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Catherine Zhu
Table of Contents
Key: ..........................................................................................................................................................2
Topic 2: Mechanics..................................................................................................................................3
2.1. Kinematics......................................................................................................................................3
2.2. Forces and dynamics......................................................................................................................3
2.3. Work, energy, and power................................................................................................................5
2.4. Uniform circular motion.................................................................................................................6
Topic 3: Thermal Physics........................................................................................................................8
3.1. Thermal Concepts...........................................................................................................................8
3.2. Thermal Properties of Matter.........................................................................................................8
Specific Heat Capacities, Phase Changes, and Latent Heat..............................................................8
Kinetic Model of an Ideal Gas..........................................................................................................9
Topic 4: Oscillations and Waves...........................................................................................................11
4.1. Kinematics of simple harmonic motion.......................................................................................11
4.2. Energy changes during simple harmonic motion.........................................................................11
4.3. Forced oscillations and resonance................................................................................................12
4.4. Wave characteristics.....................................................................................................................12
4.5. Wave properties............................................................................................................................14
Topic 5: Electric Currents....................................................................................................................16
5.1. Electric potential difference, current and resistance....................................................................16
Electric potential difference............................................................................................................16
Electric current and resistance.........................................................................................................16
5.2. Electric Circuits............................................................................................................................18
Topic 6: Forces and Fields....................................................................................................................18
6.1. Gravitational Force and Field.......................................................................................................18
6.2. Electric Force and Field...............................................................................................................19
6.3. Magnetic Force and Field.............................................................................................................20
Topic 7: Atomic and Nuclear Physics..................................................................................................22
7.1. The Atom......................................................................................................................................22
Atomic Structure.............................................................................................................................22
Nuclear Structure.............................................................................................................................22
7.2. Radioactive Decay........................................................................................................................23
Radioactivity...................................................................................................................................23
Half-life...........................................................................................................................................24
7.3. Nuclear Reactions, Fission and Fusion........................................................................................24
Nuclear Reactions...........................................................................................................................24
Fission and Fusion...........................................................................................................................26
Topic 8. Energy, Power, and Climate Change.....................................................................................27
8.1. Energy Degradation and Power Generation ................................................................................27
8.2. World Energy Sources..................................................................................................................27
8.3. Fossil Fuel Power Production......................................................................................................28
8.4. Non-Fossil Fuel Power Production..............................................................................................28
Nuclear Power.................................................................................................................................28
Solar Power.....................................................................................................................................29
Hydroelectric Power........................................................................................................................29
Wind Power.....................................................................................................................................30
Wave Power.....................................................................................................................................30
8.5. The Greenhouse Effect.................................................................................................................31
Solar Radiation................................................................................................................................31
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IB Physics 2009: Syllabus Summary
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Key:
Not yet done
Don’t know how to do
To be refined
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Topic 2: Mechanics
2.1. Kinematics
2.1.1. Define displacement, velocity, speed, and acceleration.
• Displacement (a vector quantity) is a measured distance in a given direction in ( ).
• Speed (a scalar quantity) is the rate at which a moving object covers distance in ( ).
• Velocity (a vector quantity) is speed in a given direction (in ).
• Acceleration (a vector quantity) is the rate of change of velocity in a given direction (in ).
2.1.2. Explain the difference between instantaneous and average values of speed, velocity and
acceleration.
• Average velocity: the change in displacement divided by the change in time. The slope of
the secant line of a displacement-time graph over a given interval.
• Instantaneous velocity: the … as the change in time becomes infinitely small. The
derivative of the displacement-time graph function at a given point.
• Speed and acceleration work in similar ways.
2.1.3. Outline the conditions under which the equations for uniformly accelerated motion may be
applied.
• Objects must be uniformly accelerated.
• Objects must be in linear motion (traveling in a straight line).
2.1.4. Identify the acceleration of a body falling in a vacuum near the Earth’s surface with the
acceleration g of free fall.
• Constant acceleration at .
2.1.5. Solve problems involving the equations of uniformly accelerated motion.
• v = u + at (definition of acceleration)
1 2
• s = ut + at
2
• v 2 = u 2 + 2as
2.1.6. Describe the effects of air resistance on falling objects.
• Air resistance provides a drag force to objects in free fall.
• The drag force is directly proportional to the speed of the object.
