TEXAS A & M UNIVERSITY WELL CONTROL Jerome J. Schubert, PE DEPARTMENT OF PETROLEUM ENGINEERINGABSTRACT ‘Well Control Procedures for the Proper Identification and Handling of Kicks for the Prevention of Blowouts (December 1995) Jerome Jacob Schubert, PE, B.S. Texas A&M University, Chair of Advisory Committee: Dr. Hans C. Juvkam-Wold Blowouts have plagued the Petroleum Industry since its infancy. These well control events have resulted in losses of valuable resources, increased drilling costs, environmental dam- ages, increased regulations, injuries to personnel, and loss of life. The vast majority of all blowouts are due to human error, and could have been avoided if proper well control proce- dures would have been followed. The purpose of this work is to provide the technology necessary to recognize potential well control problems and procedures to properly handle them in a safe and efficient manner. ‘This manual discusses the types of pressure encountered in a wellbore, basic calculations required in well control procedures, causes of kicks and the waming signs that a kick may have occurred, proper shut-in procedures, and of course well kill procedures. This manual includes a discussion of casing seat tests used to determine formation strength, and the reaction of gas in a wellbore. Avoidance of kicks is stressed in the discussion of the origin and prediction of abnormal pressure, as well as casing seat selection. Functions and prop- erties of drilling and completion fluids are discussed with respect to well control. Well control considerations while drilling from a drillship or semi-submersible are discussed. ‘This manual was written with field personnel in mind, so that they may gain a clear under- standing of the basic principals and procedures required for safe and efficient drilling op- erations by minimizing the risk of kicks and blowouts.iv DEDICATION This work is dedicated to my wife Debbie and son Clayton for their complete support and patience in this endeavor,ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I would like to thank the entire Department of Petroleum Engineering for their support, without which this work would not have been possible. Tam deeply grateful to Dr. Hans C. Juvkam-Wold for serving as Chairman on my Graduate Advisory Committee, and for the guidance that he has provided me in this work. I would also like to thank Dr. Juvkam-Wold for the education that he has provided me, and for his, willingness to assist me in any way possible. Finally, I would like to thank him for the technical advise and assistance that he has provided to me. I would also like to thank Dr, James E, Russell, and Dr. Robert R. Berg for serving as Advisory Committee Members. Finally, I would like to thank Ms. Darla-Jean Weatherford for the editorial work that she has provided. Thanks also go out to members of Aggie Drilling Research, especially Dr. Jonggeun Choe, Mr, Mahmood Amani, and Mr. Qamar Sharif, for their help in technical editing of this work.vi Table of Contents Abstract Dedication. Acknowledgments. Table of Contents List of Tables .. List of Figures Importance of Well Control Basic Concepts and Terminology 14 Basic Calculations.. 21 Causes of Kicks... Kick Warnings Shut-In Procedur ‘Well Kill Procedures Advanced Calculations Reaction of Gas in a Wellbore Abnormal Pressure and Casing Seat Selectior Shallow Gas Control Drilling Fluids Completion and Workover Fluids Unusual Operations. Supervision of Kill Operation: Subsea Considerations Small Tubing Operations Minerals Management Service - OCS Orders Nomenclature List of References..vii List of Tables 1.1 Breakdown of Wellbore Pressures From Fig. 1.5 6.1 Pressure Decline Schedule for the Wait and Weight Method 6.2 Pressure Decline Schedule for the Driller's Method 12.1 Composition of Potassium Chloride Brin 12.2 Composition of Sodium Chloride Brin 12.3 Composition of Calcium Chloride Brine. 12.4 Composition of Sodium Chloride/Calcium Chloride Brine 12.5 Composition of Calcium Chioride/Calcium Bromide Brine. 12.6 Composition of Calcium Chloride/Calcium Bromide Brine. 12.8 Composition of Calcium Bromide/Zinc Bromide Brine. 12.9 Composition of Calcium Chloride/Calcium Bromide/Zinc Bromide Brine 12-23 12.10 Composition of Calcium Bromide/Zinc Bromide Brine. 12.24List of Figures 1.1 Effect of MD and TVD on Hydrostatic Pressure 1.2 Effect of Water Gradient on Normally Pressured Formations 1.3 Effect of Principal Stresses on Fracture Orientation .. 1.4 Frictional Pressures in a Horizontal Circulating System. 1.5 Wellbore Pressures During Circulation 1.6 Surge and Swab Pressures in a Wellbore .. 17a Shut-In Pressures During a Kick .. 1.7b U-Tube Concept of a Wellbore .. 2.1 Mlustration of Capacity and Displacement. 