Models of Teacher Education

Report to the American Council on Education Presidents Task Force on Teacher Education
Models of Teacher Education

by Dale P. Scannell Professor, Indiana UniversityPurdue University Indianapolis
mong the most important characteristics inuencing the level of teacher education program effectiveness are the informed and intellectual support of the institutions central administration and an explicit commitment by the president to the importance of the teacher education mission and its quality. Thus, the recommendations of the ACE Presidents Task Force on Teacher Education will have a major inuence on the quality of university-based teacher education as we enter a new millennium. This paper on models for teacher education was commissioned to provide background for presidents on the various approaches that have been taken to prepare beginning teachers and to stimulate discussion of the challenges and opportunities of different strategies that might be adopted by colleges and universities. To achieve that goal, this paper contains discussions of the structural models of teacher education that are being and have been used by institutions, as well as the scant research on their relative effectiveness. Additional topics that may help to stimulate discussion among members of the ACE Task Force are presented, such as conceptual variations among teacher education programs, factors that appear to be common among programs that are highly respected, and current trends in state licensure of teachers and program approval. Structural Models: Programs with Candidates Admitted as Undergraduates Four-Year Baccalaureate Programs. The most prevalent model for teacher education programs is the four-year program that culminates with a baccalaureate degree. Some of these programs, primarily in elementary education, allow candidates to major in education, while others
Models of Teacher Education 1 American Council on Education
predominantly in secondary educationrequire the major to be in an arts and sciences discipline. Some elementary education programs require a major in an arts and sciences eld, or a broad-eld major that combines study in related elds, such as science and mathematics. Lower division enrollments in four-year programs characteristically emphasize general education requirements and the candidates proposed teaching eld. Admission to teacher education courses generally begins with coursework in the junior year, and some institutions have another formal admission process for student teaching that occurs in the senior year. Formal admission to student teaching is intended to identify students who would not meet graduation requirements even with successful student teaching and to provide protection for children in the student teaching sites. Health and criminal history checks may be part of this admission process. The requirement for an arts and sciences major is intended to ensure an academic rigor that some believe is absent when the candidates major is in education. Critics of this approach will observe that a traditional arts and sciences major does not ensure the most appropriate courses for the prospective teacher; for example, most majors in English will not include coursework in childrens literature, which many believe is needed by elementary and middle school language arts teachers. Critics also note the difculty in providing early and sufcient eld experiences prior to student teaching. It should be noted that some institutions that describe their model as a four-year baccalaureate program readily acknowledge that most, if not all, students have difculty meeting all requirements in the typical 120 or 128 hours. Many students in such programs will enroll in several summer sessions and/or have some semesters with enrollments of 18 or 19 hours, and take as many as 135 hours to qualify for both the degree and a recommendation for a teaching license. Five-Year Integrated Programs. The ve-year integrated teacher education program is supported by several reform-oriented organizations, but it is not common or popular among most higher education institutions. Advocates for the ve-year program assert that ve years of study is required to provide adequate general education, appropriate depth and breadth in the teaching eld(s), adequate pedagogy, and eld experiences, including student teaching. Opponents base their case on several arguments--that a majority of students cannot afford a fth year before producing income, that the ve years is untenable given the low salaries for teachers, and/or that programs cured of redundancy and based on solid research can be accommodated within the traditional four years. Various coursework arrangements can be found in ve-year programs, but in general the additional year of study is spread about equally across arts and sciences, primarily in teaching elds, and pedagogy. The programs also include more eldwork embedded in many or all of the education courses, and some include more extensive student teaching. Diagrams providing a graphic representation of the distribution of coursework in traditional four- and ve-year programs are included in Appendix A (AACTE, 1983).
