe, suppressed
sidelobes, and reduced noise.
4.5.5 Prestack Residual f-k Migration
Prestack residual migration in the frequency domain introduced Paul C. Sava in
[97] in 2003. This method has advantages over classical f-k migration that estimate
interval velocity functions for depth migration. It is more accurate than methods
that are based on focusing the stack of migrated images, so it provides a more accu-
rate estimate of the correct migration velocities. Although the theory is developed
assuming constant velocity, the method can be used for depth-migrated images pro-
duced with smoothly varying velocity models, since the residually migrated images
depend only on the ratio of the reference and updated velocities.
4.5.6 f-k Migration with Anti-Leakage Fourier Transform
This method was introduced by Sheng Xu and Don Pham in [113] in 2004. Its aim
is to estimate the spatial frequency content on an irregularly sampled grid. After
obtaining the Fourier coecients, the data can be reconstructed on any desired grid.
For this type of transform, diculties arise from the non-orthogonality of the global
basis functions on an irregular grid. As a consequence, energy from one Fourier coef-
cient leaks onto other coecients. This well-known phenomenon is called spectral
leakage. Anti-leakage Fourier transform, for seismic data reconstruction from an ir-
regularly sampled grid to a regular grid that overcomes these diculties. The key to
resolving the spectral leakage is to reduce the leakages among Fourier coecients in
the original data before the calculation of subsequent components. The robustness
and eectiveness of this technique with both synthetic and real data examples can
be seen in [113].
4.6 Migrations with Antenna Beam Compensation 47
4.5.7 Lagranges Interpolation in f-k Migration
Aining Li in [67] demonstrate that Stolt interpolation can by done also with La-
granges and sampling interpolation. The Stolt interpolation is carried out by chang-
ing of frequency variables. The selection and implementation of the interpolator is
critical for the nal image quality. If the interpolation algorithm is not correctly
chosen, it can cause shading and multiple images in the focused data. On the other
hand interpolation algorithms are implemented by means of numerical calculation so
that they give rise to truncation or rounding errors etc. Therefore the interpolator
must be carefully designed in order to obtain good nal image quality. Interpola-
tions works so that new values can be obtained between sampled values. There are
many polynomial interpolation algorithms which approximate the function utilizing
1th order, 2nd order or nth order dierences. The higher the polynomial is, the
better the approximation is. Comparison of calculation the Stolt interpolation by
Lagranges and sampling interpolation have been presented and analyzed as well as
the problem of the extrapolation in the SAR signal processing has been explained
and discussed in [67].
4.6 Migrations with Antenna Beam Compensation
Kun Liu and John C. Bancroft in [68] in 2002 made research how the consideration
of antenna angle beam will change computations and results in wave equation based
algorithms like Kirchho migration and f-k migration. They called it the eects of
dip-limited Kirchho migration and f-k migration. In praxis most measurements are
done with wide beam antennas, however not with omni-directional, but with some
specic angel beam, that can be precisely measured. This is the reason why the
contribution to the measured data will be only from objects that are inside antenna
aring angle like it is shown on Figure 4.2.
RX TX
Flaring
Angle
Target 1
Target 2
Target 3
Moving Direction
Figure 4.2: Eect of antennas aring angle
Taking in to the account this fact in computations can provide some improve-
ments. It can be seen that it can decreasing the computational cost in Kirchho
4.6 Migrations with Antenna Beam Compensation 48
migration or suppressing noise in both Kirchho and f-k migration. Dip-limited f-k
migration is a common f-k migration with an embedded dip lter, while the dip-
limited Kirchho migration is implemented by limiting the aperture of migration
operators. The dip-limited Kirchho migration generates additional artifacts when
the dip limit is less than the maximum dip on the desired output section. These
artifacts are caused by the endpoints of the migration operators and become more
obvious as the dip limit is decreased. A geometric explanation as well as a synthetic
experiment are described in [68].
With the same idea, however, with much more mathematical approach came
Murthy N. Guddati and A. Homayoun Heidari in [47] in 2005.
5 Experiments with Through Wall Imaging 49
5 Experiments with Through Wall Imaging
In this section, I made a short review of latest through wall imaging experiments.
5.1 Review of Experiments
Fauzia Ahmad et al. in [3] in January 2005 presented aperture synthesis scheme
using subarrays and postdata acquisition beamforming for through-the-wall wide-
band microwave imaging applications. She mentioned that coherent combining of
the pulse waveforms emitted by the dierent transmitters and incident at the re-
ceivers through reections from targets and clutter requires incorporation of wall
eects into the beamformer design. This work contains simulation results verifying
the proposed synthetic aperture technique for a Through the Wall Imaging (TWI)
system. The impact of the wall ambiguities or incorrect estimates of the wall pa-
rameters, such as thickness and dielectric constant, on performance is considered.
The hybrid subarray postdata acquisition processing design of the proposed beam-
former is also presented. In this work only simulated data were used, without real
measurements.
Hany E. Yacoub and Tapan K. Sarkar in [115] in July 2005 presented monostatic
through-wall detection of a metallic sphere with time domain and a homomorphic
(cepstrum - domain) technique. The metallic sphere was placed behind a lossy di-
electric wall. The performance of the two approaches was compared for monostatic
approach at various distances from the wall. To excite the normally incident per-
pendicularly polarized Gaussian pulse was used. It can be seen that results for both