• When the drag force reaches the magnitude of the force providing the acceleration, the falling
object will stop accelerating and fall at a constant velocity. This is called the terminal velocity.
2.1.7. Draw and analyze distance-time graphs, displacement-time graphs, velocity-time graphs and
acceleration-time graphs.
• Use calculus as Cathy is too lazy to write otherwise.
2.1.8. Calculate and interpret the gradients of displacement-time graphs and velocity-time graphs, and
the areas under velocity-time graphs and acceleration-time graphs.
Displacement-Time Velocity-Time Acceleration-Time
Gradient Velocity Acceleration Jerk
Area Nothing Displacement Velocity
2.1.9. Determine relative velocity in one and in two dimensions.
• Relative velocity is determined by different frames of reference.
• Suppose a body with mass and initial momentum is acted on by a force for a time interval
. The impulse Ft = m ×a ×t = m(v'- v ) /t ×t = mv'- mv = p'- p .
• The impulse of a net force acting on a body equals the change of its momentum.
2.2.11. Determine the impulse due to a time-varying force by interpreting a force-time graph.
• The impulse of a time-varying force is represented by the net area under the function (the integral)
of the force-time graph.
2.2.12. State the law of conservation of linear momentum.
• Let two bodies m1 and m 2 separately with the velocities v1 and v 2 collide. Their total initial
momentum can be represented by pT = m1v1 + m 2v 2 . According to Newton’s second law, the force
exerted on each body is equal and opposite to the force exerted on the other F1 = - F2 . Thus…
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F1t = - F2 t
m1 ×(v1 '- v1 ) /t ×t = - m2 ×(v 2 '- v 2 ) / t ×t
•
p1 '- p1 = p2 - p2 '
p1 + p2 = p1 '+ p2 '
• The total initial momentum is equal to the total final momentum.
• The total momentum of a system remains constant when there are no external forces (or when
the net external force is equivalent to zero) acting on the system.
• 动量守恒定律:一个系统不受外力或者所受外力之和为零,这个系统的总动量保持不变。
2.2.13. Solve problems involving momentum and impulse. *
2.2.14. State Newton’s third law of motion.
• When a force acts on a particle, an equal and opposite force acts on another particle somewhere in
the universe.
• When two bodies A and B interact, the force that A exerts on B is equal and opposite to the force
that B exerts on A.
2.2.15. Discuss examples of Newton’s third law.
• Two ice skaters push off of each other. They both slide backwards.
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mv 2 v2
• F= = mg = g v = gR
R R
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3.2.4. Describe and explain the processes of phase changes in terms of molecular behavior.
• While melting, vibrational kinetic energy increases and particles gain enough thermal energy to
break from fixed positions. Potential energy of system increases.
• While freezing, particles lose potential energy until thermal energy of the system is unable to
support distance between particles and is overcome by the attraction force between them. Kinetic
energy changes form from vibrational, rotational and part translational to merely vibrational.
Potential energy decreases.
• While evaporating, certain particles in the liquid gain enough potential energy to escape the
intermolecular bonds as a gas. The escape of the higher-energy particles will lower the average
kinetic energy and thus lower the temperature.
• While boiling, substance gains enough potential energy to break free from inter-particle forces.
Similar to evaporation, the only difference being that energy is supplied from external source so
there is no decrease in temperature.
• While condensing, the energy changes are opposite to that of boiling.
3.2.5. Explain in terms of molecular behavior why temperature does not change during a phase change.
• During a phase change, the thermal energy gained or lost will go towards increasing or
decreasing the potential energy of the particles to either overcome or succumb to the inter-
molecular force that pulls particles together. In the process, the average kinetic energy will not
change.
3.2.6. Distinguish between evaporation and boiling.
• Evaporation is a change from the liquid state to the gaseous state that occurs at a temperature
below the boiling point. See 3.2.4.
3.2.7. Define Specific Latent Heat.
• Latent heat is the thermal energy that a substance gains or loses during a phase change at
constant temperature.
• Specific latent heat is the heat required for a unit mass of a substance to undergo a phase change.
3.2.8. Solve problems involving specific latent heat.
•
• Air / gas pressure is the force gas molecules exert due to their collisions (with an object).
3.2.10. State the assumptions of the kinetic model of an ideal gas.
• Gases consist of tiny particles called atoms or molecules.
• The total number of molecules in any sample of a gas is extremely large.
• The molecules are in constant random motion.