American Council on Education
Structural Models: Programs with Candidates Admitted at the Graduate Level During a period of teacher shortages and concern over perceived inadequacies among the K-12 teaching force, some institutions initiated master of arts in teaching (MAT) programs as a way to attract bright college and university graduates into the eld of teaching and to provide them with a rigorous preparation for the job. In the 1950s, MATs were supported by private funds for scholarships, and during the 1960s, some institutions developed MAT programs as part of NDEA graduate fellowship programs. The original concept for the MAT was a two-year post-baccalaureate program for graduates from arts and sciences programs (Powell, 1980). Based on a 48-hour requirement, the program was about equally divided between a content eldsuch as English or historyand pedagogy. When the original funding expired and new funding for scholarships was not forthcoming, the enrollments in MAT programs soon dwindled, and in many institutions the program was dropped. In recent years, teacher education programs at the graduate level have reappeared, often targeted on career-changers and early retirees from the military or business and industry. Some institutions have initiated the fth-year program for recent graduates who did not choose education as their undergraduate majors. These programs differ from the traditional masters degree in education because they are initial licensure programs and do not build on a foundation created during the baccalaureate program. In addition, they are not programs that focus on inquiry as a way of increasing knowledge in a eld, and they are not designed to help students become better researchers or consumers of the research done by others. Most fth-year programs are in reality more than just one academic year in duration. Commonly, these programs require two summer sessions and the intervening year, in which the rst summer involves some work in arts and sciences and an introduction to teaching and schooling. The academic year includes coursework in pedagogy and the teaching eld and a heavy dose of experience in schools, culminating in student teaching. The nal summer session includes seminars in which school experiences are the center of the discussions, and some students will take additional work in their teaching eld. Most of these programs result in the award of a masters degree, sometimes called an MAT, and a recommendation for the teaching license. Alternative Structural Models Although the programs for career changers represent approaches that are alternatives to a traditional program and are designed to recognize candidates prior education and experience, they are not in the mainstream of programs that are referred to as alternative. Most writers and policy makers reserve this term for programs that are initiated outside the traditional path and that in some cases are conducted with little or no higher education involvementand then only when requested by the program sponsor. The most common sponsors for alternative programs have been state agencies, such as state boards of education, and local school districts, such as the Los Angeles Unied School District.
Teach for America (TFA) is a well-known alternative program. It was designed to attract recent graduates of liberal arts programs to teaching in disadvantaged rural and urban schools for short periods of time. The preparation for TFA participants is a summer program before employment, which varies from three to eight weeks depending on the level of funding for a given year. Several factors make the TFA program unique: Its sources of funding are mostly private foundations; the initiator is an individual, not a state agency or a school district; and its specic goal is to recruit the best and brightest into the program. Alternative teacher education programs often are created in response to a shortage of teachers from traditional programs, but more often they result from dissatisfaction with the quality of graduates of traditional programs. The approach in general is to provide a short, intense introduction to schools and schooling during the summer prior to employment, to place the candidate with an experienced teacher who serves as a mentor during the rst semester or year of a candidates employment, and to provide some in-service professional coursework during that rst year of teaching. Some alternative programs require that candidates meet all licensure standards by some established deadline. These approaches could be described as apprenticeships or on-the-job training. Alternative programs differ in terms of admission requirements. Most have some criterion that denes knowledge of the content to be taught, such as scores on a PRAXIS content area test. Most alternative programs emphasize content knowledge, with less attention paid to pedagogy, knowledge of human growth and development, learning theory, or motivation (Darling-Hammond, 1990). Other alternatives to traditional campus-based teacher education take the form of site-based or grow-your-own approaches. One example is a program conducted in Montgomery County, Maryland, in the late 1980s as a way of increasing the diversity of the teaching force. Minority paraprofessionals in the Montgomery County schools were recruited into a two-year program. Although all participants enrolled in a core of courses, various activities were planned for individuals based on their background and experience, as well as the needs identied by teams of university and county instructors. This is an example of an alternative program in which all coursework and experiences were approved by a higher education institution, but the instruction was provided on site, and personnel from both the schools and higher education institutions collaborated on the instruction and mentoring. With the increasing use of technology for distance education, additional site-based programs will likely emerge in response to teacher shortages in certain content elds or in certain geographical areas. However, most alternative approaches to teacher preparation and licensing share a weakness: inadequate attention to content-specic pedagogy, an element of widely recognized importance in the effectiveness of teachers. Another important program that should be covered is the Teacher Corps, enacted as part of the Higher Education Act of 1965. Although its initial purpose was to ensure jobs for returning Peace Corps volunteers, the program also responded to the shortage of teachers during the 1960s. The program included incentives for individuals to teach in areas with high concentrations of lowincome families. Candidates were employed in schools and completed courses to earn a baccalaure-
ate degree, if needed, and to satisfy licensure requirements. The program also provided incentive funding to higher education institutions to broaden teacher education programs, and in the 1970s, when the teacher shortage turned into a teacher surplus, the Teacher Corps focus turned to the professional development of practicing teachers (Earley and Schneider, 1996). The legacy for Teacher Corps includes the contribution it made to encourage collaboration between schools and higher education institutions, well in advance of what is now regarded to be a hallmark of good teacher education. Teacher Corps also can be credited with stimulating higher education institutions to consider the desirability of offering multiple options for students who want to become teacher candidates.