2.2 Double Acting Duplex Pump 2.3 Single Acting Triplex Pump .. 6.1 U-Tube Diagram Depicting a Kick.. 6.2 Pressure Decline Schedule for the Wait and Weight Method. 6.3 Pressure Decline Schedule for the Driller's Method 6.4 Typical "Kill Sheet" used in Well Control 6.5 Well Kill Worksheet. 7.1 Graph of a Typical Leak-off Test 7.2 Surface Casing Pressure During Kill Operation 7.3 Annular Pressure at Different Depths During Kill Operation 8.1 Expansion of Gas as it is Circulated to Surface. 8.2 Expansion of Gas as the Pressure Decreases. 8.3 Effect of Gas Migration on Wellbore Pressures. 8.4 Casing Pressure Schedule for Proper Handling of Migrating Gas 9.1 Abnormal Pressure Due to Thick Gas Columns. 9.2 Abnormal Pressure Due to Fluid Migration 9.3 Abnormal Pressure Due to Uplifting and Erosion 9.4 Abnormal Pressure Due to Thrust Faulting.. 9.5 Abnormal Pressure Due to Aquifer. 9.6 Seismic Data Used to Predict Formation Pressure... 9.7 Cuttings from Normally Pressured Shale. 9.8 Cuttings from Abnormally Pressured Shale 9.9 Shale Conductivity and Sonic Travel Time used in Pressure Prediction.. 9.10 Eaton's Variable Overburden Gradient .. 9.11 Eaton's Gulf Coast Fracture Gradient 9.12 Eaton's Variable Poisson's Ratio L1 Mud Balanc 112 Marsh Funnel 11.3 Rotating Viscometer 114 API Filter Press 1L5 HTHP Filter Press12.1 Effect of Temperature on Density of Low to Moderate Density Brines 12.2 Effect of Temperature on Density of Moderate to High Density Brines. 12.3 Effect of Temperature on Density of High Density Brines. 12.4 Crystallization Points for Brine Waters 13.1 Valve Drilling and Hot Tapping AssemblyIntroduction Importance of Well Control Contents Introduction ... Importance of well control. Kick.. Blowout Costs and dangers of blowouts Well control philosophy. ‘Texas A&M University Petroleum EngineeringIntroduction Importance of Well Control Introduction Importance of well control Well control procedures do not commence with the recognition of an abnormal occurrence in the wellbore. Well control starts as soon as a new location is picked. From this point on, all drilling, completion, workover, snubbing, or coil-tubing programs should be written with proper well control procedures in mind. Kick Akkick is an unscheduled entry of formation fluids in the wellbore, of sufficient quantity to require shutting in the well. Blowout ‘A blowout is a loss of control of a kick. Blowouts can be surface blowouts, or underground blowouts. A surface blowout is an uncontrolled flow of formation fluids to the surface, while an underground blowout is an uncontrolled flow of formation fluids from one forma- tion (the kicking formation) to another. If a kick is not recognized and brought under con- trol quickly and properly, a blowout is a definite possibility. Loss of control of a kick, blowout, can be brought about for two reasons - equipment failure or human error. Almost all blowouts can be attributed to an error or series of errors on someone’s part. Even if our well control equipment fails, itis likely that we can trace the cause of the malfunction to improper use, maintenance, testing, installation, or manufacture of the equipment - all errors committed by some person or persons. Costs and dangers of blowouts The final cost of a blowout can easily reach several million dollars, but the money that is wasted is not nearly as important as the other damage that can result froma blowout. Blow- outs waste valuable resources, can do irreparable damage to the environment, ruin equip- ‘ment, but most importantly blowouts endanger the safety and lives of the rig crew. In any dangerous situation, such as a blowout, the safety and well-being of the rig personnel should be the number one concern, followed by protection of the rig, then finally the well itself. We cannot replace someone’s life, and without operable equipment, itis not likely that the well can be brought under control. ‘Texas A&M University I-l Petroleum EngineeringIntroduction Importance of Well Control Well control philosophy Any time there are indications of a kick, prompt action of the crew is essential to bringing the well back under control. If the crew acts properly, itis highly unlikely that the kick will escalate to. blowout. The longer we wait to take action, the worse the kick will get. Donot ignore the warning signs of a kick, it will not go away. The driller should never have to wait for orders from the tool pusher or company representative to shut a well in, He must have that authority, after all the driller and crew are in the best position to detect a kick. ‘Training in the proper well control procedures is important to maintaining control of a kick. Whether the training takes place in school or in the field, it makes no difference. There are several advantages to organized training schools, such as: Ability to control the content of the program. Focus of the class on the intended subject matter. Ability to cover many more topics in a short period of time. Exposure to problems that have happened to others, before they happen to the well control student. 