• The range of the intermolecular forces is small compared to the average separation of the
molecules.
• The size of the particles is relatively small compared with the distance between them.
• Collisions of short duration occur between molecules and the walls of the container and the
collisions are perfectly elastic (no loss of kinetic energy).
• No forces act between particles except when they collide, and hence particles move in straight
lines.
• Between collisions the molecules obey Newton’s Laws of motion.
3.2.11. State that the temperature is a measure of the average random kinetic energy of the molecules
of an ideal gas.
• Temperature is a measure of the average random kinetic energy of the molecules of an ideal gas.
3.2.12. Explain the macroscopic behavior of an ideal gas in terms of a molecular model.
• Increase in temperature is equivalent of an increase in average kinetic energy (i.e. a greater
average speed of particle movement). This leads to more collisions and collisions with greater
impulse. Thus resulting in higher pressure.
• Decrease in volume results in a smaller space for gas particles to move, and thus a greater
frequency of collisions. This results in an increase in pressure. Also, depending on the speed at
which the volume decreases, particles colliding with the moving container wall may bounce back
at greater speeds. This would lead to an increase in average kinetic energy and thus an increase in
temperature. An increase in volume would have an opposite effect.
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2 2
1 2 1 1 2 2 k
• E K = mv = mw A sin (wt + d) = kA sin (wt + d ) as ω = .
2 2 2 2
2 2 2 m
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1 1
• E T = kA 2 [sin 2 (wt + d ) + cos 2 (wt + d )] = kA 2
2 2
1
4.2.2. Apply the expressions E x = mw ( A - x ) for the kinetic energy of a particle undergoing
2 2 2
2
1 2
SHM, E T = mw x 0 for the total energy and
2
for the potential energy.
2
1 2 1 2 1 2
• E T = kA = mv + kx
2 2 2
k 2
• v =± (A - x ) = ± w(A - x )
2 2 2
m
1 2 1
• E K = mv = mw ( A - x )
2 2
2 2
1 2 1
• E P = kx = mw x
2 2
2 2
4.2.3. Solve problems, both graphically and by calculation, involving energy changes during SHM.
medium itself, or a method of transferring energy through a medium by means of a distortion that
travels away from the place where the distortion of the medium is produced.
• A pulse is a single vibratory disturbance that travels away from its source through the medium.
• A continuous progressive wave is a continued and repeated wave pulse.
4.4.2. State that progressive (traveling) waves transfer energy. Note that there is no net motion of the
medium through which the wave travels.
• Progressive waves transfer energy through a distortion that travels away from the source of
distortion. There is no net transfer of medium.
4.4.3. Describe and give examples of transverse and longitudinal waves.
• Transverse waves are waves in which the vibrations of the medium are at right angles to the
direction in which the wave is traveling, e.g. light waves.
• Longitudinal waves are waves in which the particles of the medium vibrate back and forth along
the path that the wave travels, e.g. sound waves.
4.4.4. Describe waves in two dimensions, including the concepts of wavefronts and of rays. (Huygens-
Fresnel Principle)
• A wavefront is the locus of points having the same phase.
• Huygen-Fresnel Principle: Each point of an advancing wave front is in fact the center of a fresh
disturbance and the source of a new train of waves; the advancing wave as a whole may be
regarded as the sum of all the secondary waves arising from points in the medium already
traversed.
• A ray is an arrow drawn on a diagram to show the direction of propagation of a set of waves. It is
always at right angles to the wavefront.
• Collimated light is light whose rays are parallel and thus has a planar wavefront—light that does
not disperse over an infinite distance.
4.4.5. Describe the terms crest, trough, compression and rarefaction.
• Crest: the maximum height of a transverse wave.
• Trough: the lowest point of a transverse wave.
• Compression: a region of higher pressure in the medium of a longitudinal wave.
• Rarefaction: a region of reduced pressure in the medium of a longitudinal wave.
4.4.6. Define the terms displacement, amplitude, frequency, period, wavelength, wave speed and
intensity. *
• Displacement: the amount by which a particle is moved from equilibrium position.
• Amplitude: the maximum displacement of a particle from its equilibrium position.
• Period: the time that it takes a particle to make one complete oscillation, or the time that it takes
for the wave to travel a complete wavelength.
• Wavelength: the distance along the medium between two successive particles with the same
displacement.
