A. N.

MARLOW

and Buddhism Hinduism

inGreek Philosopkhy
THE PARALLELS between Greekand Indianliterature, myand have been stressed often sincethedays ofSirWilliam thology, philosophy between the Hindu who drewan elaborateand forcedcomparison Jones, their in the and Greek schools,1 systems philosophical supposed counterparts and the daysof Colebrooke, who also had some conciseremarks to make have restated someof theevidence, scholars on thesubject.2 Recent notably is beingincreasingly and attention directed to the chanS. Radhakrishnan,3 Greece. The purpose reached Indianinfluence of thispaperis nelsbywhich the two and particua of the between cite few to literatures, parallels merely Hinduism and muchof thethought of Plato,so as to indicate larlybetween as of typemorethantheiridentity of origin.Radhakrishnan, their affinity withthereligious is naturally moreconcerned his subject demands, aspects of the question. stock of primitive beliefs Thereseemsto havebeenan earlyand common bodiesand the faceof Naturegenerally. For example, aboutthe heavenly is a passagedescribing thenocturnal there in theAitareya Brahmana journey in primitive form of theSun backto itsstarting point,'whichmaycontain and Mimnermus in Stesichorus5 oftheSun'stravelwhich thelegend appears hollow says: "For a delightful ing over the ocean in a cup. Mimnermus couchbearshimoverthewave,a couchforged by the handof Hephaistus, overthe water's whichbears him sleeping madeof precious gold,winged, himback from to the land of the land of the Hesperides surface, hurrying meant theEthiopians."'Here Athenaeus saysthatby "couch"Mimnermus
cup.'Sir WilliamJones, Works,VoL I (London: for JohnStockdale,1807), pp. 360-361. Jonescomwith Socrates, Kanida withThales,Jaimini Vyisa withPlato,Kapila with paresGautamawithAristotle, withZeno. and Patafijali Pythagoras, 'H. T. Colebrook, Miscellaneous Essays,VoL I (London: Williamsand Norgate,1837), pp. 436 ff. ' EasternReligions and Western Thought (Oxford: ClarendonPress,1939), especially Chaps. V-VII. 'IIL 44. sSee C. M. Bowra,GreekLyricPoetry (Oxford: ClarendonPress,1936), pp. 86-88. Fr. 6 Diehl. 'Fr. 10 Diehl, Antbologia Lyrica Graeca (3d ed.; Leipzig: 1949). See also Stesichorus 'II. 470a.

