Wave set-up in the storm surge along open coasts during Typhoon Anita

Soo Youl Kim

a,
, Tomohiro Yasuda
b
, Hajime Mase
b
a
Department of Management of Social Systems and Civil Engineering, Graduate School of Engineering, Tottori University, 4-101, Koyama-Minami, Tottori, 680-8552, Japan
b
Maritime Disaster Division, Disaster Prevention Research Institute, Kyoto University Gokasho, Uji, Kyoto, 611-011, Japan
a b s t r a c t a r t i c l e i n f o
Article history:
Received 14 September 2009
Received in revised form 5 February 2010
Accepted 11 February 2010
Available online 7 March 2010
Keywords:
Wave set-up
Radiation stress
Storm surge
Open coast
Wave set-up in storm surges is studied using a numerical model for coasts in Tosa Bay, Japan, open to the
Pacic Ocean. Simulation models employing only atmospheric pressures and winds as external forces are
unable to properly simulate open coast storm surge heights, such as those due to Typhoon Anita (1970).
However, the present study shows that a numerical model incorporating wave-induced radiation stresses, as
well as wind stresses and pressure gradients, is able to account for the open coast surge heights. There is a
maximum contribution of 40% by the radiation stresses to the peak sea level rises. This study also evaluates
the effects of the tides; including the tides improves the agreement between the predicted water surface
elevations and the observations. The difference in predictions between one-way coupling from wave to surge
models and two-way coupling of the surge and wave models is found to be small.
2010 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction
A storm surge with high waves often causes severe damage when
it coincides with high tides. It is reported in the Assessment Report of
the IPCC (2007) that tropical depressions will become more intense
than in the present climate; and the expected sea level rise is in the
range 0.18 m0.59 m by the end of the 21st century. Thus, climate
change will make coastal areas more susceptible to the effects of
storm surges. Therefore, it is important to consider future changes in
typhoon characteristics. For this purpose, precise storm surge
modeling will be required. Yasuda et al. (2009) investigated the
changes in typhoon characteristics using the high resolution Atmo-
spheric General Circulation Model (AGCM) operated by the Japan
Meteorological Agency. By taking into account biases in the AGCM
projections, a stochastic typhoon model was established and the
probabilities were evaluated for attack on the three major bay areas of
Osaka Bay, Ise Bay and Tokyo Bay in Japan.
Various factors are involved in a storm surge event:
1) atmospheric pressure depression;
2) airsea momentum transfer;
3) vertical mixing of temperature; and
4) wavecurrent interaction in the sea surface layer and in the
bottom boundary layer.
Mastenbroek et al. (1993) and Zhang and Li (1997) carried out
calculations involving the coupling of surges and waves through the
wave-induced radiation stresses and surge-induced currents. How-
ever, in their coupling models, the global ocean wave prediction
model WAMwas employed and shallowwater wave transformations,
including wave breaking, were not considered. According to Shibaki et
al. (2001), the inclusion of radiation stress in the momentum
equations gave reasonable results for sea level rise when surge and
wave models were separately run. Xie et al. (2008) noted that the
inclusion of radiation stress caused signicant changes in inundation
predictions for Charleston Harbor during Hurricane Hugo in 1989,
when a coupling calculation using the Princeton Ocean Model (POM)
and Simulating WAves Nearshore (SWAN) was only used in an
innermost domain; the waves and storm surge were not coupled in
outer domains. Funakoshi et al. (2008) studied coupling effects by
using the Advanced Circulation Model (ADCIRC) and SWAN and
showed that wave-induced radiation stress contributed a 1015%
increase of peak water levels compared to predictions using non-
coupling calculations. Using an integrated surge and wave modeling
system, Chen et al. (2008) found that local dynamic forcing accounted
for 80% of the maximum surge during Hurricane Katrina in 2005,
while the combined effects of tides, surface waves and offshore surge
contributed 20%.
In the present study, we address the key role of wave set-up in the
abnormal sea level rise in Tosa Bay, Japan, due to Typhoon Anita
(1970). As the coasts in Tosa Bay are open to the ocean, it is believed
that surge heights are usually small. The 1970 storm surge height
could not be reproduced by any existing stormsurge models using the
external forces of atmospheric pressure and wind alone. Shibaki et al.
(2001) showed the importance of wave-induced radiation stresses
(wave set-up). The present analysis utilizes the Surge, WAve and Tide
(SuWAT) coupling model with a nesting scheme and coupled
dynamics for whole computational domains (Kim et al., 2008). It
shows that, although the surface stress is important, the coupling of
Coastal Engineering 57 (2010) 631642
Corresponding author. Tel./fax: +81 857 31 5311.
E-mail address: Sooyoul.kim@sse.tottori-u.ac.jp (S.Y. Kim).
0378-3839/$ see front matter 2010 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.coastaleng.2010.02.004
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
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j our nal homepage: www. el sevi er. com/ l ocat e/ coast al eng
waves and surge is more important in reproducing the storm surge
heights along the open coasts of Tosa Bay, with a maximum of 40%
contribution from the radiation stresses. We also examine the effects
of tidal variations on storm surge heights along open coasts.
The coupled surge calculation model, SuWAT, used in this study is
briey described in Section 2. Section 3 notes the simulation