• Wave speed: the speed with which energy is carried in the medium by the wave—only dependent
on the nature and properties of the medium.
• Intensity: ??
4.4.7. Draw and explain displacement-time graphs and displacement-position graphs for transverse and
for longitudinal waves.
4.4.8. Derive and apply the relationship between wave speed, wavelength and frequency.
•
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4.4.9. State that all electromagnetic waves travel with the same speed in free space and recall the
orders of magnitude of the wavelengths of the principal radiations in the electromagnetic spectrum. *
• Waves that travel through a material medium are called mechanical waves.
• Waves that carry various forms of light are electromagnetic waves and travel through space at the
speed of light.
•
• The indices of refraction n, represent the factor by which light is slowed down within a refractive
medium compared to its velocity in a vacuum.
4.5.3. Explain and discuss qualitatively the diffraction of waves at apertures and obstacles.
• Diffraction refers to the phenomena observed when waves are obstructed by obstacles or pass
through apertures. The magnitude of these effects depends on the wavelength of the waves.
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4.5.5. State the principle of superposition and explain what is meant by constructive and by destructive
interference.
• The effect of two separate causes is equal to the sum of the separate causes.
• Constructive interference occurs when two pulses displaced in the direction overlap. The resultant
displacement is the sum of both displacements.
• Destructive interference occurs when two pulses displaced in opposite directions overlap. The
resultant displacement is the difference of both displacements.
4.5.6. State and apply the conditions for constructive and for destructive interference in terms of path
difference and phase difference.
• Two waves arriving at a point in phase (points reach maximum at the same time) with each other
will result in constructive interference.
• Two waves arriving at a point in anti-phase with each other will result in destructive interference.
4.5.7. Apply the principle of superposition to determine the resultant of two waves. *
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Electric-Field Strength
The electric field strength is at a point is the force felt by one (positive) unit test charge. It is equal to
the force per positive unit charge at that point.
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Gravitational Field Strength (at a point): the force exerted per unit mass on a particle of small mass
placed at that point.
3) Gravitational Potential
Assumption: the gravitational potential energy is zero when the distance between two masses is
infinity.
Gravitational Potential Energy: the work done to move a small mass from the surface of a body to
infinity.
¥
æ GMm ö ¥
1 é 1ù¥ é æ 1 öù GMm
W = òçè r 2 ÷ø
- dr = - GMm òr 2 d = - GMmêë- r úû = - GMmê0 - ç- ÷ú = - (unit: J)
R R R ë è R øû R
3) Coulomb’s Law
The force between two charges is directly proportional to the product of the two charges and inversely
proportional to the square of the distance between them.
, where is the coulomb’s constant. is the permittivity
constant of space.
4) Electric-Field Strength
The electric field strength is at a point is the force felt by one (positive) unit test charge. It is equal to
the force per positive unit charge at that point.
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Where work is the force required to move the charge (equal and opposite to the
force from the electronic field).
6) Electrostatic Potential
The electric potential at a point in an electric field is defined as being numerically equal to the work
done in bringing a unit positive charge from infinity to the point.
*Scalar quantity; unit: volt.
kQ é 1ù é æ 1 öù kQ
¥ ¥ ¥
V= ò r2 dr = kQ ò r -2
dr = kQêë r úû = kQê0 - çè- r ÷
- ú=
r r r ë øû r
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6.3.3. Determine the direction of the force on a current-carrying conductor in a magnetic field.
r r
Vector Cross Product: F = I ×( B ´ L )
6.3.4. Determine the direction of the force on a charge moving in a magnetic field.
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Nuclear Structure
7.1.5. Explain the terms nuclide, isotope, and nucleon.
• Nuclide: a species of atom characterized by the constitution of its nucleus and hence by the
number of protons, the number of neutrons, and the energy content.
• Nucleon: a proton or neutron.
• Isotopes: different forms of the same element that contains the same amount of protons but
different amount of neutrons.
7.1.6. Define nucleon number A, proton number Z and neutron number N.
• Nuclide: a nuclear isotope, , where X is the chemical symbol of the element, A is the mass
number of the isotope, and Z is the atomic number of the element.
• Nucleon: mass number of a nuclear isotope, is the total number of nucleons (protons and
neutrons) found in the nucleus.
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7.2.5. Explain why some nuclei are stable while others are unstable.
