SOCRATES Credited as one of the founders of Western philosophy, he is an enigmatic figure known chiefly through the accounts of later

classical writers, especially the writings of his students Plato and Xenophon, and the plays of his contemporary Aristophanes. Perhaps his most important contribution to Western thought is his dialectic method of inquiry, known as the Socratic method or method of "elenchus", which he largely applied to the examination of key moral concepts such as the Good and Justice. It was first described by Plato in the Socratic Dialogues. To solve a problem, it would be broken down into a series of questions, the answers to which gradually distill the answer a person would seek. The influence of this approach is most strongly felt today in the use of the scientific method, in which hypothesis is the first stage. The development and practice of this method is one of Socrates' most enduring contributions, and is a key factor in earning his mantle as the father of political philosophy, ethics or moral philosophy, and as a figurehead of all the central themes in philosophy. Socrates believed the best way for people to live was to focus on self-development rather than the pursuit of material wealth. He always invited others to try to concentrate more on friendships and a sense of true community, for Socrates felt this was the best way for people to grow together as a populace. His actions lived up to this: in the end, Socrates accepted his death sentence when most thought he would simply leave Athens, as he felt he could not run away from or go against the will of his community; his reputation for valor on the battlefield was without reproach. It is often argued that Socrates believed "ideals belong in a world only the wise man can understand", making the philosopher the only type of person suitable to govern others. Socrates' death is considered iconic and his status as a martyr of philosophy overshadowed most contemporary and posthumous criticism at the time. However, Xenophon attempts to explain that Socrates purposely welcomed the hemlock due to his old age using the arguably self-destructive testimony to the jury as evidence. Direct criticism of Socrates almost disappears at this point, but there is a noticeable preference for Plato or Aristotle over the elements of Socratic philosophy distinct from those of his students, even into the middle Ages.

JEAN JACQUESS ROUSSEAU He was interested in the "natural man" what he called the "Noble Savage" Man is born free; and everywhere he is in chains. He believed that man was good when in the state of nature but is corrupted by society. Sees freedom and liberty not as doing whatever you want, but the opportunity to do the right thing. He believed that each person ought to act in his or her own self-interest all human motivation is ultimately selfish or egoistic. Rousseau claimed that the state of nature was a primitive condition without law or morality, which human beings left for the benefits and necessity of cooperation. As society developed, division of labor and private property required the human race to adopt institutions of law. In the degenerate phase of society, man is prone to be in frequent competition with his fellow men while also becoming increasingly dependent on them. This double pressure threatens both his survival and his freedom. According to Rousseau, by joining together into civil society through the social contract and abandoning their claims of natural right, individuals can both preserve themselves and remain free. This is because submission to the authority of the general will of the people as a whole guarantees individuals against being subordinated to the wills of others and also ensures that they obey themselves because they are, collectively, the authors of the law. Rousseaus philosophy of education is not concerned with particular techniques of imparting information and concepts, but rather with developing the pupils character and moral sense, so that he may learn to practice self-mastery and remain virtuous even in the unnatural and imperfect society in which he will have to live. The hypothetical boy, mile, is to be raised in the countryside, which, Rousseau believes, is a more natural and healthy environment than the city, under the guardianship of a tutor who will guide him through various learning experiences arranged by the tutor. Today we would call this the disciplinary method of "natural consequences" since, like modern psychologists, Rousseau felt that children learn right and wrong through experiencing the consequences of their acts rather than through physical punishment. The tutor will make sure that no harm results to mile through his learning experiences.