conditions for storm surges and waves. Section 4 explains the
meteorological forces of pressure and wind, and the estimated wave
characteristics during Typhoon Anita. The results and discussion on
the effects of wind stress, radiation stress, tides and one-way coupling
from the wave to surge models and two-way coupling between the
models are provided in Section 4. Conclusions are summarized in
Section 5.
2. Description of numerical model
To analyze the storm surge in Tosa Bay in the Kochi Prefecture of
Japan during Typhoon Anita (1970), the model of coupled surge,
waves and tides (named SuWAT), developed by Kimet al. (2008), was
used with slight modications to the typhoon model and the open
boundary condition. SuWAT is capable of containing an arbitrary
number of calculation domains by using a Message Passing Interface
(MPI) (Pacheco, 1997). It consists of the following modules.
2.1. Surge module
The surge module is a revised version of a pre-operational model
to forecast storm surge in Japan. It was initially developed to simulate
tsunami propagation by Goto and Sato (1993). The module solves the
depth integrated nonlinear shallow water equations by using the
staggered Arakawa C grid in space and the leap-frog method in time.
The module allows calculation over large areas as well as small areas
with coastal structures, such as breakwaters, by using a nesting
scheme.
Conventional quadratic laws are usually used to estimate surface
stress and bottom friction; for example, Mastenbroek et al. (1993),
Ozer et al. (2000), Choi et al. (2003) and Osuna and Monbaliu (2004).
Various surface drag coefcients have been proposed and used in
computing the surface stress. In the present study, two different wind
stress parameterizations were used. The rst approach was to use
Honda and Mitsuyasu's formula (1980), given by
C
D
=
f
1:2900:024W 10
3
0:58 + 0:063W 10
3
W8m= s
W N 8m= s
1
where C
D
is the drag coefcient and W is the wind velocity at 10 m
height. The surface drag coefcient has been employed as a bulk
aerodynamic methodology for estimating the surface stress. The drag
coefcient has been treated as a function of mean wind speed at 10 m
height or as a function of wave age and wind speed (Janssen, 1989,
1991). The second approach adopted Janssen's methodology (a wave
dependent drag coefcient) implemented in SWAN. We used the
wave dependent drag coefcient in SuWAT instead of Honda and
Mitsuyasu's formula. Although Powell et al. (2003) reported a
reduction in wind stress at very high wind speeds (U
10
N40 m/s)
from observational data, this reduction is not implemented here.
The theory of radiation stress was originally introduced by
Longuet-Higgins and Stewart (1960, 1962, 1963, 1964). It represents
the excess momentum ux due to the presence of waves. The
gradients of radiation stress become force terms in the momentum
equations. Therefore, the surge module was modied to include the
spatial gradient of radiation stress obtained from SWAN, coded
according to linear theory (Battjes, 1972).
Astronomical tides were imposed on open boundaries by the high
resolution (1/12) regional ocean tide model for 16 constituents (M2,
S2, K1, O1, N2, P1, K2, Q1, M1, J1, OO1, 2N2, Mu2, Nu2, L2, and T2)
assimilating both TOPEX/POSEIDON data and 219 coastal tide gauge
datasets (Matsumoto et al., 2000). The regional ocean tide model was
coded as a subroutine in SuWAT and provided real-time tidal
predictions of water elevations at the open boundary of the outermost
computational domain.
The solid boundary condition was given by permitting no ow
normal to land. The radiation condition at open boundaries proposed
by Flather (1994) was adopted in the outermost domain. The
boundary conditions of water elevations and currents on the ne
grids that overlapped with the coarse grids were interpolated from
the coarse grids by a bilinear interpolation method (Kim et al., 2008).
In the present study, a reduction factor of 1/3 from the coarse grid to
the ne gird was preserved.
2.2. Wave module
SWAN is a numerical wave prediction model which uses the
spectral action balance equation to predict random, short-crested
wave conditions in coastal regions, lakes and estuaries from given
wind and current conditions, accounting for the presence of islands,
tidal ats and other obstacles (Booij et al., 1999). In the present
SuWAT model, SWAN was revised to have a structured grid, in
Cartesian coordinates, projected from the grid of the pre-operational
storm surge model, in which a node for the wave parameters on the
SWAN grid corresponded to that of water elevations on the grid of the
storm surge model. Either one-way or two-way coupling with the
surge module can be specied so that:
1) currents and water elevations inuence wave elds; and
2) waves affect hydrodynamic elds.
SWAN also allowed the use of simultaneous nesting calculations
based on the Message Passing Interface.
In the earlier study of Kimet al. (2008), the SWAN Cycle III version
40.41 model, with the modied wave growth limiter and shift growth
parameter by Lalbeharry et al. (2004), was employed to produce the
wave eld. However, in the present study, the original SWAN Cycle III
version 40.41 model was used to focus on the effects of wind stress
parameterizations and wave-induced radiation stress on storm surge.
2.3. Typhoon module
For estimating the meteorological forces of wind and pressure
from Typhoon Anita, a typhoon model was used: Schloemer's (1954)
formula for the pressure distribution and Fujii and Mitsuta's model
(1986) (hereafter, called the FMmodel) for the wind distribution. The
ratio G(x) of surface wind to gradient wind speeds was assumed to be
a function of x=r/ r
0
, where r and r
0
indicate, respectively, the radius
to a site from the typhoon centre and the radius to the location of the
maximum wind speed. It was written as follows:
G x = G + G x
p
_ _
G
_ _
x=x
p
_ _
k1
exp

