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LM35 Precision Centigrade Temperature Sensors General Description The LM35 series are precision integrated-circuit temperaturesensors, whose output voltage is linearly proportional to theCelsius (Centigrade) temperature. The LM35 thus has anadvantage over linear temperature sensors calibrated in\u02da Kelvin, as the user is not required to subtract a largeconstant voltage from its output to obtain convenient Centi-grade scaling. The LM35 does not require any externalcalibration or trimming to provide typical accuracies of\u00b11\u20444\u02daCat room temperature and\u00b13\u20444\u02daC over a full \u221255 to +150\u02daCtemperature range. Low cost is assured by trimming andcalibration at the wafer level. The LM35\u2019s low output imped-ance, linear output, and precise inherent calibration makeinterfacing to readout or control circuitry especially easy. Itcan be used with single power supplies, or with plus andminus supplies. As it draws only 60 \u00b5A from its supply, it hasvery low self-heating, less than 0.1\u02daC in still air. The LM35 israted to operate over a \u221255\u02da to +150\u02daC temperature range,while the LM35C is rated for a \u221240\u02da to +110\u02daC range (\u221210\u02dawith improved accuracy). The LM35 series is available packaged in hermetic TO-46 transistor packages, while theLM35C, LM35CA, and LM35D are also available in theplastic TO-92 transistor package. The LM35D is also avail-able in an 8-lead surface mount small outline package and aplastic TO-220 package. Features n Calibrated directly in \u02da Celsius (Centigrade) n Linear + 10.0 mV/\u02daC scale factor n 0.5\u02daC accuracy guaranteeable (at +25\u02daC) n Rated for full \u221255\u02da to +150\u02daC range n Suitable for remote applications n Low cost due to wafer-level trimming n Operates from 4 to 30 volts n Less than 60 \u00b5A current drain n Low self-heating, 0.08\u02daC in still air n Nonlinearity only\u00b11\u20444\u02daC typical n Low impedance output, 0.1\u2126 for 1 mA load The LM35 is an integrated circuit sensor that can be used to measure temperature with an electrical output proportional to the temperature (in oC) The LM35 - An Integrated Circuit Temperature Sensor Why Use LM35s To Measure Temperature? o You can measure temperature more accurately than a using a thermistor. o The sensor circuitry is sealed and not subject to oxidation, etc. o The LM35 generates a higher output voltage than thermocouples and may not require that the output voltage be amplified. What Does An LM35 Look Like? o Here it is.

What Does an LM35 Do? How does it work? o It has an output voltage that is proportional to the Celsius temperature. o The scale factor is .01V/oC o The LM35 does not require any external calibration or trimming and maintains an accuracy of +/-0.4 oC at room temperature and +/- 0.8 oC over a range of 0 oC to +100 oC. o Another important characteristic of the LM35DZ is that it draws only 60 micro amps from its supply and possesses a low self-heating capability. The sensor self-heating causes less than 0.1 oC temperature rise in still air. The LM35 comes in many different packages, including the following. TO-92 plastic transistor-like package, T0-46 metal can transistor-like package 8-lead surface mount SO-8 small outline package TO-202 package. (Shown in the picture above) How Do You Use An LM35? (Electrical Connections) o Here is a commonly used circuit. For connections refer to the picture above. o In this circuit, parameter values commonly used are:

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Vc = 4 to 30v 5v or 12 v are typical values used. Ra = Vc /10-6 Actually, it can range from 80 K to 600 K , but most just use 80 K.

Here is a photo of the LM 35 wired on a circuit board. The white wire in the photo goes to the power supply. Both the resistor and the black wire go to ground. The output voltage is measured from the middle pin to ground.l