5. Most importantly, practice in the proper procedures so that implementation of these procedures can be initiated quickly and be carried out as smoothly as pos- sible. aeEe ‘There is no doubt that training in the proper recognition and handling of kicks has de- creased the number of blowouts that occur. Knowledge of how to detect and handle kicks is not enough, we should also know how to avoid kicks. If we can avoid taking a kick in the first place, we will not need to implement well kill procedures, and there is virtually no chance of a blowout. In order to avoid kicks, we need knowledge of the warning signs that formation pressures are increasing, and methods used to estimate formation pressures. We need to know when to increase the density of the drilling or workover fluid, and by how much. We need to know when and where to set casing. We need to know the pressure limitations of the well we are drilling. We need to know how to use offset well data to correlate with the present well. Office personnel can take steps in the planning stage of a well to help avoid the occurrence of kicks. A good pressure profile should be provided to the rig crew to use as a guide to expected formation pressure and possible problems. Offset information should be supplied to the rig crew for correlation purposes, and support should be provided to the rig crew. Completion and workover procedures should supply information on formation pressures, if known, or good estimates when not known, Donot assume that the tool pusher and operator's rep know the proper density completion fluid, or that the well can be killed with field salt water. Do your homework, and gather the information needed to determine kill weight fluid before the workover starts. Texas A&M University 1-2 Petroleum EngineeringIntroduction Importance of Well Control If everyone including the office staff, operators rep, tool pusher, roughnecks, roustabouts, and service company representatives do their part, we should be able to drill, complete, or work over any well ina safe, efficient manner, We should be able to put blowout and oil well fire fighting companies out of business. The purpose of this manual is to cover the techniques to estimate formation pressures, recognize the warning signs of a kick, and to properly handle kicks if they occur. If the techniques and procedures discussed in this manual are followed, hopefully we can avoid taking kicks, and in the event that we do, we can kill the well quickly and safely. ‘Texas A&M University 1-3 Petroleum EngineeringChapter 1 Basic Concepts and Terminology Contents Chapter 1 Basic Concepts and Terminology Pressure Hydrostatic pressure. Pressure gradient Formation pressure. Overburden pressure Fracture pressure... Pump pressure (system pressure losses) .. Slow Pump Pressure (SPP) Surge & Swab pressure... Shut-In drill pipe pressure... Shut-in casing pressure Bottom-hole pressure. Differential pressure. Trapped pressure .. U-Tube Concept Te ee ee eee Serkan owe mee RESSo ‘Texas A&M University Petroleum EngineeringChapter 1 Basic Concepts and Terminology Chapter 1 Basic Concepts and Terminology Pressure In all aspects of the petroleum industry we deal with pressure, and it is a topic of major importance in well control. It can be defined as the force exerted per unit area, normally measured in units of Ibs force per square inch of area or psi. Example: If we have 1000 Ibs force exerted on an area of 10 square inches, we have 1000 Ibs / 10 sq. in. (00 Ibs/sq. in or 100 psi, conversely, if we have 1000 psi imposed on an area of 5 square inches, the force exerted would be: 1000 psi x 5 sq.in. = 5000 Ibs force. Since a thorough understanding of pressure is essential to the understanding of well control, this section of the manual deals with different pressures that are encountered during well control operations. Hydrostatic pressure Hydrostatic pressure (HSP) is derived from the terms “hydro”, meaning water, and “static”, ‘meaning not moving or at rest, therefore hydrostatic pressure (HSP) is the pressure exerted by a column of fluid at rest or in static conditions. All fluids in the wellbore exert hydro- static pressure. This pressure is a function of the: density of the fluid and the vertical height of the fluid column. ‘We can express HSP in mathematical terms of: HSP =0.052x MW x TVD where: HSP — hydrostatic pressure (psi). 