• Some nuclei have a larger neutron-proton ratio and thus a relatively larger strong nuclear
force as opposed to its repelling electromagnetic force. Those nuclei are more stable.
Half-life
7.2.6. State that radioactive decay is a random and spontaneous process and that the rate of decay
decreases exponentially with time.
7.2.7. Define the term radioactive half-life.
• The interval of time required for one-half of the atomic nuclei of a radioactive sample to decay.
7.2.8. Determine the half-life of a nuclide from a decay curve.
7.2.9. Solve radioactive decay problems involving integral numbers of half-lives. A = A0 ×ç 1 ÷ half - life
æ öt
è2 ø
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Calculate the mass defect; multiply by the squared speed of light or by 931.5 MeV to convert to energy.
7.3.5. Define the concepts of mass defect, binding energy and binding energy per nucleon.
• Binding energy: the work required to completely separate the nucleons of a nucleus.
• Mass defect: the difference between the total mass of all nucleons in the atom and the mass of
the atom itself. Equivalent to and lost due to binding energy.
• Binding energy per nucleon: the work required to remove one nucleon from the nucleus;
roughly the binding energy divided by number of nucleons in nucleus.
7.3.6. Draw and annotate a graph showing the variation with nucleon number of the binding energy per
nucleon.
ii) The binding energy required to assemble two atoms of H is larger than that required to assemble
one atom of He. Therefore when two atoms of H combine to form one atom of He, energy must be
released.
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7.3.10. State that nuclear fusion is the main source of the Sun’s energy.
• Nuclear fusion is the main source of the Sun’s energy.
7.3.11. Solve problems involving fission and fusion reactions.
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8.2.5. State the relative proportions of world use of the different energy sources that are available.
• Oil: 38%; Coal: 26%; Gas: 23%; Hydroelectric: 6%; Nuclear: 6%; Renewables: 1%.
• Renewable energy: Solar: 44%; Wind: 27%; Geothermal: 17%; Biofuels: 12%.
8.2.6. Discuss the relative advantages and disadvantages of various energy sources.
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Solar Power
8.4.12. Distinguish between a photovoltaic cell and a solar heating panel in terms of energy transfers
and utility.
• Solar panel is used for central heating or for making
hot water for household use, placed on roofs of
houses, consisting of metal absorber, water pipes, and
glass. Energy is merely converted from solar power,
electromagnetic waves of light, to heat.
• A photovoltaic cell converts solar radiation into
electrical energy.
8.4.13. Outline reasons for seasonal and regional variation
sin the solar power.
• The power per unit area received at a distance r from
P
the sun is called the intensity I: I = .
4pr 2
• On Earth, this amounts to roughly 1400 W/m2, the
solar constant, the power received by one square
meter placed normally to the path of the incoming
rays at a distance of 1.50 ´ 1011 m from the sun.
• Due to the time of the day, this may vary ±1.5%
daily; due to Earth’s elliptical orbit, this may vary an additional ±4.0% seasonally.
8.4.14. Solve problems involving specific applications of photovoltaic cells and solar heating panels.
Hydroelectric Power
8.4.15. Distinguish between different hydroelectric schemes.
• Pumped storage schemes: when energy from nearby coal plants are used to pump water up a
reservoir by night.
• Run-of-the-river power stations: stations that use water diverted from a fast-flowing river without
damming the river.
• Harnessing tidal power:
8.4.16. Describe the main energy transformations that take place in hydroelectric schemes.
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Wind Power
1. Basic wind: Sun heats the air, which rises.
Cool air moves into low-pressure area.
Movement is wind.
2. Coastal wind: water has
larger specific heat
capacity than land and
therefore does not rise
in temperature as much as land. Hot air from land rises, cool air from sea moves
in.
3. Katabatic wind: high pressure from cold air presses down at the top of a
mountain, resulting in airflow downhill.
8.4.19. Determine the power that may be delivered by a wind generator, assuming that the wind kinetic
energy is completely converted into mechanical kinetic energy, and explain why this is impossible.
• Consider the above tube of air with density ρ , velocity v , cross-sectional area A . The kinetic
1 2 1 1
energy of this air tube is given by: E k = mv = ( r AvDt ) ×v = r ADtv .
2 3
2 2 2
Ek 1
• Kinetic energy per unit time gives power: P = = r Av . 3
Dt 2
• The underlying assumption of this calculation is that the wind is stopped by the wind turbine,
which is not the case.