Conceptual Variations in Teacher Education Programs

Variety among teacher education programs underscores the lack of a denitive knowledge base on which to construct programs for the preparation of teachers. In the previous section of this paper we considered structural variations with differences in the amount of coursework offered and required of prospective teachers and with widely divergent sequences of learning experiences. The inevitable conclusion is that there is no known best way to prepare teachers. This fact was recognized by the American Association for Colleges of Teacher Education (AACTE) committee that developed the concept paper on national accreditation in the early 1980s, which led to the reform of the National Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education (NCATE) and to the current system. That paper identied characteristics that logically are related to the quality of programs: 1. Institutions should have a concept about what a good teacher is and should have designed a program to educate such a person. The program should be based on research and accepted practice. Candidates accepted into teacher education should possess characteristics predictive of success in the program and in teaching. Institutions should have good relationships with schools to ensure the opportunity for candidates to observe and work with teachers who are good role models. Faculty should be knowledgeable about their content area and the nature of schools, and they should be assisted in their efforts to stay current with scholarship in teaching and schooling. Teacher education should be well managed and should have adequate resources to meet its goals.
2. 3. 4.
5.
The system did not specify one concept of a good teacher or one way to prepare such a person. The system did call on institutions to engage in accepted ways to develop a conceptual framework and to design programs that were consistent with that framework (Scannell et al., 1983). Just as there are structural variations among teacher education programs, there are also conceptual variations. In a recent review of institutional reports submitted to NCATE, Wisniewski (1999) identied the following themes for initial teacher education programs:
Creative planner, effective practitioner, and critical thinker. Reective practice, facilitator of change, scholarly inquiry. Teacher as organizer of the learning environment. Teachers as learners and leaders. Teacher as decision maker. Professional educators as reective practitioners.
Wisniewski notes that the pervasive themes include reective practice, decision making, and inquiry. Although institutions differ in the conceptual framework, or theme, for their programs, there is remarkable similarity among the courses and experiences found in different programs, and the literature cited in support of conceptual frameworks overlaps dramatically. However, institutions have reported that the existence of a theme for the teacher education program is helpful in communicating to students what the program is designed to achieve and to communicate similarly with school-based colleagues about the experiences in schools that would contribute to and support the professional growth of candidates.
Research on the Effectiveness of Teacher Education Programs

Research delving into the relative effectiveness of various four-year models of teacher education is extremely thin, but ve-year programs have been contrasted with four-year programs, and the effects of alternative programs have been compared to more traditional approaches. However, questions about which types of programs produce teachers who are best at causing their students to learn have hardly been addressed, let alone answered. This situation will undoubtedly change as institutions and state agencies respond to recent federal mandates requiring annual reporting on candidate success on teacher exams and measures of achievement for students taught by recent graduates. As noted above, there is a substantial body of literature on the effects of ve-year teacher education programs. The ndings of these studies support the following comparisons of ve-year with four-year programs:
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.
The candidates attracted to ve-year programs are better qualied, as measured by traditional factors. A higher percent of graduates of ve-year programs actually enter teaching. A higher percent of graduates from ve-year programs persist as teachers; conversely, the dropout rate from teaching is lower for ve-year program graduates. Graduates from ve-year programs are more committed to the welfare of children and to the profession of teaching. Similarly, graduates of ve-year programs are more satised with teaching as a career. Graduates from ve-year programs are more highly recruited. There is emerging evidence that students of teachers who graduated from ve-year programs achieve more in their studies. In one study, interns in ve-year programs had as positive an effect on learning as did highly experienced, well-regarded teachers (Andrew, 1990; Andrew and Schwab, 1993; Schwab, 1989; NCTAF, 1995).