0.052 — a constant to convert to the proper units MW — mud weight or density in pounds per gallon (ppg). TVD — true vertical depth (ft). Since pressure is measured in psi., MW measured in ppg, and depth in ft., the .052 is needed ‘Texas A&M University 1-1 Petroleum EngineeringChapter 1 Basic Concepts and Terminology to convert ppg x ft into psi. The constant, 0.052, is derived below: ‘Ap (HSP) x Area = Weight = Area x height (TVD) x density (MW) HSP, psi = MW, Ib/gal x TVD, ft. x (12 in//ft) x (Igal /231 in3) dividing 12 by 231 yields 0.052 ‘Sometimes we use units other than ppg to measure fluid density such as Ib/ft3. In this case a different conversion factor must be used. Since in one square foot there are 144 square inches, 1/144 = 0.007, and : HSP, psi = 0.007 x MW, lb/ft3 x TVD, ft. The next question should be, why use true vertical depth instead of “measured | [777177 depth” in our calculations | /———— of hydrostatic pressure? The answers, gravity pulls straight down to the center of the earth. In adirectional well, the wellbore in not pointing toward the center of the earth, and it is the vertical height of the fluid column that has any bear | Figure.t Hydrostatic pressure is dependent only onthe ing upon the hydrostatic vertical height and the density of the mud column pressure being imposed upon the wellbore. See Fig.1.1. If all the wellbores are full of equal density fluids, the hydrostatic pressure would be equal since the true vertical depths are equal. Pressure gradient Often we express the pressure exerted by a fluid in terms of a “pressure gradient” or psi/ft of depth. A pressure gradient exerted by drilling fluid can be calculated by: Gradient, psi/ft = 0.052 x MW, ppg To convert a pressure gradient into ppg, we divide the gradient by 0.052. Formation pressure Formation pressure is the pressure contained within the formation itself. It is the pressure contained in the pore spaces of the formation, or the pressure contained in the formation fluid. This pressure is developed from the hydrostatic pressure of the formation fluids Texas A&M University 1-2 Petroleum EngineeringChapter 1 Basic Concepts and Terminology above the depth of interest in conjunction with any pressure that may be trapped in place. ‘We define a “normally pressured formation” as one in which the formation pressure is equal to the hydrostatic pressure of the fluids above the zone of interest. Since all of the forma- tions we deal with were deposited in a marine environment, the fluid above the zone of interest is usually some sort of water. In the Gulf Coast, the density of the formation water is approximately 9.0 ppg, which yields a normal pressure gradient of 0.465 psifft. In other parts of the world, the formation water may be closer to a fresh water with a gradient of 0.433 psi/ft. A normally pressured formation can generally be controlled with a 9.0 ppg mud ‘We will have normal pressure in the zone of interest if that formation is in communication with the surface (see Fig. 1.2). As the formation is buried deeper, the weight of the rock and fluids above will tend to compact the formation. As the formation in question is compacted, the fluids within the formation are ei- ther pressured up, if they are trapped in place or, they are squeezed out of the formation if there is communica- tion with the surface, retaining a nor- mal pressure gradient. If the fluids are trapped in place dur- ing compaction, and are not allowed to escape, the pressure within the for- mation will increase, resulting in a pressure gradient greater than the de- fined “normal pressure”. This in- ‘creased formation pressure gradient is termed “abnormal pressure”. Abnor- mal pressure is defined as any pres- sure greater than normal pressure, and will require a mud weight of more than 9.0 ppg to control formation pressures. Figure 1.2 - Communication between the formation and the surface results in normally pressured formations ‘One more term we need to discuss concerning formation pressures is “subnormal pressure”, or any formation pressure less than normal pressure for the given depth. Subnormal pres- sure can be found in formations that have undergone a pressure regression due to deeper burial from tectonic movement, but most often is encountered in an old field where the formation is depleted due to production of the formation fluids originally in place. Overburden pressure Overburden pressure is the pressure exerted on a formation by the weight of the rock and fluids above the zone of interest. It is the vertical compacting force that is being imposed upon a formation. On the average these rocks have a density of 18 to 22 ppg, resulting in a gradient of approximately 1 psi/ft. Offshore, however, we do not have a full