methods are almost the same. Once again algorithms were compared in simulated
data, no measurements were done.
Anthony T. S. Ho et al. in [52] in July 2005 presented investigation of the
classication and identication of objects of dierent material behind the wall. The
dierent materials were dened based on their permittivity, permeability and con-
ductivity and include concrete, wood, glass and metal. The simulations used nite
dierence time domain method and objects behind wall were analyzed using Pronys
method [81]. Pronys method decomposes the transient signal into a sum of decay-
ing sinusoids. These sinusoids are represented by their poles and residues. Detailed
analysis of the poles and residues was then carried out with the aim of classifying
them based on the material medium of the object. The pole positions tend to be-
come unstable and will shift when there is noise. Therefore, an investigation was also
carried out on the eect of noise on the pole positions. Singular value decomposition
was also used to enhance the pole stability in the presence of noise. Results shows
that at noise levels of 20, 30 and 40 dB, there were still a number of poles dominant
that remain stable at their respective locations. Simulated data were used.
Lin-Ping Song, Chun Yu and Qing Huo Liu in [105] in December 2005 devel-
oped two-dimensional nonlinear inverse scattering technique for imaging objects in
a multilayered medium that simulates the eects of building walls in the context
5.1 Review of Experiments 50
of through-wall imaging. The eectiveness and capacity of the inversion algorithm
and the feasibility of through-wall imaging was demonstrated by a number of sim-
ulated numerical examples. Scenario was two discs and one ring behind the wall.
Numerical experiments showed that object locations, shape, and their constitutive
parameters can be reconstructed accurately through the use of multifrequency data
with a suitable array aperture size.
Genyuan Wang and Moeness G. Amin in [110] in October 2006 presented a
technique using two or more stando distances of the imaging system from the wall
for application under wall parameter ambiguities. Two dierent imaging schemes
were applied to correct errors caused by wall characteristics. The rst scheme used
forming target displacement trajectories, each corresponding to a dierent stando
distance, and assuming dierent values of wall thickness and dielectric constant. The
target position was then determined as the trajectories crossover point. In the second
scheme, an image sequence was generated. Each specic image in this sequence was
obtained by summing those corresponding to dierent stando distances, but with
the same assumed wall parameters. An imaging-focusing metric can then be adopted
to determine the target position. Extensive simulation examples demonstrating
these two methods eectiveness were used. They focused on point targets and
assumed single uniform walls. Again only simulated data were used.
Jay A. Marble and Alfred O. Hero in [72] in October 2006 concentrated to
phase distortion correction for see through wall. The wavenumber 2D focusing al-
gorithm was used. They used two approaches for estimate phase error caused by
wall by looking at the direct backscatter signal from the wall. The rst was a dual
phase approach, which uses a non-parametric technique to nd the phase at every
frequency. The second method was a dual frequency approach. Two frequencies are
close enough together that the reection coecients are approximately equal. The
surface reection coecient, back wall coecient, and phase were simultaneously
determined using an iterative, non-linear (Newton-Raphson) successive approxima-
tion algorithm. For simulation a simple scenario of three point scatterers with and
without phase correction was used. It has been shown that this unknown phase pre-
vents proper imaging of the scene behind the wall. Both approaches were eective in
determining and removing the unknown phase when their underlying assumptions
were satised.
Fauzia Ahmad and Moeness G. Amin in [3] in April 2007 nally came with
real measurements. They presented Beamspace High Denition Imaging (B-HDI)
as an alternative for urban radar sensing applications. B-HDI provides imaging
performance similar to that of High Denition Vector Imaging (HDVI) [10] but at
a much reduced computational cost. In experiment they used conducting sphere
with 12 diameter 3.4m behind 3 thick plywood wall. Background measurement
(without sphere) was subtracted from measurement with sphere. The results can be
seen in [3]. Image results are focused to the object so relation between object and
environment is not visible (Figure 5.1).
Sylvain Gauthier et al. in [43] in 2002 and [44] in 2003 presented very nice
5.2 First Experiments with TWI 51
Figure 5.1: Conducting sphere after B-HDI processing, from [3]
through the concrete wall experiments. Method they used is time domain geo-
metrically based on velocity in wall compensation that is described in section 3.2.
Extensive work contains lots data examples generated by a full wave electromagnetic
simulator. Example of simulated processed results are shown on Figure 5.2 where
metal boxes on several positions inside room are positioned.
Figure 5.2: Processed simulations of metal boxes inside room, from [44]
5.2 First Experiments with Through Wall Imaging and Pro-
cessing
During my three months research study from May till July 2007 on Technische
Universitat in Ilmenau I made some practical measurements with M-sequence UWB
radar device of objects behind wall. These measurements were done for project
RADIOTECT mentioned above. Scenario was really simple, couple of objects like
metal sheet (100 cm 50 cm), metal sphere(diameter 20 cm), re extinguisher,
metal boxes, cupboard and aquarium (30 cm 30 cm 50 cm) full of water
were measured rstly in front of wall and then behind the wall. Results were not
published yet, so only small review will be presented. raw data were calibrated
and preprocessed like it is described in section 2, focused with geometrical approach
method described in section 3.2 without any velocity compensation. On Figure 5.3
Direction of movement [cm]
L
o
o
k
i
n
g