A fairly substantial body of literature also exists on the impact of alternative programs. In a recent chapter titled A Case for University-Based Teacher Education, Darling-Hammond (1998) observes: Reviews of research over the past 30 years summarizing hundreds of studies have concluded that, even with the shortcomings of current teacher education and licensing, fully prepared and certied teachers are better rated and more successful with students than teachers without this preparation. This generalization seems to apply across various academic areas and is particularly evident when the learning is measured on higher-order tasks. Later in the chapter, Darling-Hammond comments on teachers who were allowed into classrooms without formal training or through quick alternate routes. Recruits tend to be dissatised with their training; they have greater difculties planning curriculum, teaching, managing the classroom, and diagnosing students learning needs. Most important, their students learn less, especially in areas like reading, writing, and mathematics.
Darling-Hammond notes that less prepared teachers have particular difculty in classroom management and observes: Since the novel tasks required for problem-solving are more difcult to manage than the routine tasks associated with rote learning, lack of knowledge about how to manage an active, inquiry-oriented classroom can lead teachers to turn to passive tactics that dumb down the curriculum. The evidence against alternative programs seems to be denitive, and the case for improved university-based teacher education seems to be strong.
Characteristics of Effective Teacher Education Programs

As noted above, research focused on identifying what makes a teacher education program effective is relatively thin. Two major problems have limited this type of research: the criterion problem and a design problem regarding causation. On the one hand, teacher education scholars have in the main rejected paper-and-pencil tests as a sufcient or even appropriate measure of student learning, and other measures of student accomplishment have been difcult to obtain. Even if this problem could be resolved, demonstrating or nding causation of factors faces major challenges in terms of research design. How does one show that the amount of eld experience in a teacher education program is a factor in determining how much students learn when taught by a programs graduates? One approach to researching questions about what makes a teacher education program effective was a series of case studies of programs in a variety of different settings in midwestern institutions. The study by Howey and Zimpher was reported in a chapter of the 1992 Handbook of Research on Teacher Education: They have also generated a list of conditions and practices that appear to contribute to coherent or effective preservice programs. Examples include a clear conception of teaching/schooling, use of student cohorts, high expectations, curriculum articulation, and adequate life space (Feiman-Nemser, 1992). In another series of case studies by Snyder and Darling-Hammond, soon to be published by AACTE, characteristics that were common to seven highly regarded teacher education programs included: 1. A concept of good teaching is apparent in courses and eld experiences. The concept is consistent across courses and student experiences; it has a cohesive presence in the program.
2. 3.
Theory is taught in the context of practice. Theory includes growth and development, learning theory, and pedagogical content knowledge. Extended eld experiences are articulated and sequenced with theory. Extended refers to at least 30 weeks; the eld experiences are designed to enhance what is studied in college classes and to provide candidates with the opportunity to apply and/or to see theory in action. A well-dened, accepted standard of practice is used to guide coursework and clinical experiences and to evaluate them. School/university partnerships are based on shared beliefs. The cooperating classroom teachers have the disposition and ability to extend and build on what the programs have presented to candidates. Assessment is comprehensive and bonded to instruction, and results of assessment are used to ensure that candidates learning is applied to real situations. Assessment data are collected from case studies, performance evaluation, and the use of portfolios (personal communication from Jon Snyder, 1999; also mentioned in Doing What Matters Most, 1997).
4. 5.
6.
The studies on factors that determine program effectiveness seem to warrant the conclusion that content and process are more important than the structural characteristics of teacher education programs. The importance of pedagogical content knowledge and the union of theory to practice is found in a wide variety of institutional types and program structures.