35

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A.N. MARLow

The Hindu pantheon, of course, showsgreataffinities with thatof the sincebothare derived a common from and theVedas earlyGreeks, source, contain the earliest of thatworship of theheavenly bodieswhich expression persists rightdown to the timeof the Stoics."The legendof Earthand Heaven as the parents of the gods,theearliest Greekform of whichis in is common in theRg Veda. In Rg Veda X.190 and X.168 water Hesiod,9 is theprimary whichdevelops intotheworldthrough saiztime, principle, vatsara(year), kama (desire),purusa(intelligence), and tapas (warmth); and in X.190 wateris pictured as the first or assumed principle.Similar confused to picture the first are foundin Iliad XIV.201 attempts principle and 246, whereOceanusis the "origin of the gods" and the "origin of all thegods";and in theOrphic is themostancient where night poems, goddess, a birdwithblackwings.'0Hesiod inclines moreto the Orphicview," but thereis a similar in the Greekand Vedic accounts confusion of the beginand theconfusion thesameclaimants to thetitleof first lies between nings, god. Manyof thegodsarethesame: Dyausis Zeus,Varunabecomes Ouranos, whodoesnotemerge Usas becomes Eos,and Agniis theprimitive godoffire, in Greekbut has a shadowy as theLatinIgnis. The Asvins, personification of brilliance lords and lustre, "horsemen," twins,bright inseparable proof mankind, are the Dioscuri, tectors to in manyhymns, who are referred was thatof protecting whoseprincipallaterfunction gods, theoi soteres, Anakes or Anaktes.'2 of in steeds, mighty princes, helpers man,delighters has or "course The Hindu conception of things," of Rta, thelaw ofNature, of Heraclitus, "The sun the same scope as the Greekdike,'3and a saying withRZg have been written Veda its bounds,""'might shall not transgress 1.24.8 and I.160.1 in mind. in Matarisvan,'" who stolefire from The Hindus have their Prometheus a warlike clan. Their oftheBhrigus, it to thekeeping theskyand entrusted a poem ("The Brewing of Soma"), wrote god,Soma,uponwhomWhittier Lord and Father of mana has of which become ("Dear popularhymn part
thesun and moonand otherstarsto be gods." Fr. 1076 (Arnim): "He thinks 'Cf. Chrysippus, STheogony126 ff. 2470 (Berlin: Weidmann, 1922). f'Otto Kern,Orphicorum Fragmenta, 116 ff. STheogony ' Plutarch, 1301; Lysistrata Theseus33; Strabo V. 232; Aelian,V.H. I. 30; IV. 5; Aristophanes, Pausanias I. 31. 1, VIII. 21 fin. Vol. I (London: GeorgeAllen and Unwin, Ltd., 1923), pp. LIRadhakrishnan, Indian Philosophy, Press,1930), passim. 78-80; F. .. Earp, The Way of the Greeks (London: OxfordUniversity der Vorsokratiker 1'B94 Diels-Kranz,Die Fragmente (Berlin: Weidmannsche Verlagbuchhandlung,

1951).

Rg Veda I. 60.

HINDUISM ANDBUDDHISM IN GREEKPHILOSOPHY

37

as Dionysus. ourfoolish kind, Forgive ways..."), has thesamecharacteristics In bothGreekand Hindu poetry are constantly as gods, rivers personified and the form of sacrifice in the Rg Veda is verysimilar to the prescribed burnt of Homer-prayer, of nrain, simpleritual sprinkling offering, tasting offlesh, and dedication to thegods. "Theseagreements," writes Radhakrish"indicate that the must have in at someearly two been contact nan, peoples but neither of thosetimesand theymet period, any recollection possessed 1 as strangers withinthe PersianEmpire."' In dealingwithpre-Socratic we constantly find ourselves in an thought, more akin to that of the Orient than that West. to of the As atmosphere the late Professor F. H. Smithpointedout," the apeironof Anaximander is almostexactly the nameless and formless, the Hindu nirvikalpa, called in this the the which is nirviVeda. Aditi, unlimited, Moreover, Aditi, Rg is as ordered the immanent or in Anaximander by kalpa, Rta dharma,"s just an immanent all things shalleventually dikeensures that return totheapeiron whence came: "Fromwhichall things taketheir and by necessity rise, they all are into for render atonement to one these; they destroyed things just to the another fortheirinjustice due of time."'' according ordering viewoftheUpanisads, we find a personal that In themore imaginative god, draws all forth from himself of creatures"), ("lord things, PrajJpati existing and produces divides himself intomale and female or,in another passage,2e adduce here the this self-division. One similar Chinese all creatures by might of expansion and contraction of yang and yin,the principles doctrine by seemsto be expressing from chaos. Empedocles theworldis formed which it withthe equallyancient doctrine a similar of idea,or, rather, combining found in the also strife, Upanisads: primordial so as to be one truth:at one timeit increased "I will tell you a twofold so as to produce from one. For it parted outof manyand at another many and twofold decline.The unionof their is thecreation of mortals twofold of the one,and theother is nurand destruction all things causesthebirth as And these elements the elements turedand fliesasunder grow apart. at timesunder nevercease to be continually exchanged, comingtogether at other times theinfluence of love so as to becomeone,and beingseparated theforceof strife."2' through with the earlyschoolsof sharestwo fundamental doctrines Heraclitus aremomenBuddhism-that fire is theprimary and thatall things element
VoL I, p. 118. "Indian Philosophy,
I

"

Rg Veda IV.23.9. 2*Brbaddranyaka Upanisad I. ii. 4; I. iv. 3-4.