d
i
r
e
c
t
i
o
n

[
c
m
]

50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800 0
10
20
30
40
50
60
Direction of movement [cm]
L
o
o
k
i
n
g

d
i
r
e
c
t
i
o
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[
c
m
]

50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800 0
10
20
30
40
50
60
Aquarium in front of the wall Aquarium behind the wall
Aquarium
Artifact
Front Wall
Aquarium
Front Wall
Rear Wall
a) b)
Figure 5.3: a) Aquarium in front of the wall, b) Aquarium behind the wall
is shown aquarium in front of the wall a) and behind the wall b) after processing.
It can be seen that aquarium is visible in front of the wall and also behind the
wall. In both measurements lots of artifacts in places where should be nothing
in form of noise can be seen. Moreover, in front of the wall measurement one
really big artifact behind wall can be seen, that is false object. This object was
not present in measurement and probably was produced by multiply propagation
between wall and aquarium, inside wall, between antennas and wall or something
else. It can be seen that even with most simple imaging methods without velocity
compensation can be focused object like aquarium behind wall, the position of object
in this case can be little beat shifted (some centimeters). However, more problems in
object identication are caused by lots of artifacts like noise that is present even
in measurement of empty room. These artifacts can not be removed by focusing
and are present even in raw data with comparable amplitudes like smaller objects
(metal sphere with 20 cm diameter etc.). Presence of these artifacts is probably
caused also by multiple wave propagation between walls, walls and objects, inside
walls, antenna and walls etc. Summation of these all errant waves in receiver can
cause this noise in places where nothing should be.
One have to mention that all methods presented in this work are linearized by
Born approximation [38], [19] what simply means that the interaction between the
scatterers is totally neglected. On Figure 5.4 one simple example where this approx-
imation can cause totally failure of object detection is shown. In my opinion Born
approximation caused much more failure in practical through wall imaging than
velocity non compensation or using geometrical approach instead of wave equation
approach. However, to implement method that will not neglect interactions between
measured objects is more than big challenge and for sure will require much more
input data like scan along one wall.
RX
1
RX
2
RX
3
TX
Walls
S
c
a
t
t
e
r
e
r
Figure 5.4: Failure of object detection caused by Born approximation.
From practical point of view system calibration is also extremely important,
during research study in Ilmenau I made antenna measurements in anechoic cham-
ber room. I measured characteristic of double ridge horn antennas used for through
wall measurements. Measurements were done with two identical antennas in front
to front position, rear to rear, side to side and side to side against big metal plate
(Figure 5.5). From theory, measurements front to front and side to side against
Radar
TX RX
Radar
TX RX
Radar
TX RX
Radar
TX RX
Metal Plate
Frotn to Front Rear to Rear Side to Side
Side to Side
Against Plate
a) b) c) d)
Figure 5.5: Antennas positions during measurements in anechoic chamber room.
big metal plate in ideal conditions should be the same. On Figure 5.6 examples of
these measurements in frequency domain with various distances are shown. It can
be seen that they are not the same, but nearly the same. During practical through
wall measurements position of antennas were not the same, cables were with dif-
ferent lengths and antennas were placed on metal positioning trolley. Therefore
better result were obtained with calibration measurements measured during prac-
tical through wall measurements. Anyway, this calibration is not satisfactory for
through wall imaging and should be improved.
During measurements in anechoic chamber room we encounter a problem with
cable and connector mishmatch even if cables and connector were very high-class.
These mishmatch cause multiple reections inside cables that can be seen on Figure
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
Frequency [GHz]
A
m
p
l
i
t
u
d
e