11= k 1 x=x
p
_ _
k
_ _

2
where k=2.5, x
p
=0.5, G(x
p
)=1.2 and G()=0.6667 are given by
Fujii and Mitsuta (1986).
The inow angle, which denotes the angle made by wind vectors
with the isobars, was set to 30. To account for sea and land surface
friction, the pressure gradient wind was reduced by a constant factor
of 0.7. Consequently, surface wind speed, U
10
, was provided by the
vector sum of the reduced pressure gradient wind and the typhoon's
speed of movement.
632 S.Y. Kim et al. / Coastal Engineering 57 (2010) 631642
2.4. Parallel calculation
SuWAT can parallelize different geographic resolutions in grid
mapping, from deep water to relatively complex coastal water. For a
parallelization strategy, the Message Passing Interface (MPI) is
employed in Windows, as well as Linux platforms. It is capable of
communication between independent processors. Each processor is
distributed and assigned to a grid at an initialization stage: e.g., one
processor is responsible for its own computation grid. Thus, in the
coupling system of SuWAT, each coupler (consisting of the storm
surge and wave modules) corresponds to a grid, and all but two of the
grids (the outermost and innermost grids) have two immediately
adjacent neighbouring grids. In this study, six grids with six
processors are used, as shown in Fig. 1.
During coupling, the storm surge modules from the outermost to
the innermost grids simultaneously calculate the water elevations and
currents in a time step for information exchange. Then the wave
modules from the outermost to the innermost grid simultaneously
calculate wave parameters in the time step for information exchange.
After that, the above procedures are repeated. Information exchange
between the surge and wave modules is carried out internally in the
couplers and then the couplers externally provide open boundary
conditions to the adjacent neighbouring coupler for both the
subsequent surge and wave calculations. For transfer of information,
the water elevations and currents calculated from the surge modules
are provided to the wave modules in the newtime step, and the wave
drag coefcients and radiation stresses obtained by the wave modules
are provided to the surge modules for calculating the water elevations
and currents in the next time step.
3. Simulation conditions for surge and waves due to Typhoon
Anita
3.1. Geophysical features of Tosa Bay
Tosa Bay has an approximately semicircular shape (Fig. 2), located
on the northern border of the Tosa Basin of 900 m1100 m water
depth, facing the Pacic Ocean. The Tosa Basin lies north of the
Shikoku Basin, with a water depth of approximately 5000 m. Along
the Nankai Trough, the Philippine Sea Plate is subducting beneath the
Eurasian Plate to the northnorthwest. The Port of Kochi (Fig. 2c),
located on the south coast of Shikoku in Tosa Bay, has a water depth of
about 10 m. There are two rivers near the port: the Kagami River and
the Kokubun River. The entrance to the port faces east and is
approximately 330 m in width, as seen in Fig. 2c.
SuWAT covers a computational domain extending fromthe Port of
Kochi to the Shikoku Basin in the Pacic Ocean to encompass the full
meteorological elds of Typhoon Anita. The complexity of the
Fig. 1. Framework of parallel computation in SuWAT.
633 S.Y. Kim et al. / Coastal Engineering 57 (2010) 631642
geophysical features was taken into account by using the six level grid
systemsummarized in Table 1. The water depths of the outermost, D1,
and D2 domains were derived from the General Bathymetric Chart of
the Oceans (GEBCO, 2003). For the rest of the domains, the water
depths were derived from the Digital Bathymetric Chart and the Grid
Bathymetric Data published by the Japan Hydrographic Association.
Bathymetric data, referenced to Mean Lower Low Water, have been
locally adjusted by adding an average value of 1.554 m. The local
mean sea level (LMSL) is shown in Fig. 2.
3.2. Simulation conditions
To examine the coupled effects between surge, waves and tides,
several runs were carried out as listed in Table 2. Firstly, two runs
investigated the difference in the surge water level due to two
different drag forces using the Honda and Mitsuyasu (1980) and
Janssen (1989) models, with consideration of tides (referred to as the
HWPT and JWPT runs). Then, the driving force of radiation stress was
included in the momentumequations (named the HWPRT and JWPRT
runs). Next, the model runs JWP and JWPR, without the tide, revealed
the inuence of tidal variations on the storm surge. Residual surges
were obtained fromthe difference between the model results of JWPT
(or JWPRT) and OT (only the tidal calculation). These results, referred
to as JWPT-RS (or JWPRT-RS) were then compared with surges on
mean water elevation in the model runs of JWP (or JWPR). In addition,
the model runs JWPT-OC, HWPRT-OC and JWPRT-OC examined the
impacts of coupling one-way fromthe wave to the surge modules and
two-way between the modules. Finally, there were model runs driven
by individual external forces, referred to as OW, OP and OR.
To simulate the tides, storm surge and waves during Typhoon
Anita (1970), the spin-up computation for taking the tide to
equilibrium was conducted from 2100 JST (Japanese Standard Time)
Fig. 2. Geophysical regions of six level grid domains for SuWAT, the track of Typhoon