Religion,Sept. 1950, p. 81. "Diels, B 1.

nDiels,B 17.

38

A. N. MARLOW

and passaway. It seemsalmost too great a coincidence to imagine that tary two such striking and radical doctrines shouldhave arisenindependently in twoplacesat aboutthesametime.Heretheconfusion of Indianchronolthelifeof Heraclitus are greatobstacles, ogyand theobscurity surrounding butit is quitecertain thatthefloruit of theBuddhawas in thelatter partof thesixth andthat he adopted ideasfrom earlier schools.Traces century, many as early as theRg Veda,22 ofthebelief in fire as theprimordial element occur and are treated in the The Buddha,likeHeracliphilosophically Upanisads. fire as themostmutable to represent his metaof theelements tus,chooses in he coma which has of and discourse physical long principle becoming, that is the to the candle flame renewed of existence every pares beings Fr.B62 (Diels) : "Hear nowhow of Empedocles, instant.' Hereone thinks of menand lamenting shoots fire whenseparated sentup thenight-produced "No Fr. and of B30 (Diels): Heraclirus, women," godnormanevercreated thisworldwhich is thesameforall, butitwas and is and everwill be everthe analogy lastingfire."Again,the Buddhauses in thesamediscourse2" but is sustained of the river whichis neverthe same fortwomoments by "Ever Fr. in echoed sentiment B91 ever-new a (Diels): Heraclitus, waters, and by the different is thewaterforthosewho stepintothesame rivers," thesame into to "It not is famous Aristotle, step possible saying quotedby in the the same belief to refers B6 Fr. rivertwice."25 (Diels) Probably "The sun ... is newevery of existence, momentariness day." was theimmutable ofexistence thefundamental FortheBuddha, principle actionand wordearned smallest dharma (law) whichdecreedthatevery datesback its reward, not an ouncemoreor less. This principle obviously it as to enthrone but theBuddhawas thefirst or earlier, to the Upanisads the free from a universe in the theruling tyranny universe, completely power in Fr.B2 (Diels): "So we of dharma of gods. Heraclitus maybe thinking forthatis shared mustfollowthecommon by all," forobviously principle, it againin Fr.B41 law. We meet a universal be must thiscommon principle to know the principle in one thing, by (Diels): "For wisdomconsists all things"(or "on all occasions"). are steered whichall things through in short, and difficult are expressed sayof Heraclitus These opinions pithy, muchof satras. us very ingswhichremind whichresemble several features of Empedocles The epistemology presents For the various Hindu or in systems. thoseto be foundin the Upanisads of world as the the the to perdoctrine, object instance, according Sirikhya
SSee e.g., i67. "*Ibid., i. 123.

"

Mahavagg i. 121. "Dies, B91.