column of rock ‘Texas A&M University 1-3 Petroleum EngineeringChapter 1 Basic Concepts and Terminology all the way to the surface. There is a lighter column of sea water, causing a lower overbur- den pressure than we would find at the same depth on land. Consequently, the deeper the water, the lower the overburden pressure gradient. Fracture pressure Fracture pressure is the pressure required to fracture a given formation, or the pressure required to cause the formation to fail and split. In order to fracture a formation, you must first be able to pump into the formation requiring a pressure in the wellbore in excess of formation pressure. Then to fracture the formation, our wellbore pressures must exceed the strength of the rock matrix itself, and third it must exceed one of three principal stresses within the formation itself. It is generally agreed upon that the state of stress at any point below the ‘earth's sruface can be defined by these three principal stresses.! An analysis of these stresses will generally result in one from the overburden and two ro : horizontal. These principal stresses are caeen all mutually perpendicular (see Fig. 1.3).! The formation will fracture per- pendicular the lowest ofthe three prin- Fracture cipal stresses. At shallow depths the overburden pressure will be the low- estprincipal stress, resulting in ahori- | ie /3- Formation Pace lela zontal, pancake fracture. As we get deeper, the overburden will increase to ‘a point where one of the horizontal stresses will be the lowest, and a vertical fracture will form. Offshore, lower frac. gradients are encountered due to the lower overburden pressure re- sulting from the light water gradient Also, many of the formations we drill offshore are younger and not as compacted as on land, resulting in a weaker rock matrix. Pump pressure (system pressure losses) In order to circulate the drilling fluid throughout the entire circulating system, frictional pressure losses must be overcome by the rig pumps. This “pump pressure” is often referred to as the system pressure loss, and is the sum of the pressure losses through the surface equipment, the drillpipe, the drill collars, the bit, and annular friction losses around the drill, collars, and drillpipe. The standpipe pressure or pump pressure measures the system pres- sure loss at the origin of the circulating system, and is a measure of the total friction pres- sure, If pressure gauges were placed at different points in a horizontal circulating system, see Fig. ‘Texas A&M University 1-4 Petroleum EngineeringChapter 1 1.4 (hydrostatics would have no effect ‘on the total pressure), each gauge would read a successively lower pres- sure until, at the end zero psig would be recorded (pressure at the end of the circulating system would be equal to atmospheric pressure). Each gauge would measure the friction pressure thatoccurs downstream of that particu- Jar gauge (Le. the pressure felt at any point in a circulating system is the pres- sure losses downstream of that point) therefore, as mentioned in the ‘preceeding paragraph, the friction pres- sure imposed on the standpipe is the friction pressure in the entire system, whereas, the pressure imposed at the bottom of the hole is only the friction pressure in the annulus during normal circulation (i. down the drillpipe and up the annulus) plus the hydrostatic pressure imposed by the fluids in the annulus. Another point of interests the casing seat. While circulating the long way, the pressure imposed on the cas- ing seat is the frictional pressure losses in the annulus above the seat plus the hydrostatic pressure down to that point. See Fig 1.5. ‘Several models have been developed to Basic Concepts and Terminology Figure 1.4 - The friction pressure felt at any point in a circulating system are the downstream frictional pressure losses. Figure 1.5 - Wellbore pressures during circulation. Table 1.1 - Breakdown of wellbore pressures from Figl.5 SYSTEM COMPONENT FRICTION HYDROSTATIC GAUGE GAUGE COMPONENT PRESSURE PRESSURE PRESSURE PRESSURE A 2000 0 2000 AB 800 8 1200 4000 5200 Bc 1000 c 200 4000 4200 co 100 D> 100 2000 2100 DE 100 E 0 ) ° ‘Texas A&M University 1-5 Petroleum EngineeringChapter 1 Basic Concepts and Terminology approximate system pressure losses for drilling fluids in both laminar and turbulent flow. Because of normal hole geometries and mud properties itis often assumed that the flow in the drillstring is turbulent while the flow in the annulus around the drillpipe is in laminar flow. Flow in the annulus around the drill collars may be either, but due to the relative short interval involved in this section the difference in pressure of laminar vs. turbulent flow is immaterial with respect to the total pump pressure. To keep things simple for our compari sons the friction formulas we will use are from “Security Drill String Systems Hydraulic Manual”:*3 Pressure drop = (0.000061 x MW x L x Q!