Anita (1970) and the measurement stations (circles and squares indicate the stations
for water level and meteorological data, respectively).
Table 1
Computational domains and measurement stations.
Domain
no.
Computational
domain
Grid size
(m)
Num.
grid
Measurement station
D1 125E144E x,
y=12150
144122
24N37N
D2 128E136E x,
y=4050
172108
30N35N
D3 1320812E
1344948E
x,
y=1350
180114 Tosashimizu (P1), Muroto
(P3)
321912N
334800N
D4 1325118E
1340922E
x,
y=450
261180 Kamikawaguchi (P2)
324724N
333754N
D5 1332054E
1334713E
x,
y=150
270174 Tei (P7)
332220N
333500N
D6 1333100E
1333851E
x, y=50 192258 Katsurahama (P4), Yokohama
(P5), Wakamatsucho (P6)
332721N
333450N
Table 2
List of run names and conditions.
Name of
model run
Type of C
d
Coupling Input forcing
Wind Pressure Radiation stress Tide
HWPT Honda and
Mitsuyasu
(1980)
No coupling
JWPT Janssen
(1989)
Two way
HWPRT Honda and
Mitsuyasu
(1980)
Two way
JWPRT Janssen
(1989)
Two way
JWPT-OC Janssen
(1989)
One way
HWPRT-OC Honda and
Mitsuyasu
(1980)
One way
JWPRT-OC Janssen
(1989)
One way
JWP Janssen
(1989)
Two way
JWPR Janssen
(1989)
Two way
OW Janssen
(1989)
Two way
OP No coupling
OR Two way
OT No coupling
634 S.Y. Kim et al. / Coastal Engineering 57 (2010) 631642
on 10 August to 0300 JST, 20 August. Then, computations for the storm
surge and waves with the tide were carried out from 0300 JST, 21
August to 2100 JST, 21 August. The time interval for exchanging
information between the surge and wave modules was 300 s. The
computation time steps for the surge and wave modules were 1 s and
300 s, respectively. Six CPU nodes were used to parallelize the six
domains.
4. Typhoon Anita meteorological and wave elds
4.1. Meteorological elds
According to the Annual Typhoon Report from the Joint Typhoon
Warning Center (JTWC, 1970), Tropical Storm Anita was named at
1500 JST, 16 August 1970. It had a 995 hPa central pressure, 225 km
northwest of Pagan Island located at 18.10 N 145.76 E. The storm
reached its peak intensity of 912 hPa surface pressure in the eye about
434 km northwest of Iwo Jima in Japan. The eye of the typhoon made
landfall southwest of Kochi City, ooding parts of the city. At this
point, the wind strength was close to 54 m/s. The lowest pressure
measured in the area was 962 hPa at Ashizuri.
Winds and pressures were measured at three stations: Ashizuri,
Murotomisaki and the Airport, shown in Fig. 2b and c. Fig. 3 shows the
measured and estimated 10 m height wind speeds, directions and sea
surface pressures. There are discrepancies between the measure-
ments and estimations in the region until the peak in the wind speeds.
In particular, the FM model estimations are larger prior to the peak at
Ashizuri and the Airport, where northeast or north winds might be
affected by terrain friction in the measurements. On the other hand,
the measured maximum wind speeds of approximately 34 m/s and
40 m/s at Ashizuri and the Airport are well estimated by the FM
model. The estimated wind speeds at Murotomisaki are reasonable,
with errors of the order of 5 m/s. The estimated wind directions
change from the northeast (90) to the south (180) during the
typhoon event and are in good agreement with the measurements.
The maximum decits in the atmospheric pressures are estimated
to be up to 962 hPa, 977 hPa and 983 hPa; these are well modeled by
Schloemer's formula when compared to the measurements at
Ashizuri, the Airport and Murotomisaki, respectively. The estimated
pressures in the time histories match well with the measurements
regarding both the timing and the magnitude.
Fig. 4 shows the D3 domain view of the 10 m height wind speed
contours and vectors at 0800 JST, 21 August 1970. The gure
illustrates landfall of the typhoon eye, with wind speeds of up to
50 m/s.
4.2. Wave elds
Fig. 5 shows the D5 domain viewof the maximumsignicant wave
heights in metres during Typhoon Anita from the JWPRT model run,
driven by winds, pressures and radiation stresses. In the simulation,
waves of more than 20 m signicant height were generated in deep
Fig. 3. Comparisons of observed data with estimations for wind and pressure at Ashizuri, Airport and Murotomisaki.
Fig. 4. D3 domain view of 10 m height wind speed contours and vectors at 0800 JST on
21 August 1970 in Tosa Bay.
635 S.Y. Kim et al. / Coastal Engineering 57 (2010) 631642
water along the track of the typhoon and propagated shoreward (see
Fig. 2a and b for the typhoon track). The maximum wave heights
generally appear to be at the right side of the typhoon track. Fig. 5
shows waves up to 18 m high approaching the coast and breaking in
the nearshore region.
5. Simulation results and discussion
Table 1 lists measurements of water elevations which were
available at seven stations during Typhoon Anita. The measurements
at Tosashimizu (P1) and Muroto (P3), and at Kamikawaguchi (P2) in
the intermediate domains of D3 and D4, are compared with model
results obtained using 1350 m and 450 m grid resolutions, respec-
tively. The modeled water elevations at Katsurahama (P4), Yokohama
(P5) and Wakamatsucho (P6), and at Tei (P7) in the D6 and D5
domains, were obtained using 150 m and 50 m grid resolutions.
To interpret the model results easily, the following indices were
used: Average Difference (AD) between the model results and the
measured data; Standard Deviation Difference (SDD); Normalized
Root Mean Square Error (NRMSE); and Correlation Coefcient (CC):
AD =
1
N