What Can You Expect When You Use An LM35? o You will need to use a voltmeter to sense Vout. o The output voltage is converted to temperature by a simple conversion factor. o The sensor has a sensitivity of 10mV / oC. o Use a conversion factor that is the reciprocal, that is 100 oC/V. o The general equation used to convert output voltage to temperature is: Temperature ( oC) = Vout * (100 oC/V) So if Vout is 1V , then, Temperature = 100 oC The output voltage varies linearly with temperature. Getting an ADC0809 Analog to Digital Converter to Work for You Prepared by Shauna Rae - November 1999 Introduction This set of student application notes is to be used to help the user interface an Analog to Digital Converter (ADC) with an FPGA. It is important to note that the ADC0808/ADC0809 ADC used was a Texas Instruments chip although the notes should work just as well with a National Semiconductor device. Be sure to consult the manufactures data-sheets for other chips. The ADC0808/ADC0809 is an 8 bit ADC that also contains an 8 channel multiplexer. The FPGA used in this case was the Altera 10k20RC240-4 that is found on the UP-1 boards used in the course. The purpose of this documentation is to first introduce users to the ADC0808/ADC0809, then to outline how to connect external circuitry to the ADC, and then describe how to interface the chip with the FPGA. For a quick reference refer to table 2. How does the ADC work? Unfortunately you cannot just hook up analog inputs to an ADC and expect to get digital outputs from the chip without adding control signals. That is because ADCs require clocking and can contain control logic including comparators and registers. The ADC0808/ADC0809 contains all of these and also has a multiplexer. This means that in order to get it to work, there is a total of seven control signals that must be sent from the FPGA. These are the address lines, A, B, and C, Address Latch Enable (ALE), Clock, Start, and Output Enable (OE). There is also one control signal which is sent to the FPGA, it is the End of Conversion (EOC) signal. Table 2 provides a summary of all of the input and output to the chip. All of the signals are explained below. Address Lines Because the chip has an 8 channel multiplexer there are three address select lines: A, B, and C. C is the most significant bit and A is the least . See table 1 for details. Table 1: Channel Selection Selected Analog Address Channel Line C B A IN0 L L L IN1 L L H IN2 L H L

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IN3 IN4 IN5 IN6 IN7 L H H H H H L L H H H L H L H

ALE ALE is required to load the selected address lines into the ADC. Once loaded the multiplexer sends the appropriate channel to the converter on the chip. The ALE should be pulsed for at least 100ns in order for the addresses to get loaded properly. As with all control signals it is required to have an input value of Vcc - 1.5 up to 15V for a high and 1.5V down to -0.3V for a low. The following control signals are used to control the conversion. Clock The clock signal is required to cycle through the comparator stages to do the conversion. There are 8, 8 clock cycle periods required in order to complete an entire conversion. This means that an entire conversion takes at least 64 clock cycles. (Up to 72 if the start signal is received in the middle of an 8 clock cycle period.) The clock should conform to the same range as all other control signals. The maximum frequence of the clock is 1.2MHz. The maximum clock frequency is affected by the source impedance of the analog inputs. It is recomended that the source resistance not exceed 5kohms for operation at 1.2MHz and 10komhs for operation at 640kHz. Note that when operating the ADC at 500kHz and below the ALE signal and the Start signal can be tied together. This is how the ADC is implemented in the VHDL code provided. Start The purpose of the start signal is two fold. On the rising edge of the pulse the internal registers are cleared and on the falling edge of the pulse the conversion is initiated. Like the ALE pulse the minimum pulse width is 100ns. The signal can be tie to the ALE signal when the clock frequency is below 500kHz. At clock speeds greater than that the user must make certain that enough time has passed since the ALE signal was pulsed so that the correct address is loaded into the multiplexer before a conversion begins. Note that it can take up to 2.5 microseconds for this to occur. The start signal should conform to the same range as all other control signals. OE The Output Enable signal causes the ADC to actually output the digital values on the output lines. The ADC stores the data in a tri-state output latch until the next conversion is started, but the data is only output when enabled. In this implementation the OE signal is pulsed high one clock cycle after the EOC signal goes high and remains high until the data is safely stored into the desired register in the FPGA. The OE signal should conform to the same range as all the other control signals. EOC The End of Conversion signal is sent to the FPGA from the ADC. The signal goes low once a conversion is initiated by the start signal and remains low until a conversion is complete. Table 2: Description of Input and Output of the ADC Pin Label Input/Output Description Required Number Note: All control signals should have a high voltage from Vcc - 1.5 to 15V and a low voltage from 1.5V to -0.3V. 1 IN3 Input Analog data in. It is selected as channel 3 No, can tie by the multiplexer. CBA = 011. to ground 2 IN4 Input Analog data in. It is on channel 4 of the No, can tie multiplexer. CBA = 100. to ground 3 IN5 Input Analog data on channel 5 of the No, can tie multiplexer. CBA = 101. to ground 4 IN6 Input Analog data on channel 6 of the No, can tie multiplexer. CBA = 110. to ground 5 IN7 Input Analog data on channel 7 of the No, can tie multiplexer. CBA = 111. to ground 6 Start Input It is a control signal from the FPGA, which Yes tells the converter when to start a conversion. It is a pulse of at least 100ns