Trends in Licensure, Program Approval, and Continuing Professional Development

Major changes in licensure and program approval are being discussed among state agencies that have jurisdiction over these activities. These changes have serious implications for institutions. The current processes are based primarily on courses and credit hours. When an institutions programs have been approved by the state, graduates who are recommended by the institution and who meet whatever test requirements the state has set are awarded a license to teach in that state. Please note that testing requirements were instituted by legislation because of a lack of condence in the quality of candidates recommended for licensure by teacher education programs. One of the major forces in the reforms of licensure and program approval is the Interstate New Teacher Assessment and Support Consortium (INTASC). More than 30 states are involved in the work being led by INTASC. This organization, sponsored by the Council of Chief State School Ofcers, began in 1986 with the goal of seeking a common framework and principles for the licensure of beginning teachers. A list of the ten principles, sometimes referred to as standards, is included as Appendix B of this report.
An important attribute of these proposed standardsis that they are performance-based; that is, they describe what teachers should know and be able to do rather than listing courses that teachers should take in order to be awarded a license.This approach should clarify what the criteria are for assessment and licensing, placing more emphasis on the abilities teachers develop than the hours they spend in classes. Ultimately, performance-based licensing standards should enable states to permit greater innovation and diversity in how teacher education programs operate by assessing their outcomes rather than their inputs or procedures (INTASC, 1992). The INTASC principles are related to the principles and standards of the National Board for Professional Teaching Standards (NBPTS). But whereas NBPTS has created standards and processes for identifying accomplished experienced teachers, INTASC principles and related assessment systems are pitched at a level appropriate for beginning teachers. There are several very important implications for higher education deriving from the work of these two highly respected organizations. First, many states are now conceptualizing licensure systems that reect a continuum of professional development for teachersextending from admission into teacher education programs, through a formal induction program, and continuing through the career of the teacher. There is an important role for higher education across this continuum, but other potential providers, such as proprietary organizations, have already taken steps to enter what is seen as a potentially protable market. Traditional masters programs in education are not widely seen as capable of providing appropriate professional development for teachers who seek professional growth to become more effective as teachers. A second important implication derives from the assessment approach that is being stimulated by the work of INTASC and NBPTS. Although INTASC identies knowledgeof content and how to teach itas an essential characteristic of aspiring and in-service teachers, demonstration of effective use of knowledge is also seen as essential. This has stimulated attention to and work on performance assessment. Licensing agenciesstate departments of education, and professional standards boardsare changing from focusing on courses and credit hours as the basis for licensing and program approval to an approach that requires teacher education units to provide evidence that candidates can teach effectively. Although this change in approach has some implications for basic teacher education programs, an even more important implication is the potential impact on graduate enrollments. When re-licensure is based on professional growth related to standards of effective and exemplary performance, institutions must be prepared to show that their traditional graduate programs contribute to that growth. If programs for teachers cannot demonstrate such a contribution, teachers will look to other providers, which could include for-prot businesses and various professional organizations and teacher unions.
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A third implication of the INTASC/NBPTS programs derives from the emphasis they both place on content-specic pedagogy. Although some teaching skills appear to be generic, applying to the teaching of most subjects, research by Shulman in the 1980s showed the critical need for pedagogy specic to a given subject, which he called pedagogical content knowledge (Shulman, 1986). Thus, prospective teachers need more than a solid grounding in their teaching eld; they also need to know how children learn a given the subject and how to address the problems children have in mastering common concepts and using them. The problem facing institutions is how to provide a blend of knowledge and how to teach it. Traditional boundaries between content departments and teacher education may need modication.
University/School Relationships
Although it has been referenced at several preceding points, the importance of university/school relationships deserves special attention. Whether the relationships are referred to as professional development schools (PDSs), partnerships, or just plain collaboration, relationships between higher education institutions and schools have an important impact on teacher education units and, more generally, on the entire institution. Close ties between the two levels have been recommended recently by the Holmes Group (1986) and Goodlad (1990) and earlier by B.O. Smith (1980). PDSs have been conceptualized as sites where schools and higher education institutions cooperate on topics of mutual interestidentied and addressed cooperatively and funded jointly. The most common topics addressed in PDSs are early eld experiences, student teaching, professional development activities for faculty of both the school and higher education institution, curriculum development, and, less commonly, joint inquiry activities. As noted earlier, K-12/higher education collaboration based on shared beliefs is one characteristic of programs widely believed to be outstanding. Teacher education programs rely heavily on schools to provide sites for eld experiences that are articulated with formal coursework and for student teaching supervised by a classroom teacher. Identied as critical to the quality of the program is the ability of the school-based participants to extend the philosophical tenets of the program to experiences provided in the real world. Modeling is accepted as a powerful intervention, and, thus, cooperating teachers should be exemplars of what the teacher education program stresses in formal instruction. Inconsistency among the facets of a teacher education program is frustrating to candidates and decreases the impact of teacher preparation. Collaboration with K-12 schools has its price for higher education, both nancial and personal. Faculty who spend time in school sites have less time for the more traditional activities associated with the professoriate, and many feel at a disadvantage in meeting expectations of their institutions reward system. The type of scholarship that comes from involvement with schools is not always recognized, and if it is, it is sometimes given less weight than more traditional research.