N
n=1

comp
n;j

1
N

N
n=1

obs
n;j
3
SSD =
1
N

N
n=1

comp
n;j

comp
n;j
_ _
2

1
N

N
n=1

obs
n;j

obs
n;j
_ _
2
4
NRMSE =

N
n=1

comp
n;j

obs
n;j
_ _
2

N
n=1

obs
n;j
_ _
2
_

_
_

_
1=2
5
CC =
1
N

N
n=1

comp
n;j

comp
n;j
_ _

obs
n;j

obs
n;j
_ _
=
comp

obs
6
where N represents the number of hourly computed and observed
data at station j,
n,j
comp
is the computed water elevation,
n,j
comp
is the
computed mean water elevation,
n,j
obs
is the observed water elevation

n,j
obs
is the observed mean water elevation,
comp
is the standard
deviation of the computations, and
obs
is the standard deviation of
the observations.
5.1. Effect of wind stress
To simulate the Typhoon Anita storm surge, two different drag
coefcients from HondaMitsuyasu's formula and Janssen's method-
ology for estimating the wind stress were used in the model runs
HWPT and JWPT. The model results are compared with the
observations in Fig. 6 (a comparison of HWPRT and JWPRT outputs
is described in Section 5.2). As seen fromthe gure, predictions driven
solely by the wind stresses and pressure gradients under-estimate
conditions at all stations. These show that the wind stress effects on
storm surges cannot alone explain the observed water elevations due
to Typhoon Anita in Tosa Bay, even though a number of studies have
indicated that the wave dependent drag improves surge water
elevations (e.g., Mastenbroek et al., 1993; Zhang and Li, 1997; Kim
et al., 2008).
The statistical indices are summarized in Table 3 and illustrated in
Fig. 7. Comparing the values, the model results from the HWPT and
JWPT runs are similar for AD and SDD. The two sets of model results
are also similar for NRMSE and CC. Overall, the results from the JWPT
runs are closer to the measured values than those from the HWPT
runs. The index values NRMSE and CC are best (at 0.29 and 0.95,
respectively) at Tei (P7) in the JWPT model run. The differences
between the model results fromthe HWPT and JWPT runs are greatest
for NRMSE and CC (up to approximately 0.05 and 0.03 at Yokohama
(P5), in particular). Thus, using the wave dependent drag increases
the accuracy for open coast surge water levels. However, its effects are
insufcient to account for the measured water elevations.
In Fig. 8, the maximum sea surface elevations (MSSE) from the
model results are compared with the measured data. Four model
outputs are displayed for the seven locations. The MSSE differences
between the JWPT and HWPT runs are in the range of 0.009 m to
0.499 m. Although the JWPT results using the wave dependent drag
are better than the HWPT results using HondaMitsuyasu's formula,
the predictions are still less than the measured MSSE.
5.2. Effect of wave-induced radiation stress
The model results incorporating the radiation stresses from the
HWPRT and JWPRT runs are seen in Fig. 6. The gure shows the
signicant contributions of radiation stress to the sea surface
elevations at the stations from Katsurahama (P4) to Tei (P7) solved
by the ner grids of 150 m and 50 m resolutions. These results reveal
that the radiation stress effects on storm surges are important in the
surge simulation for Tosa Bay. The calculated water elevations at
Yokohama (P5) and Wakamatsucho (P6) have phase shifts in the
hydrographs, caused by the solid boundary employed in the
simulation, although the two rivers' mouths link to the Kagami
River and Kokubun River north of the Port of Kochi, as seen in Fig. 2c.
On the other hand, as Tosashimizu (P1) is on the left side of the
typhoon track, the surge levels are small and the water level under-
estimation may be attributed to onshore winds. The differences
between the computed and observed sea surface elevations at
Tosashimizu (P1), Kamikawaguchi (P2) and Muroto (P3) are probably
caused by the symmetric wind model used in the present study. In
addition, a low grid resolution could result in inaccurate sea surface
elevations at these stations solved using the 1350 m and 450 m grid
resolutions, whereas the effect of wave radiation stresses should be
included using a high grid resolution.
In the same manner as in the preceding section, the statistical
indices are summarized in Table 3 and drawn in Fig. 7 for the HWPRT