IN GREEKPHILOSOPHY ANDBUDDHISM HINDUISM

39

has the fivetanmatras "subtleelements"),and each of (roughly, ception to it in ourselves,26 theseis perceived whichis by something corresponding a in he fact the first to own Greek doctrine, being propound Empedocles' sense "For earth we of earth, by theory by perceive thorough perception: fire." air and by fire water 2 destructive water, by air divine as and cognition the Hindu theories of perception who studies Anyone and thenturns to and Siixkhyasystems in the Nyiya,VaiSesika, set forth of their but be struck of Empedocles cannot thefragments by thesimilarity theories. to of a sortof "fall of man" and affects conscious is keenly Empedocles The waybywhich as plantand animal, remember boyand girl.28 pastbirths the original bliss maybe gained,fromwhichhe is now an exile,29 is by forbythismeansall theHindumethod.He advisesmeditation, asceticism, attained.30 In theend, and evensupernormal shall be revealed truth powers of the asceticregainsits divinity--a the soul of the righteous counterpart and mnoksa. Hindu beliefin reincarnation See, in particular, Empedocles, and B.146 (Diels): "At the end theybecameseersand bardsand chiefs as godshighest forth blossom men,andfinally they amongmortal physicians in honor." in Empedocles, oftheUpanisads There mayevenbe an echoofthemonism to have beenmediseems of his features likemanyother which, philosophy, a find listof the we In the atedthrough Aaznd;akya Upanisad1.7 Orphism. Fr. to of the One, whichhas resemblances B17 (Diels) of Empequalities doclesas quotedabove. and runsthrough of mysticism tradition A distinct Orphism, Pythagoras, Hindu the it is like as in Greek is as unlike which Plato thought anything humanwithrationalist break oftheUpanisads.Thereis a distinct mysticism the seventh and sixth extraversion of ismand withthehealthy unreflecting he made a preyto dogs,"3 we Insteadof Homer's"Themselves centuries. thephysical from to thespiritual, from of emphasis havea complete shifting to the eternal.Realityis not now what is perceived the temporal by the them.The soul lives an independent lifeand sensesbut what lies beyond theonlytruereality. is in itself and Hinduism havemuch in common.Just as theBrahmins Orphism kept the beliefof the shamans or medicine men of the Vedas thatman could a god,butattempted to achieve become thisunionnotbydrinking theintoxiSA doctrine based on Praina Upanisuad, IV.8.
2

Diels, B117. 'Mlbid.,B110, B111.

B109. 2TDiels,
SIbid., B119.

IL.L4.

40

A. N.

MARLOW

soma butbyabstinence and ascetic so Orpheus the cating practices, purified old Dionysiacreligionand substituted asceticism for drunkenness.32 The seemsto be the liberation of the soul fromthe chainsof aim of Orphism thebody, and thisis to be achieved butmanmustpassthrough asceticism, by finalfreedom. he achieves This is very from far,indeed, manylivesbefore but almost Greek of the any exactly genuine religion period,33 predominant view of the Upanisads. Even the metaphors in whichthis conception is clothed are thestockHindu and Buddhist wheel in of life metaphors--the wheel"of Orpheus.34 theUpanisadsappearsas the"sorrowful It has weary therealization beenremarked that theaimofOrphism, bymanofhisidentity insolence to a sixth-century withGod, would have appearedblasphemous Athenian. we againcomeacross familiar In thedetails ofOrphicabstinence practice. is due to thedoctrine and fish of transmigration, and The avoidance of flesh thereseem to be tracesof fromanimalsacrifice in the Orphicabstinence to the latestevidence,35 theprimitive taboo which,according gave rise to for or reverence of ahimisaand to thedoctrine thecastesystem (non-injury friendlithatit inculcates feature of Orphism life). Indeed,it is a striking is and not man alone. Again,the Orphiccosmogony nessto all creatures thatof Homerand Hesiod. Insteadof havingOcean as the from different in theVedas;36 an idea common we have a world-egg, of all things, origin The after deathtowardfinalpurification. we also have the soul's journey failsas a guide,but often sincechronology hereis verytentative, evidence once again the parallelsare highly suggestive. buttheevidence to Hinduism, aremany In Pythagoras, too,there parallels is scholars.All I can attempt has been differently by different interpreted that was doctrine of the evidence.A fundamental a briefrecapitulation in thisworldand thebodyis the tombof the soul,and "we are strangers of God forwe are thechattels yetthatwe are notto escapebyself-murder; to no we have his command and without who is our herdsman, right make is attributed our escape.""' The belief in transmigration mistakenly by over taken and was to theEgyptians, Herodotus by Pythagoras apparently oftheslaughter this cametheprohibition an Oriental from source; alongwith
Indian Thoughtand its Development, Mrs. CharlesE. B. Russell,trans. (LonSAlbertSchweitzer, to the Study of Greek don: Hodder and Stoughton, 1936), pp. 21-23. J. E. Harrison,Prolegomena Press,1903), p. 477. University Religion(Cambridge: Cambridge and GreekReligion(London: Methuen, 1935), pp. 236-237. "See on thisW. KLC. Guthrie, Orpheus " Kern,op. cit., Fr. 36 (c) line 6. Press,1946), pp. 62-79. University J. H. Hutton,Caste in India (Cambridge: Cambridge wSSee * E.g., Rg Veda X. 82. 5-6. (4th ed., London: A. & C. Black, 1930), p. 98. Early GreekPhilosophy "J. Burnet,