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7 EOC Output in width. Signal from the ADC. It goes low when a conversion is started and high at the end of a conversion. Users can look for a rising edge transition. This is a bit of the digital converted output. Where 2-8 is the LSB and 2 -1 is the MSB. Control signal for FPGA that turns the output of the ADC on while high. Useful for handshaking. Clock signal from FPGA. Max 1.2MHz. Power to the chip. Range 4.5V to 6.0V DC. Top rail of Reference voltage. The voltage level that, when received as an input, will output "11111111" to the FPGA. Max Value Vcc + 0.1V Ground. 0V This is a bit of the digital converted output. Where 2-8 is the LSB and 2 -1 is the MSB. This is a bit of the digital converted output. Where 2-8 is the LSB and 2 -1 is the MSB. Bottom rail of Reference voltage. The voltage level that, when received as an input, will output "00000000" to the FPGA. Min Value -0.1V This is a bit of the digital converted output. 2-8 is the LSB. This is a bit of the digital converted output. Where 2-8 is the LSB and 2 -1 is the MSB. This is a bit of the digital converted output. Where 2-8 is the LSB and 2 -1 is the MSB. This is a bit of the digital converted output. Where 2-8 is the LSB and 2 -1 is the MSB. This is a bit of the digital converted output. 2 -1 is the MSB. Control signal from FPGA. This should be a pulse from the FPGA sent when the address is ready to be loaded into the ADC. The minimum pulse width is 100ns. It can be tied to the Start line if the clock is operated under 500kHz. Control signal from FPGA. This is an address select line for the multiplexer. It is the MSB of the select lines. Control signal from FPGA. This is an address select line for the multiplexer. It is the Second bit of the select lines. Control signal from FPGA. This is an address select line for the multiplexer. It is the LSB of the select lines. Analog data on channel 0 of the multiplexer. CBA = 000. Analog data on channel 1 of the multiplexer. CBA = 001. Yes

2-5

Output

No

Output Enable

Input

No, can tie to Vcc. Yes Yes Yes

10 11 12

Clock Input Vcc Input VREF(+) Input

13 14

GND 2-7

Input Output

Yes No

15

2-6

Output

No

16

VREF(-)

Input

Yes

17 18

2-8 2-4

Output Output

No No

19

2-3

Output

No

20

2-2

Output

No

21 22

2-1 ALE

Output Input

No Yes

23

ADD C

Input

No, can tie to ground No, can tie to ground No, can tie to ground No, can tie to ground No, can tie to ground

24

ADD B

Input

25

ADD A

Input

26 27

IN0 IN1

Input Input

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Analog data on channel 2 of the No, can tie multiplexer. CBA = 010. to ground. Restrictions on external circuitry The ADC0808/0809 was designed for simple interface with analog inputs, especially transducers. There are a couple of limitations that follow: The source resistance must be below 10kohms for operation below 640kHz and below 5kohms for operation around 1.2MHhz. The source must remain stable while it is being sampled and should contain little noise. This means it must remain stable for up to 72 clock cycles. If Vcc and ground are used as reference voltages, they should be isolated by decoupling with a 1 microF capacitor. VOLTAGE REGULATORS A Voltage Regulator (also called a "regulator") has only three legs and appears to be a comparatively simple device but it is actually a very complex integrated circuit. A regulator converts varying input voltage and produces a constant "regulated" output voltage. Voltage regulators are available in a variety of outputs, typically - 5 volts, 9 volts and 12 volts. The last two digits in the name indicate the output voltage. Name Voltage LM7805 + 5 volts LM7809 + 9 volts LM7812 + 12 volts LM7905 - 5 volts LM7909 - 9 volts LM7912 - 12 volts The "LM78XX" series of voltage regulators are designed for positive input. For applications requiring negative input the "LM79XX" series is used. 28 IN2 Input

Symbol for a Voltage Regulator. This device looks like a Transistor, but it is actually a complex Integrated Circuit. A LM7805 Regulator

The circuit diagram below represents a typical use of a voltage regulator.

The LM7805 can reliably deliver 1 amp at a constant voltage. How it Works: The transformer drops 240 volt 'mains' voltage to 8.5 volts. The diode 'bridge' changes the 8.5 volts AC into DC. The 2500uF capacitor helps to maintain a constant input into the regulator. As a general guide this capacitor should be rated at a minimum of 1000uF for each amp of current drawn and at least TWICE the input voltage.