-86) / 4.86 for pressure losses in the drillstring Pressure drop = (MW x Q2) / (10858 x An?) for pressure losses across the bit nozzles Pressure drop = [(1.4327 x 10-7) x MW xL x V2] / (Dh - Dp) for pressure losses in the annulus Where: ‘MW - Mud Weight (ppg) L -Length (ft) Q - Circulation Rate (gpm) d_ - Inside Diameter of Pipe (in) ‘An - Area of Nozzles (sq. in.) V_ - Annular Velocity (fv/min) Dh - Hole Diameter (in) Dp - Diameter of Pipe O.D. (in) Annular velocity can be calculated by: V=24,5Q/ Dn? - Dp?) Good hydraulics optimization results in approximately 50 - 65 % of the total friction losses across the bit, 25 - 40 % of the friction pressure occurs in the drillpipe and drill collars, and 10 - 15 % of the losses are in the annulus.345 The relatively low percentage of friction pressure in the annulus is due the large flow area in the annulus compared to the jet nozzles. and drillstring. During workover and completion operations, reverse circulation is very common. Revers- ing out can have a major effect on bottom hole pressure. As we mentioned above, the * The pressure drop calculations used here and in the “Security Drill String Systems Hydraulic Manual” do not take into account the effects of viscosity on pressure losses. A more accurate, though more complex, pressure drop calculation would be to use equations based on the Bingham plastic model or the Power law model. Both models are easily found in published literature.45 ‘Texas A&M University 1-6 Petroleum EngineeringChapter 1 Basic Concepts and Terminology pressure imposed upon any point in the circulating system from friction losses is the pres- sure losses occurring downstream of the point of interest, hence reversing out will result in the friction losses through the bit and the workstring being imposed on the bottom of the hole. Since there is a high percentage of the total pressure losses attributed to the pressure losses through the workstring and bit, reversing out can impose a much higher bottom hole pressure than circulating the long way. The pressure imposed on the casing seat while reversing out would be the annular hydrostatic pressure plus the annular friction pressure below the casing seat plus the pressure losses through the bit and the workstring. Slow Pump Pressure (SPP) During a normal well kill operation we want to circulate at a reduced rate to allow better control of circulating pressures and to allow us to keep the mud properties (i.e. density, and viscosity) at desired values, especially the mud weight. Since we will be using the drillpipe pressure during the kill operation to determine the Bottom Hole Pressure, we must know how much friction pressure it will take to circulate through the drillstring. We can measure this friction pressure at a reduced rate before a kick is taken. Recording the circulating pressure at the reduced rate is referred to as taking a “Slow Pump Pressure”. The slow pump pressure is also called “kill rate pressure, slow circulating pressure, kill speed pres- sure, etc.”. During a kill operation, the circulating rate must be held constant at the slow pump rate if the measured SPP is to be maintained. The SPP measured is actually the total system pressure loss. We only want the pressure losses in the drillstring, but at this low rate, the annular friction pressure is negligible, and can be ignored, therefore the SPP measured is a good approximation of the friction in the drillstring. ‘To take a slow pump pressure, you merely pick up off bottom and circulate at a reduced rate of 1/2 to 1/3 of the normal drilling rate (for a power rig the pumps are often circulated at idle) and read the pump pressure recorded on the drillpipe gauge on the choke panel, since these are the gauges that the choke operator will be using during a kill operation. However, it is a good idea to record the pressure from another gange in case the choke panel gauges ‘malfunction, Often more than one SPP is taken for each pump. From our previous discussion of Pump Pressure, we know that the friction pressure is a function of mud weight, depth, pump speed, pipe size, bit size, and jet nozzle size. Any time one of these factors changes, the friction pressure changes and we need to take a new SPP. It is common to take a slow pump pressure: every tour by each driller when the pumps are repaired or liners changed. if mud properties are changed for every 500 feet of hole drilled when the bottom hole assembly is changed when the bit nozzles are changed. ‘Texas A&M University 1-7 Petroleum Engineering