[
d
B
]

Antennas face to face 50cm
Antennas side to side, 100cm from the metal plate
Figure 5.6: Comparison face to face with side to side against big metal plate antenna
measurements in anechoic chamber room.
5.7 where measurements of antennas with side to side position is shown. Position
A
m
p
l
i
t
u
d
e
[
V
]
time [ns]
0
1
-1
0 10 20 30 40 50
Crosstalk
Metal Plate
Multiple Reflection
Side to Side antenna measurement
Figure 5.7: Multiple reection inside cable in side to side antenna measurement.
and amplitude of multiple reection were depending on cable length. It can be seen
that amplitude of multiple reection is big and is comparable with small object,
therefore precise calibration is totally necessary when detection of small objects is
required.
Conclusion
In this thesis to the dissertation examination methods for through wall imaging were
reviewed. Firstly, basic properties of M-sequence UWB radar device were described
in chapter 1. Through wall radar basic model, data representation, preprocessing
and calibration is shown in chapter 2. In chapter 3 three basic imaging approaches
were described, than lot of improvements for them were summarized in chapter 4.
Through wall imaging experiments were reviewed in chapter 5 including my own
experiments with through wall measurements and imaging. Finally, conclusion and
thesis for dissertation work are presented. This document contain through wall radar
imaging method overview, what I didnt nd yet in any another article or book.
Through wall imaging is very perspective eld that has very wide utilization like
through wall imaging during security situations such as with terrorists and hostages
to locate people and weapons, through rubble imaging following an emergency e.g.
earthquake, explosion etc, through wall imaging during re to locate people, through
snow imaging to locate people after avalanche, border control for the detection of
illegal immigrants, substances or contraband e.g. cigarettes in trucks and many an-
other applications. This technologies can save many lives during rescue and security
actions because work will be more safely and location of the victims will be faster.
Methods that can handle with practical wave scattering are still at the beginning
and new methods with new approaches have to be developed. However this is a big
challenge and will require lot of research and developing work. During my next PhD
study I want to contribute to the through wall imaging research. I will concentrate
on implementation these methods for real data and practical scenarios.
55
Thesis for dissertation work
PhD dissertation work will be concentrated on development and implementation
imaging methods that will allow to reconstruct interior of room including walls from
measured data set. Thesis for dissertation work can be dened as follows:
To develop imaging methods with new approaches, or modify some already ex-
isting approach that will produce better results with real data in room interior
imaging.
To nd new measurement scenario or antennas conguration that will allow
to use imaging method with better results with real data.
To improve calibration or preprocessing methods, that will improve image
resolution or object detection capabilities.
To analyze and implement calibration algorithm in order to reduce linear and
nonlinear systematic error of radar device.
To propose and test some image processing method like shape highlighting,
noise removing, median ltering, highlighting of knowing perpendicular walls
or another method optimized for specic scenario to improve nal image qual-
ity.
To optimize data visualization method, which will leads to better visibility of
small objects with focus to the dierent types of colormap chosen for visual-
ization.
56
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Through Wall Imaging Using M-Sequence

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Technical University at Kosice

Faculty of Electrical Engineering and Informatics

, this is called hardware averaging and mostly is set to 256. So

may contribute, but it

Figure 3.4: The geometry of Kirchho migration; from [73]

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