HINDUISM AND BUDDHISM IN GREEK PHILOSOPHY

41

of animalsand the vegetarian of purification diet. The doctrine by ascetic seems familiar. Even the and theoria secrecy practices by (contemplation) it to writing to commit reminds us of the of the doctrine and the refusal communication." verymeaningof the word "Upanisad,"a "confidential And the separation of the disciplesinto two grades,the mathematikoi us (innercircle) and theakousmatikoi (outerringof listeners),3 reminds of thetwo stagesof instruction in givenby the Vedas and the Upanisads, the latter of whichwas foundthe esoteric doctrine of becoming one with the Supra-sensuous teacher to his pupilby the Brahmin Being imparted mustbe uttered before members not a sentence of thissecret doctrine of lowercastes. similarities between theBrahmin in mindthese teachIncidentally, bearing

resist thespeculation andPythagoreanism, onecanhardly that ing, Orphism, andpractices based on them in theUpanisads andin thedoctrines we may Did they havea clueto theGreek inculcate originally mysteries. simply in contemplation? theattainment ofimmortality byecstasy thedistinction It is interesting to find attributed to Pythagoras39 of the andthetheoretic, three theapolaustic, thepractical, usedbyAristotle lives, three in hisEthics, andtheattempt on thepredominance of to basethese nature. This is thevery element in human coreof Hindu one or other basesthepleasfor which itsefficacy on thecaste on the system, speculation of thehuman castes to thethree constituents of thethree correspondence thehighest sattva (thatwhich bliss),rajas (thatwhich soul, gives impels andtamas(theearthly, to activity), represented bytheappetites). struck without No onecanreadanyofPlato's byhisfredialogues being ofsoulandbody andhisequally stress on thecomplete independence quent thesouldoesnotcomeintoitsown that insistence on thefact significant is nottheordinary is quiescent. His viewof reality Greek thebody until vision the and recalls beatific vision of hassupersensual the view; philosopher
in theempsychos whenitwas itself innocence former pureand notenshrined

likean oyster in itsshell.40 The soul tomb)of thebody, (living taphos is no or when it troubled butis itself becomes by pain pleasure only truly for when it avoids leaveof thebody; as possible aloneandtakes in so far
' Aristotle seemsto treattheseas opposing sects,and it may be that I have read too much into the Greekterms. on thisreferdoubtsare thrown by Jaeger op. cit.,p. 98 (thoughserious 'By Heraclitus;see Burnet, enceto Pythagoras). 0 Phaedrus 400C. 250. Phaedo65-67, Cratylus 1 Phaedo65A.

and attaintruth."1 withthe bodyit can reachout towardreality contact it immortal and changeless, dwells transcendent attained this calm, Having