8.4.20. Solve problems involving wind power.
Wave Power
8.4.21. Describe the principle of operation of an oscillating water column (OWC) ocean-wave energy
converter.
• The waves make the water alternately rise and fall, causing the air within the column to move out
and in, turning the turbine.
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8.4.22. Determine the power per unit length of a wavefront, assuming a rectangular profile for the
wave.
P pvgA 2
=
L 2
8.4.23. Solve problems involving wave power.
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9.1.2. Describe (prove) and sketch the trajectory of projectile motion as parabolic in the absence of air
resistance.
9.1.3. Describe qualitatively the effect of air resistance on the trajectory of a projectile.
• The path is no longer parabolic
• The maximum height and range decreases
• The angle at which the projectile impacts the ground steepens.
9.1.4. Solve problems on projectile motion.
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9.2.6. State the relation between equipotential surfaces and gravitational field lines.
• Consider two equipotential surfaces distance ∆r apart, with gravitational potential difference ∆V .
• The work done moving a point mass from one surface to another is given by W = mDV .
• It can also be given by force times distance: W = Fd = mgDr
DV
• mDV = mgDr Þ g =
Dr
• The gravitational field strength is therefore given by the rate of change of gravitational potential
difference with respect to distance.
• Equipotential surfaces and gravitational field lines are at right angles to each other. WHY???
9.2.7. Explain the concept of escape speed from a planet.
1 2 GMm
• Total energy of mass m moving near large stationary mass M: E = mv - ; v is the speed of
2 r
m when at distance r from M.
o If E > 0: mass escapes and never returns.
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DEp DW
o ∆V = = Where work is the force required to move the charge (equal and opposite
q q
to the force from the electronic field).
9.3.3. State and apply the formula relating electric field strength to
electric potential gradient.
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dV DV
E =- =
dr Dr
9.3.4. Determine the potential due to one or more point charges.
The electric potential (voltage) at any point in space produced by any number of point charges can be
calculated from the point charge expression by simple addition since voltage is a scalar quantity. The
potential from a continuous charge distribution can be obtained by summing the contributions from
each point in the source charge.
9.3.5. Describe and sketch the pattern of equipotential surfaces due to one and two point charges.
• Equipotential surfaces are always perpendicular to electric field lines.
• No work is required to move a charge along an equipotential.
• Equipotential surfaces connect points of the same potential.
9.3.6. State the relation between equipotential surfaces and electric field lines.
• Equipotential surfaces are always perpendicular to electric
field lines.
• Here, in a constant field (parallel conducting plates like a
capacitators), the field lines (dashed) are perpendicular to the
plates.
• The equipotential surfaces are parallel to the plates.
orbit radius.
9.4.3. Derive expressions for the kinetic energy, potential energy and total energy of an orbiting
satellite.
9.4.4. Sketch graphs showing the variation with orbital radius of the kinetic energy, gravitational
potential energy and total energy of a satellite.
9.4.5. Discuss the concept of “weightlessness” in orbital motion, in free fall and in deep space.
• In orbit, the net force on an astronaut is given by the difference between his weight and the
reaction force from the floor. This is also the centripetal force acting on him.
Mm v2 Mm v 2 m æGM ö
• Therefore: G 2 - N = m Þ N = G 2 - m = ç - v 2 ÷.
r r r r rè r ø
GM
• However, orbital velocity is given by: v =
2
.
r
• Thus, the reaction force N = 0. The astronaut feels weightless because he experiences no reaction
force from the floor.
• In free fall, the astronaut is falling at the same speed as the spacecraft. There is therefore no
reaction force from the floor and the astronaut feels weightless.
9.4.6. Solve problems involving orbital motion.
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10.2. Processes
The first law of thermodynamics
10.2.1. Deduce an expression for the work involved in a volume change of a gas at constant pressure.
• ∆W = F ×Ds = PA ×Ds (s represents the distance shrunk, P the pressure, A the area)
10.2.2. State the first law of thermodynamics.
• The change in the internal energy of a closed thermodynamic system is equal to the sum of the
amount of heat energy supplied to the system and the work done on the system.
• ∆U = Q - W
• Note that for an ideal gas, it assumed that there are no intermolecular forces. Thus the internal
energy of the gas (defined as the total kinetic energy of the molecules of the gas plus the potential
energy associated with the intermolecular forces) is reduced to the total kinetic energy of the
3
molecules. This is given by: U = E k = nRT .