and JWPRT runs. Including radiation stress has improved the storm
surge elevations from Katsurahama (P4) to Tei (P7). The AD and SDD
values in the JWPRT run have decreased and NRMSE and CC have
increased in comparison with using Honda and Mitsuyasu's formula
or excluding the radiation stress at these stations (P4, P5, P6 and P7).
The indices obtained from the JWPRT model run are the best amongst
all of the runs. As expected, the indices obtained fromthe HWPRT runs
are similar to those from the JWPT runs. The differences between the
model results from JWPRT and HWPT are up to 0.062 m at Yokohama
(P5) and 0.149 m at Wakamatsucho (P6) for AD and SDD and up to
0.094 and 0.04 at Yokohama (P5) for NRMSE and CC.
Fig. 5. D5 domain view of computed maximum signicant wave height contours during
Typhoon Anita in Tosa Bay.
636 S.Y. Kim et al. / Coastal Engineering 57 (2010) 631642
The MSSE in the JWPRT model run has also increased by including
the radiation stresses and is close to the measured MSSE, as seen in
Fig. 8. The simulations incorporating the wave dependent drag and
radiation stresses indicate that the improvement in the MSSE in the
JWPRT model run is in the range of 535.6% compared to the MSSE
in the HWPT model run without the radiation stresses.
To quantify the effects of the external forces on the surge, the sea
level rise driven by each external force is shown in Fig. 9. The gure
shows that the radiation stresses contribute signicantly to the sea
level rises at Katsurahama (P4), Yokohama (P5), Wakamatsucho (P6)
and Tei (P7), and that the sea level rises due to the radiation stresses
are comparable in magnitude to those due to the wind stress or
pressure at Tei (P7).
Fig. 10 shows the D5 domain predictions of the maximum water
elevation induced by all input forces (Fig.10a); the same but excluding
the wave radiation stresses (Fig.10b); and the wave radiation stresses
alone (Fig. 10c). The radiation stresses contribute a maximum of 40%
to the storm surge water elevation, seen in Fig. 10d.
Fig. 11 displays the D3 and D5 domain predictions of the maximum
wind stress and radiation stress distributions. The contours concen-
trate on nearshore regions within Tosa Bay, in particular the Yokorou
Peninsula and the Port of Kochi. Both wind and radiation stresses are
insignicant in the nearshore regions of Kamikawaguchi (P2) and
Muroto (P3). This insignicance is attributed to the small surface
elevations themselves compared to the observed data.
In this section, it has been found that the radiation stress effect is
larger in magnitude than the wind stress effect, particularly in
nearshore regions.
5.3. Effect of tide
Fig. 12 shows the statistical indices for evaluating the tidal effects
on storm surges, summarized in Table 4. Modeled residual surges
obtained, for example, from the differences between the results from
the JWPR and JWPRT runs are compared with observed residual
surges determined as the differences between the measured water
elevations and the tidal predictions. To distinguish the results of the
tidal effects fromthose of the coupled wave and surge effects with and
without the radiation stresses described in Sections 5.1 and 5.2, an
additional sufx RS is used to refer to the model results. In the JWP
and JWPT-RS model results with the forces from the wind and
pressure, AD and SDD have similar values at all stations. The AD and
Fig. 6. Comparisons between the measurements and model results for the water elevations at seven stations.
637 S.Y. Kim et al. / Coastal Engineering 57 (2010) 631642
SDD values fromthe JWPT-RS and JWPRT-RS model calculations show
similar values to those without the tides fromthe JWP and JWPR runs.
It is seen from the NRMSE and CC values that the model results
computed with tides show poor agreement at the stations from P1 to
P3 solved using low grid resolutions. In contrast, the NRMSE and CC
values fromthe JWPT-RS and JWPRT-RS results showsimilar values to
those without the tides from the JWP and JWPR model results at
stations P4 and P7.
In addition to the statistical indices, the calculated maximum
residual surge elevations are compared with the measurements in