42

A. N. MARLOW

is always the truth its long cycleof wanderings; thus, havingceasedfrom in our soul,whichis immortal and has beenreborn manytimes.42So, concreteexistence man is not truly is a phantom and the ordinary of reality, of phantoms.43 awakebutis likea somnambulist in pursuit Or, we havethe of form whichis a pictorial tremendous simileof thecave in theRepublic, such the Hindu doctrine of marya (illusion), thoughin a dualistic system as Plato'sthe idea of miya is replaced by thatof mereappearance. which we find in PlatotheAbsolute As intheUpanisads, Principle, appears thepersonal and as theDemiurgus, as theIdea of theGood in theRepublic, and thesetwo ideas in theTimaeus, or soul of theuniverse, God and creator theprinciples oflogistikon, we find exist sidebyside. Again,in theRepublic as the basis of the whole and appetite, reason,spirit, thymos, epithymia, whichareworked intheclasses ofsociety arebodiedforth andthese structure, one oftheIndiancastesystem. thatcannotfailto remind outwitha rigidity weresupreme, or priests, TheretheBrahmins, curiously by virtue, enough, whichenabledthemto achieveunion of theirpossessing magic formulae classes.Being duties to other hadstrict butoriginally withtheAbsolute, they wereexpected to giveguidance andthey wasaskedofthem more enlightened, thenthevailyas of life. Then cametheksatriyas in all branches (warriors), Plato had no the fidras(artisans). Of course, and finally (businessmen), of order of but he keeps the room foroutcastes, precedence philosopher, casteand class as in Hindu society, and artisan.In the Republic, warrior, for the Hindu to forthe Greekand impossible are rigid--itwas difficult one to another. changefrom fenced on theirpinnacles, In the Republicthe guardians perchuneasily artithe a of deal would it and roundby diverse explain good prohibitions, caste of a form to introduce were if Plato book of thefourth trying ficiality theHindu castesystem he had heardor read.Probably aboutwhich system whichPlato professes, came into being forthe reasons namely, originally and eugenics. stability should thatforPlatoas fortheBrahmins philosophy Thus,it was natural idealforthe of Socrates and thetrial on death, be a meditation is,of course, in the Phaedo,as forexIt is strongest of thisconviction. communication of knowlvotaries are the true who that to be seems "It in 64A: they ample that the notice of the have rest, nothing namely, they practice edge escaped is held in 66E, pureknowledge else buthow to die or meetdeath." Again, life: "If this have who those of to be theexclusive pure passedbeyond right
S Ibid.,79D. ' Meno 80E

HINDUISM IN GREEKPHILOSOPHY ANDBUDDHISM

43

is not then either inthebody, oneoftwothings follows, knowledge possible at if after is to at be obtained death." not all, or, all, knowledge leavebehind The complete manforPlatomust himchildren's children toperpetuate is therace, Laws773E,where thestriving for eternal life e.g., with the most mentioned ofdescendants. andnaturally illuminatingly leaving is no suggesarecorollaries, as in theUpanisads. There Thesetwoactions in either. tion Theresemblance ofPlato's ofscholastic ormonastic celibacy with idealtothat is best both oftheUpanisads outbycontrasting brought likeIbsen, idealofthearhant, thetruly manwho, theBuddhist enlightened as a colossal andconceives seesthe world hisfirst to be the duty shipwreck ofhisownsoul. saving as athaintheUpanisads seems tohavethesame connotation Immortality are nasiaintheSymposium, birth anddeath 207D-208A,where physical as inseparably and themortal shown connected, just putson immortality andseesthe value oftrue knowlas hedwells inthe world insofar spiritual withthisteaching Brahmana II.ii.2,14 and Satapatha edge. Compare Bhagavad-gita II.27. of is a quiettranquillity wisemanputsbefore himself The idealevery be sums which up theidealof theyogi.So,he must soul,"a phrase aptly the"power from ofappearance" results which abovetheinfatuation (like leadsmenastray.45 To be it is this which for theHindu form), power rjzpa, is ignorance in thehighest andself-control overcome bypleasure degree,"' inthePhaedrus, ofthecharioteer themetaphor is true wisdom. So,wefind a metaphor in theKathaUpanisad and in detail resembles which verbally as the thus: "Knowtheself orAtman be translated (Valli 3), which may is the calledthebody;buddhi Lordwhositsin thechariot (intelligence) are are the and the senses the the mind horses, charioteer; reins, objects the andenjoyer. ButhewhohasnounderstandTheself isthecontroller roads. runriotlikethevicious of a his senses horses ing,butis weakin mind, are hissenses andis strong-minded, charioteer. He whohasunderstanding ofa charioteer." wellcontrolled likethegoodhorses Whole tracts ofIndian aregiven Their totheories ofknowledge. thought thinkers on perception andcognition, on what speculate endlessly happens weseea ropeandimagine it when itto be a snake, andimagine ora shell Is it something to be silver. in theshell?Is ourcognition ofiterroneous? How canone cognition Areall another infinite without destroy regress? of In what what truth? Unlike is and error qualities things imaginary? short,
" Ibid.,471D.
" Protagoras 3 58C.