2
10.2.3. Identify the first law of thermodynamics as a statement of the principle of energy conservation.
• Energy can be transformed (changed from one form to another), but it can neither be created nor
destroyed.
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IB Physics 2009: Syllabus Summary
Catherine Zhu
• The increase in the internal energy of a system is equal to the amount of energy added by heating
the system, minus the amount lost as a result of the work done by the system on its surroundings.
10.2.4. Describe the isochoric (isovolumetric), isobaric, isothermal and adiabatic changes of a state of
an ideal gas.
• Isochoric: constant volume. • Isothermal: constant temperature.
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IB Physics 2009: Syllabus Summary
Catherine Zhu
QuickTimeª and a
decompressor
are needed to see this picture.
QuickTimeª and a
decompressor
are needed to see this picture.
10.2.6. Calculate from a P-V diagram the work done in a thermodynamic cycle.
• Work done equals the net area within the quadrilateral (the cycle).
warmer body without any work having been done to accomplish this flow. This precludes a perfect
refrigerator.
iii. Entropy Statement: In any cyclic process the entropy will either increase or remain the same.
10.3.2. State that entropy is a system property that expresses the degree of disorder in the system.
dQ DQ
• A change in entropy is defined as dS = , which can be integrated to give entropy as ∆S = .
T T
• The change in entropy can be described as the heat added per unit temperature and has the units
of Joules/Kelvin JK - 1 .
10.3.3. State the second law of thermodynamics in terms of entropy changes.
• The entropy of the universe can never decrease.
• Whenever thermal energy flows from a hot object to a colder object, overall the total entropy has
increased.
10.3.4. Discuss examples of natural processes in terms of entropy changes.
• A refrigerator taking thermal energy from the ice box and ejecting it into the surroundings.
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IB Physics 2009: Syllabus Summary
Catherine Zhu
11.2.6. Outline an example in which the Doppler effect is used to measure speed.
• Blood-flow measurements
• Measurement of vehicle speeds
11.3. Diffraction
11.3.1. Sketch the variation with the angle of diffraction of the relative intensity of light diffracted at a
single slit.
11.4. Resolution
11.4.1. Sketch the variation with the angle of diffraction of the relative intensity of light emitted by two
point sources that has been diffracted at a single slit.
11.4.2. State the Rayleigh criterion for images of two sources to be just resolved.
• The Rayleigh criterion states that two sources are just resolved if the central maximum of the
diffraction pattern of one source falls on the first minimum of the other.
11.4.3. Describe the significance of resolution in the development of devices such as CD’s and DVD’s,
the electron microscope and radio telescopes.
11.5. Polarization
11.5.1. Describe what is meant by polarized light.
• Polarized light is light whose waves only oscillate along one plane.
11.5.2. Describe polarization by reflection.
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IB Physics 2009: Syllabus Summary
Catherine Zhu
n1
11.5.3. State and apply Brewster’s law: tanq B = .
n2
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IB Physics 2009: Syllabus Summary
Catherine Zhu
to the stress. Therefore examination of the polarization pattern occurring through this material will
give information as to its level / state of stress.
11.5.9. Outline qualitatively the action of liquid-crystal displays (LCD).
• To create an LCD, you take two pieces of polarized glass. A special polymer that creates
microscopic grooves in the surface is rubbed on the side of the glass that does not have the
polarizing film on it. The grooves must be in the same direction as the polarizing film. The grooves
will cause the first layer of molecules to align with the filter's orientation. Then add the second
piece of glass with the polarizing film at a right angle to the first piece. Each successive layer of
TN molecules will gradually twist until the uppermost layer is at a 90-degree angle to the bottom,
matching the polarized glass filters.
• As light strikes the first filter, it is polarized. The molecules in each layer then guide the light they
receive to the next layer. As the light passes through the liquid crystal layers, the molecules also
change the light's plane of vibration to match their own angle. When the light reaches the far side
of the liquid crystal substance, it vibrates at the same angle as the final layer of molecules. If the
final layer is matched up with the second polarized glass filter, then the light will pass through.
• If we apply an electric charge to liquid crystal molecules, they untwist. When they straighten out,
they change the angle of the light passing through them so that it no longer matches the angle of
the top polarizing filter. Consequently, no light can pass through that area of the LCD, which
makes that area darker than the surrounding areas.