Fig. 13; the differences between the results fromthe JWPT-RS and JWP
runs are in the range of 0.096 m0.068 m. Tidal effects contribute
improvements in the water levels of up to 16.8% (in the coarser grid
domains) and 5.6% (in the ner grid domains). For the JWPRT-RS and
JWPR model results, the maximum differences in the residual surge
levels are in the range of 0.125 m0.031 m, in which including the
tidal effects shows up to 18.4% and 7.8% improvements in the coarser
and nder grid domains, respectively.
Thus, the inhomogeneous currents and sea water levels induced by
the tide clearly inuence the surge levels in Tosa Bay. It is interesting
that the inuence of the tide on the water level is larger in the lower
resolution domains than in the higher resolution domains. A suitable
grid resolution is needed for physical dynamics in the simulation of
the coastal environment. It should capture geophysical features and
sea conditions with regard to the meteorology-induced wind elds
and the hydrodynamic tides.
5.4. Effect of coupling
The feedback effects of coupling between surge and waves were
investigated by comparing the model outputs from the two-way
coupling runs of JWPT and JWPRT with the one-way coupling runs of
JWPT-OC and JWPRT-OC. Figs. 14 and 15 show the NRMSE and MSSE
values, respectively. The differences are similar for the NRMSE values,
regardless of whether or not the radiation stresses are included
Table 3
Statistical indices for the wind and radiation stress effects on the storm surge water
level: AD = Average Difference in metres; SDD = Standard Deviation Difference in
metres; NRMSE = Normalized Root Mean Square Error; CC=correlation coefcient.
Station HWPT JWPT HWPRT JWPRT
Tosashimizu (P1) AD 0.048 0.054 0.052 0.057
SDD 0.070 0.070 0.075 0.072
NRMSE 0.238 0.248 0.245 0.253
CC 0.973 0.970 0.971 0.969
Kamikawaguchi (P2) AD 0.196 0.185 0.199 0.188
SDD 0.275 0.274 0.274 0.268
NRMSE 0.574 0.550 0.578 0.553
CC 0.853 0.869 0.851 0.866
Muroto (P3) AD 0.264 0.272 0.269 0.274
SDD 0.274 0.248 0.251 0.253
NRMSE 0.517 0.531 0.531 0.544
CC 0.870 0.862 0.859 0.849
Katsurahama (P4) AD 0.041 0.036 0.023 0.017
SDD 0.215 0.195 0.186 0.164
NRMSE 0.370 0.334 0.315 0.281
CC 0.930 0.944 0.951 0.961
Yokohama (P5) AD 0.327 0.298 0.293 0.266
SDD 0.501 0.439 0.447 0.377
NRMSE 0.601 0.551 0.548 0.507
CC 0.826 0.851 0.855 0.866
Wakamatsucho (P6) AD 0.037 0.005 0.005 0.026
SDD 0.352 0.267 0.299 0.204
NRMSE 0.585 0.547 0.550 0.528
CC 0.796 0.817 0.817 0.829
Tei (P7) AD 0.089 0.094 0.042 0.048
SDD 0.068 0.057 0.011 0.004
NRMSE 0.292 0.288 0.232 0.231
CC 0.942 0.945 0.960 0.961
Fig. 7. Statistical indices: Average Difference (AD), Standard Deviation Difference (SDD), Normalized Root Mean Square Error (NRMSE), and Correlation Coefcient (CC) for
predictions using different wind drags and wave-induced radiation stresses.
Fig. 8. Comparison between the measurements and model predictions from HWPT,
JWPT, HWPRT and JWPRT for maximum surge water elevations.
638 S.Y. Kim et al. / Coastal Engineering 57 (2010) 631642
(Table 5). The differences in the MSSE values are up to 0.02 m in the
model outputs from the JWPRT and JWPRT-OC runs. Thus, the waves
are affected by the currents and water elevations in the two-way
coupled calculations and the radiation stress elds inuence the surge
elevations. However, the effect of the coupling between the surge and
waves is small.
6. Conclusions
The present study has demonstrated that wave-induced set-up
was signicant in determining storm surge water levels in Tosa Bay,
Japan, during Typhoon Anita (1970). To investigate the coupled
effects of the tide, surge and waves, a numerical model called as
SuWAT was applied. Incorporating radiation stress in SuWAT
signicantly improved the computed surge water levels. The radiation
stresses contributed rises in maximum sea levels of up to 40%. The
present study also evaluated tidal effects on storm surge water levels
and showed that there was better agreement with the observations
both in magnitude and timing when imposing a tide with ranges of
1 m1.5 m.
The model results suggest that high grid resolutions are necessary
fromthe viewpoints of geophysical features and inclusion of radiation