"

Ibid.,357E.

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A. N. MARLow

never eventhough waita lifePilate,theHindu pandits jesting they depart, timeand are notanswered.The Theaetetus is fullof suchspeculations, cut reminiscent. ofhair-splitting, The doctrine short andpurged butunmistakably to whichall Hindu thinking is therein forinstance, of relativity, tended, exists of no commonplace kind. Nothing 152D: "I will tellyoua doctrine but call itself and of and cannot name; itself, byany you anything singly by it will seemunder otherconditions to be small; ifyou speakof it as great, of there ifheavy also light;and so witheverything else,on theground being as a thing or as a quality."Again,153E: "With either no singleexistence doesnotexistperse as something that whichyoucall white to sight, respect external to youreyes,nor is it in youreyes. Do not,therefore, assignany which on one hand, the this kind is of at all." It to it leads, thinking place of relative to thetheory of theBuddhists to the nihilism and,on theother, Hindu thought.In which Plato shareswiththe loftiest statesof reality, account he is unableto giveanyconsistent Indianphilosophers, with common is This verydeficiency in the particular. is embodied of how the universal Plato and Hinduism. between resemblances one of themoststriking of of variousstates in the relative is absorbed Hindu philosophy reality to Firstcomes dreamless consciousness. sleep which approachesnearest refuse buttheUpanisads thewaking and then thensleepitself, state, nirvana, forwho evento waking morethana relative consciousness, to ascribe reality thesamerelation which bears intosomething whenitmaybe sublated knows ofvnjya(illusion). doctrine to itas itdoesto dreams?Hence,their important and saythatifwe are thisin theTheaetetus:47 We find "Nay,I go further, halfawake,in each of theseperiods halfof our livesasleep,and the other to us, themselves thatwhatever our mindsare convinced present opinions alike." of both on thetruth theseare reallyand certainly true;so we insist oflanguage oftheorigin thetheory similariIn theCratylus many presents is thatthe Plato'stheory of logic. Briefly, tiesto thatof theNyiya system of whichit is letters of a wordgoes back to theindividual trueetymology we musttakea word"syllable by nayletter bysyllable, composed"8and that and in Sesame Plato Lilies). follows who Primary letter"(this is Ruskin, of which, out of rudimentary sounds, by the actions namesare constructed for suitable are processes reproducing the organproducing them, naturally and states. thisprocess,"' but, as Plato exrationalizes Dionysiusof Halicarnassus of a word themeaning reduce The Hinduslikewise poundsit,it is strange.
, 424 C-E. 158D. W. R Roberts, ed. (London: Macmillan,1910), Chap. 14. "De Compositionw Verborum, "

HINDUISM AND BUDDHISM IN GREEK PHILOSOPHY

45

to thesignificance and perish one after whichare pronounced of its letters, theother: c, o, w. They have a termcalled sphota, whichis roughly the essential soundof a wordas revealed in the soundof its letters pronounced one afterthe other. AlthoughPlato has no word for this,he certainly the idea. employs eachsmallin itself, Thesecoincidences ofthought and language, amount to quitea formidable total. As to theproblem of thewaybywhichIndian influence to offer reached and fallbackwith GreeceI have no new solution others on Persiaas theintermediary. Of course, after thetimeofAlexander thatparallels thewaylayso opento Oriental influence become more frequent and less remarkable.50

' I havedrawn fromthoseUpanisadswhichHindu scholars my examples largely agreein considering the earliest and whichmusthave beenin existence the fifth before as theyare quotedin writcentury, of that date or earlier. ings demonstrably