QuickTimeª and a
decompressor
are needed to see this picture.
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IB Physics 2009: Syllabus Summary
Catherine Zhu
12.1.1. Describe the inducing of an e.m.f by relative motion between a conductor and a magnetic field.
12.2.1. Describe the emf induce in a coil rotating within a uniform magnetic field.
12.2.3. Describe the effect on the induced emf of changing the generator frequency.
12.2.4. Discuss what is meant by the root mean squared (rms) vale of an alternating current or voltage.
12.2.5. State the relation between peak and rms values for sinusoidal currents and voltages.
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IB Physics 2009: Syllabus Summary
Catherine Zhu
12.3.1. Outline the reasons for power losses in transmission lines and real transformers.
12.3.2. Explain the use of high-voltage step-up and step-down transformers in the transmission of
electrical power.
12.3.3. Solve problems on the operation of real transformers and power transmission.
12.3.4. Suggest how extra-low-frequency electromagnetic fields, such as those created by electrical
appliances and power lines, induce currents within a human body.
12.3.5. Discuss some of the possible risks involved in living and working near high-voltage power
lines.
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IB Physics 2009: Syllabus Summary
Catherine Zhu
• A photon is an elementary particle of light that carries electromagnetic energy proportional to its
frequency. A photon has zero mass, zero electric charge and indefinite lifetime. It travels at the
speed of light.
13.1.3. Describe and explain an experiment to test the Einstein model (Millikan).
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IB Physics 2009: Syllabus Summary
Catherine Zhu
p2
E=
m
h
λ=
p
• Electron being confined to a box, will move as a standing wave of wavelength . Momentum of
• Thus, .
• By shooting charged particles with ever-higher kinetic energy, it is possible to decrease the
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IB Physics 2009: Syllabus Summary
Catherine Zhu
radius.
• Thus, measurement of the radius will allow for
determination of the atoms mass.
13.2.3. Describe one piece of evidence for the existence of nuclear energy levels.
Radioactive Decay
13.2.4. Describe ß+ decay, including the existence of the neutrino.
• In β+ decay, energy is used to convert a proton into a neutron, a positron and a neutrino.
•
• Beta plus decay cannot occur in isolation, because it requires energy, the mass of the neutron
being greater than the mass of the proton.
• Beta plus decay can only happen inside nuclei when the absolute value of the binding energy of the
daughter nucleus is higher than that of the mother nucleus. The difference between these energies
goes into the reaction of converting a proton into a neutron, a positron and a neutrino and into the
kinetic energy of these particles.
•
13.2.5. State the radioactive decay laws as an exponential function and define the decay constant.
• Decay constant: the probability of decay of a nucleus per unit time.
• The law of radioactive decay states that the number of nuclei that will decay per second is
proportional to the number of atoms present that have not yet decayed.
dN
• = - l N Þ N = N 0e- l t
dt
13.2.6. Derive the relationship between decay constant and half-life.
• After one half life, half of the nuclei will have decayed.
• Therefore:
• Activity: the number of decays per second;
•
13.2.7. Outline methods for measuring the half-life of an isotope.
13.2.8. Solve problems involving radioactive half-life.
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IB Physics 2009: Syllabus Summary
Catherine Zhu
t
æ1 öt1 / 2
A = A0ç ÷
è2 ø
around 5-25 micrometers). Pixels release electrons when encountering incident light in the
photoelectric effect process.
• Pixels can be thought of as small capacitators, which release electrons to constitute charge Q.
Voltage V develops across the ends of pixel: V=Q/C, where C is the pixel’s capacitance.
• The number of electrons released when light is incident on a pixel is proportional to the intensity of
light. This means that the charge and the potential difference across a pixel are also proportional
to the intensity of light on that pixel.
14.2.3. Explain how incident light causes charge to build up within a pixel.
• The photoelectric effect: incident light causes pixel to release electrons, carrying charge. Voltage
difference is created between the two ends of a pixel.
14.2.4. Outline how the image on a CCD is digitized.
Glossary
Fidelity: similarity between the original signal and the reproduced signal.
Perfect reproduction: the recording sounds the same no matter how many times you play it.
ADC: analog-to-digital converter.
DAC: digital-to-analog converter.
Sampling rate: controls how many samples are taken per second.
Sampling precision: controls how many different gradations are possible when taking the sample.
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