IMMANUEL KANT Two things fill my mind with ever-increasing wonder and awe, the more often and the more intensely the reflection dwells on them: the starry heavens above me and the moral law within me, is the statement carved on the gravestone of Kant in Knigsberg. Immanuel Kant was a German philosopher and is one of the most important and influential figures in Western philosophy. His system presents a landmark in the history of philosophical thought. Kants most important books are his three Critiques, Critique of Pure Reason, Critique of Practical Reason and Critique of Judgment. Kant compared himself to Copernicus and claimed his work to have brought about a Copernican revolution in Philosophy. It might be considered an exaggeration, but there is no doubt about the significant influence of Kant on subsequent philosophers. He attempted to reconcile the two opposing philosophies of rationalism and empiricism. Rationalism, by its stress on reason, had guaranteed certainty of knowledge but raised doubts about its practical contents. Empiricism, by making experience the source of knowledge, had secured the practical contents, but at the sacrifice of certainty. Kant believes knowledge to be indisputable. It would be self-contradictory to deny knowledge, because the denial is itself based on knowledge and is knowledge itself. So, Kant does not accept the position that no knowledge is possible. We do possess judgments, this is unquestionable. So, we must begin with the analysis of these judgments. Earlier philosophers had held the a priori / a posteriori distinction to be synonymous with analytic/synthetic distinction, but Kant did not agree with it. He maintained that the two distinctions were not completely coincident and one could consider four possible logical combinations. 1) Analytic a posteriori judgments do not arise because we dont need to learn from experience what is necessarily true. 2) Synthetic a posteriori judgments we derive from our experience. 3) Analytic a priori judgments are necessarily true and include logical truths.

4) Synthetic a priori judgments are the judgments which cannot be shown to be true by mere analysis of their subject-predicate relationship and use of contradiction, but are nevertheless true and independent of experience. Kants moral philosophy is a weak point, in which Kant had attempted to reconstruct what he had demolished of religion. The second Critique is also sometimes sarcastically called Transcendental Anesthetic! Kants belief in an innate, a priori moral sense created by God in us was shown wrong in the light of theory of evolution. The moral sense is not God-gifted but a product of evolution of man. It is the mode of conduct developed by attempts at group survival in the continual strife of life. Also, Kantian ethics gives no credit to a benevolent impulse. A person who is kind to his brother because he loves him is not virtuous according to Kant because he is not acting out of a sense of duty. This principle is also limited because it makes no account of the consequence of an action. KARL MARX Karl Heinrich Marx was a German philosopher, economist, sociologist, historian, journalist, and revolutionary socialist. His ideas played a significant role in the development of social science and the socialist movement. Marx's theories about society, economics and politicscollectively known as Marxismhold that all societies progress through the dialectic of class struggle: a conflict between an ownership class which controls production and a lower class which produces the labour for goods. Heavily critical of the current socioeconomic form of society, capitalism, he called it the "dictatorship of the bourgeoisie", believing it to be run by the wealthy classes purely for their own benefit, and predicted that, like previous socioeconomic systems, it would inevitably produce internal tensions which would lead to its self-destruction and replacement by a new system, socialism. He argued that under socialism society would be governed by the working class in what he called the "dictatorship of the proletariat", the "workers state" or "workers' democracy". He believed that socialism would, in its turn, eventually be replaced by a stateless, classless society called communism. Along with believing in the inevitability of socialism and communism, Marx actively fought for the former's implementation, arguing that both social theorists and underprivileged people should carry out organized revolutionary action to topple capitalism and bring about socio-economic change.

Marxists believe that the transition from capitalism to socialism is an inevitable part of the development of human society; as Lenin stated, "it is evident that Marx deduces the inevitability of the transformation of capitalist society [into a socialist society] wholly and exclusively from the economic law of motion of contemporary society." Marx is widely considered one of the most influential thinkers in history, who has had a significant influence on both world politics and intellectual thought, and in a 1999 BBC poll was voted the top "thinker of the millennium". Robert C. Tucker credits Marx with profoundly affecting ideas about history, society, economics, culture, politics, and the nature of social inquiry. The reasons for Marx's widespread influence revolve around his ethical message; a "morally empowering language of critique" against the dominant capitalist society. No other body of work was so relevant to the modern times, and at the same time, so outspoken about the need for change. In the political realm, Marx's ideas led to the establishment of governments using Marxist thought to replace capitalism with communism or socialism (or augment it with market socialism) across much of the world, whilst his intellectual thought has heavily influenced the academic study of the humanities and the arts. Marx called himself an atheist and believed religion to be a human fabrication. He was of the view that religion was invented as response to the alienation in the material life, and once man is emancipated from this alienation, religion will itself die away. Many of his views on religion have almost become proverbial. Religion is the sigh of the oppressed creature, the heart of a heartless world, and the soul of soulless conditions. It is the opium of the people. Engels said in the funeral address of Marx: His mission in life was to contribute in one way or another to the overthrow of capitalistic society And he fought with a passion, tenacity and a success which few could rival and consequently was the best-hated and most culminated man of his time his name and his work will endure through the ages.