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Other costs are related to faculty travel, honoraria, equipment, and supplies. It is likely that institutions that have been most successful in developing true collaboration with the schools have found the need for adjustments in faculty load, reward systems, and budgeting.
A Footnote
The ACE Task Force is one of many activities underway that is concerned with improving the quality of university-based teacher education and the effectiveness of teachers who enter the classroom. Raising standards is commonly believed to result in a reduced supply. Even though there is some research that shows higher standards attract more well-qualied people into the eld, making teacher education programs and licensure standards more rigorous most likely will reduce the supply of graduates from traditional programs. Higher education could help to moderate that problem by increasing recruitment efforts and by offering incentives to attract more potential teachers. In addition, institutions could initiate programs to attract nontraditional candidates such as career changers. This approach has been successful in not only attracting more candidates, but also in attracting a more representative group of students in terms of gender, culture, and race. Some institutions have retained their existing program and added one for nontraditional students. Recent publications have suggested that the nation will need 2 million new teachers in the next ten years. Serious shortages already exist in some states and in urban and rural areas. The history of prior teacher shortages shows that policy makers have a tendency to react to shortages by allowing non-prepared people to teach on emergency or alternative licenses. Rather than ignore the exacerbation of the problem when standards are raised, higher education could contribute to increasing supply through the methods noted above.
Summary
The material presented in this paper justies a number of conclusionssome with trepidation and others with strong convictionthat members of the ACE Task Force might consider as they prepare recommendations to include in their report. 1. 2. There is no one best format for teacher education programs. Conversely, programs regarded to be outstanding vary in structural and conceptual formats. Factors identied through research to be common to effective programs and those identied through rational analyses could lead to the following description of an effective teacher education program: The program is conducted by faculty and school-based colleagues who have similar visions about the nature of effective teaching and how people can be prepared for such teaching; teacher education and arts and sciences faculty have developed an effective way to combine their contributions; the program has the support of the central administration on its campus and of school leaders in the communities it serves; students are admit-
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ted through a careful process that takes into consideration a variety of candidate characteristics, and, once admitted, the candidates are inducted into a community of teachers and learners; program elements are tightly articulated and practice is tightly coupled to theory; and assessment is comprehensive, is based on the standards that drive the program, is an integral part of instruction, and is used to guide candidates as well as to support nal decisions about licensure recommendations. 3. Teacher education is increasingly being conceptualized as an initial step in a professional development continuum that is tied to increasing expectations over time and that continues through the career of the teacher, all of which is tied to standards and assessments of effectiveness. Increasing standards will have an effect on teacher supply. To help address the shortage problem, an institution may have one model for preparing traditional undergraduates and another to serve the needs of career changers. Higher education policies regarding faculty load, reward systems, and budget policies have an impact on the quality of teacher education programs.
4.
5.