stress in order to obtain satisfactory accuracy in predicting the storm
surge water levels. The differences between one-way and two-way
coupling between the surge and wave modules were examined and
found to be small.
Fig. 9. Comparisons of calculated results due to individual external force-induced water levels for seven stations. OR is the pure surge component induced by the radiation stress. OW
and OP are the pure surge components induced by the wind and the pressure, respectively. The results referred to as HWPRT and JWPRT are the surge components induced by the
radiation stress obtained from the HWPRT (JWPRT) model results minus the HWPT (JWPT) results.
639 S.Y. Kim et al. / Coastal Engineering 57 (2010) 631642
Fig. 10. The maximum water level contours induced by all external forces (a), the combination of meteorological force and tide without the wave-induced radiation stresses (b) and
only the wave-induced radiation stresses (c) in the JWPRT model run. The contribution of the radiation stresses to the maximum surge water levels is also shown (d).
Fig. 11. D3 and D5 domain views of the maximum wind stress and radiation stress contours in Tosa Bay (a: D3 view of maximum wind stress; b: D3 view of maximum radiation
stress; c: D5 view of maximum wind stress; d: D5 view of maximum radiation stress).
640 S.Y. Kim et al. / Coastal Engineering 57 (2010) 631642
Acknowledgments
This work was partially conducted under the framework of the
Projection of the change in future weather extremes using super-
high-resolution atmospheric models supported by the KAKUSHIN
Program, and the Grant-in-Aid for Scientic Research (B) and Grant-
in-Aid for Young Scientists (Start-up) of the Ministry of Education,
Culture, Sports, Science, and Technology. The authors would like to
thank Eur Ing Terry Hedges, Honorary Research Fellow, Department of
Engineering, University of Liverpool, for valuable comments and help
in carrying out this study.
Fig. 12. Statistical indices for the tidal effect calculations.
Table 4
Statistical indices for the tidal effect on the storm surge water level: AD = Average
Difference in metres; SDD = Standard Deviation Difference in metres; NRMSE =
Normalized Root Mean Square Error; CC = Correlation Coefcient.
Station JWP JWPT-RS JWPR JWPRT-RS
Tosashimizu (P1) AD 0.035 0.059 0.042 0.062
SDD 0.019 0.015 0.019 0.016
NRMSE 0.463 0.605 0.486 0.623
CC 0.843 0.699 0.834 0.681
Kamikawaguchi (P2) AD 0.392 0.402 0.392 0.405
SDD 0.139 0.140 0.136 0.137
RMSE 0.755 0.826 0.754 0.831
CC 0.807 0.453 0.776 0.438
Muroto (P3) AD 0.249 0.221 0.253 0.224
SDD 0.170 0.167 0.171 0.169
NRMSE 0.802 0.797 0.817 0.819
CC 0.876 0.622 0.857 0.530
Katsurahama (P4) AD 0.003 0.022 0.021 0.003
SDD 0.164 0.142 0.145 0.123
NRMSE 0.630 0.575 0.522 0.471
CC 0.974 0.902 0.981 0.943
Yokohama (P5) AD 0.205 0.182 0.172 0.149
SDD 0.235 0.235 0.191 0.193
NRMSE 0.563 0.548 0.485 0.474
CC 0.917 0.911 0.910 0.906
Wakamatsucho (P6) AD 0.170 0.161 0.133 0.125
SDD 0.159 0.165 0.105 0.115
NRMSE 0.471 0.478 0.404 0.413
CC 0.908 0.898 0.909 0.901
Tei (P7) AD 0.235 0.149 0.121 0.050
SDD 0.141 0.142 0.090 0.104
NRMSE 0.631 0.579 0.421 0.402
CC 0.824 0.748 0.866 0.856
Fig. 13. Comparison between the measurements and model outputs of the JWP, JWPT-
RS, JWPR and JWPRT-RS runs for the maximum residual surge water elevations in
relation to the tidal effect.
Fig. 14. Statistical index NRMSE for the effect of the coupling in the JWPT and JWPRT
runs.
Fig. 15. Comparison between the measurements and model outputs of the JWPT-OC,
JWPT, JWPRT-OC and JWPRT runs for the maximum surge water elevations in relation
to the method of coupling.
641 S.Y. Kim et al. / Coastal Engineering 57 (2010) 631642
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Table 5
Summary of Normalized Root Mean Square Errors (NRMSE) for the one-way and two-
way coupling calculations.
Station JWPT-OC JWPT JWPRT-OC JWPRT
Tosashimizu (P1) 0.248 0.248 0.250 0.253
Kamikawaguchi (P2) 0.550 0.550 0.549 0.553
Muroto (P3) 0.531 0.531 0.544 0.544
Katsurahama (P4) 0.334 0.334 0.281 0.281
Yokohama (P5) 0.551 0.551 0.507 0.507
Wakamatsucho (P6) 0.547 0.547 0.532 0.528
Tei (P7) 0.288 0.288 0.227 0.231
642 S.Y. Kim et al. / Coastal Engineering 57 (2010) 631642