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References
AACTE. 1983. Educating a Profession: Extended Programs for Teacher Education. Washington, DC. Andrew, Michael D. 1990. The Differences Between Graduates of Four-Year and Five-Year Teacher Preparation Programs. Journal of Teacher Education 41 (2): 45-51. Andrew, Michael D., and Richard L. Schwab. 1993. An Outcome Assessment of Graduates of Eleven Teacher Education Programs. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association, Atlanta, Georgia. Darling-Hammond, L. 1990. Teaching and Knowledge: Policy Issues Posed by Alternative Programs for Teachers. Peabody Journal of Education 67 (3): 123-154. Darling-Hammond, L. 1998. The Case for University-Based Teacher Education. In Robert Roth (ed.), Teacher Education in the University. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Feiman-Nemser, Sharon. 1990. Teacher Preparation: Structural and Conceptual Alternatives. In W.R. Houston (ed.), Handbook of Research on Teacher Education. New York: Macmillan. 212233. Goodlad, John I. 1987. Linking Schools and Universities, Symbiotic Relationship. Occasional Paper No. 1. Seattle: Center for Educational Renewal. Holmes Group. 1990. Tomorrows Schools: Principles for the Design of Professional Development Schools. East Lansing, Michigan. Howey, Ken. 1996. Designing Coherent and Effective Teacher Education Programs. In John Sikula (ed.), Handbook of Research on Teacher Education, Second Edition. New York: Macmillan. 143-170. Howey, Ken, and Nancy Zimpher. 1989. Proles of Preservice Teacher Education: Inquiry into the Nature of Programs. Albany, New York: State University of New York Press. Interstate New Teacher Assessment and Support Consortium (INTASC). 1992. Model Standards for Beginning Teacher Licensing and Development: A Resource for State Dialogue. Washington, DC: Council of Chief State School Ofcers. National Board for Professional Teaching Standards. 1989. What Teachers Should Know and Be Able to Do. Detroit. National Commission on Teaching and Americas Future. 1995. Extended Teacher Education Programs: A Review of the Literature. National Commission on Teaching and Americas Future. 1997. Doing What Matters Most: Investing in Quality Teaching. New York. Powell, A. 1980. The Uncertain Profession: Harvard and the Search for Educational Authority. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. Scannell, Dale, et al. 1983. A Proposed Accreditation System. Washington, DC: American Association of Colleges for Teacher Education.
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Schwab, Richard L. 1989. Stress and the Intern Teacher: An Exploratory Study. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association, San Francisco. Smith, B.O. 1980. Design for a School of Pedagogy. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education. Shulman, Lee. 1987. Knowledge and Teaching: Foundations of the New Reform. Harvard Educational Review 57: 1-22. Snyder, John, and Linda Darling-Hammond. 1999. Personal communication.
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Appendix A
Distribution of Coursework in Traditional Four-Year and Five-Year Programs
Typical Four-Year Teacher Education Program*

B.A. Clinical Component
General Education
Teaching Field(s) Content
Professional Studies
Year 1
Year 2
Year 3
Year 4
*The proportions of time reected in the components are to be interpreted as approximate proportions.
Five-Year Program (B.A. plus masters)

B.A. Professional Component General Education Teaching Field(s) Content Professional Studies M.A. Clinical Component
Year 1
Year 2
Year 3
Year 4
Year 5
Source: AACTE, 1983.
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Appendix B
Interstate New Teacher Assessment and Support Consortium (INTASC) Principles Principle #1: The teacher understand the central concepts, tools of inquiry, and the structures of the discipline(s) he or she teaches and can create learning experiences that make these aspects of subject matter meaningful for students. The teacher understands how children learn and develop, and can provide learning opportunities that support their intellectual, social, and personal development. The teacher understands how students differ in their approaches to learning and creates instructional opportunities that are adapted to diverse learners. The teacher understands and uses a variety of instructional strategies to encourage students development of critical thinking, problem solving, and performance skills. The teacher uses an understanding of individual and group motivation and behavior to create a learning environment that encourages positive social interaction, active engagement in learning, and self-motivation. The teacher uses knowledge of effective verbal, nonverbal, and media communication techniques to foster active inquiry, collaboration, and supportive interaction in the classroom. The teacher plans instruction based upon knowledge of subject matter, the community, and curriculum goals. The teacher understands and uses formal and informal assessment strategies to evaluate and ensure the continuous intellectual, social, and physical development of the learner. The teacher is a reective practitioner who continually evaluates the effects of his/her choices and actions on others (students, parents, and other professionals in the learning community) and who actively seeks out opportunities to grow professionally.
Principle #2: Principle #3: Principle #4: Principle #5:
Principle #6:
Principle #7: Principle #8:
Principle #9:
Principle #10: The teacher fosters relationships with school colleagues, parents, and agencies in the larger community to support students learning and well-being.
Source: INTASC, 1992.
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Report to the American Council on Education Presidents Task Force on Teacher Education