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The 0.1uF capacitor eliminates any high frequency pulses that could otherwise interfere with the operation of the regulator. Voltage regulators are very robust. They can withstand over-current draw due to short circuits and also overheating. In both cases the regulator will shut down before damage occurs. The only way to destroy a regulator is to apply reverse voltage to its input. Reverse polarity destroys the regulator almost instantly. To avoid this possibility you should always use diode protection of the power supply. This is especially important when using nine volt battery supplies as it is common for people to 'test' the battery by connecting it one way and then the other. Even this short 'test' would destroy the regulator if a protection diode were not used. All of the interfaces described on this site have protection diodes for this reason. Usually a 1N4004, 1 amp power diode is connected in series with the power supply. Input Voltage: As a general rule the input voltage should be limited to 2 to 3 volts above the output voltage. The LM78XX series can handle up to 30 volts input, but the power difference between the input voltage/current ratio and output voltage/current ratio appears as heat. If the input voltage is unnecessarily high the regulator will get very hot. Unless sufficient heat-sinking is provided the regulator will shut down. The output current of a power supply based on a Voltage Regulator can be increased using a power transistor such as the 2955 series. These transistors can pass several amps quite safely.

It is possible to increase the output voltage of a Regulator circuit using a pair of 'voltage-divider' resistors (R1 and R2 in the diagram below), or a zener diode. It is not possible to obtain a voltage lower than the stated rating. ie you could not use a 12 volt regulator to make a 5 volt power supply, but you could use a 5 volt regulator to make a 12 volt supply.

Some regulators are designed to produce a regulated voltage as low as 1.7 volts, for example the LM317. This type of regulator is ideal to use in 'variable' power supplies able to provide 1 amp regulated DC at voltages ranging from 1.7 to around 40 volts. The interfaces described on this site are based on either 5 volt, or 12 volt integrated circuits. They use either LM7805, or LM7812 regulators. How to Connect a Voltage Regulator in a Circuit In this article, we go over how to connect a voltage regulator to a circuit to get a specific DC output regulated voltage. Depending on the voltage regulator in use, we can get a regulated positive or negative voltage, at whichever voltage we want. The LM78XX voltage regulators are a popular kind for regulating and outputting positive voltage, while the LM79XX are a popular series of regulators for negative voltage. In this article, we use a positive voltage regulator, which outputs 5V, the LM7805 regulator.

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Before we can hook up the circuit, let's first go over the pinout diagram of the voltage regulator, which is vital for hooking up the circuit. A voltage regulator is a 3-terminal device.

Pin 1 is the Input Pin. The output voltage of whatever voltage source you want to regulate down (whether it's a transformer, battery, etc.) is fed into this pin. So for instance, if you have 10 volts coming from a transformer that you want regulated down to 5 volts, the output of the transformer (the 10 volts) is fed into the regulator input (pin 1) so that the regulator can regulate it down to your wanted voltage (5 volts). The voltage regulator should always be fed as smooth of a DC signal as possible (which gives the best regulated output) so it can regulate it down to its specified voltage. Remember, the input voltage has to be larger than the voltage that the regulator regulates out. In this case, we are using a LM7805, which outputs 5 volts. In order for the regulator to output 5 volts, the voltage entering has to be at least 2 volts higher, so it has to be at least 7 volts. 7 volts would work perfect. However, for experimental purposes and ease of getting parts, we will use a 9-volt battery as our input voltage. Pin 2 is Ground. It hooks up to the ground in our circuit. Without ground, the circuit couldn't be complete because the voltage wouldn't have electric potential and the circuit wouldn't have a return path. Ground is essential. Pin 3 is the Output Pin. This is the pin that gives out the regulated voltage, which, in this case, is 5 volts. At the end of this experiment, when our circuit is hooked up, we're going to read out the voltage with a multimeter and it should give out close to 5 volts. Okay, now let's build the circuit. These are the Parts You Need To Do So -LM7805 Voltage Regulator Chip -9-volt Battery -0.33uF Ceramic Capacitor -0.1uF Ceramic Capacitor -1K Resistor -LED If you don't have all the parts, don't feel bad. You can buy them at anytime and come back to this page and do the experiment anytime. For now, you can just follow along. Let's view the complete circuit now and explanations will ensue.

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The first capacitor, the 0.33uF ceramic capacitor, is hooked up after the voltage source, in this case the 9-volt battery, and before the input of the LM7805 regulator. This capacitor is there to filter out any noise coming from the voltage source (the battery). The voltage regulator works best and will be most efficient when a clean DC signal is fed into it. We don't want any ac noise (ripple) imposed on the DC line voltage. The capacitor, in essence, acts as a bypass capacitor. It shorts the AC signal of the voltage signal (which is noise on the voltage signal) to ground and only the DC portion of the signal goes into the regulator. The second capacitor, the 0.1uF ceramic capacitor, is hooked up after the voltage regulator. This capacitor is there again to filter out any noise or high-frequency (ac) signals that may be on the DC voltage line. For a circuit like this, where we're lighting an LED, it isn't exactly crucial to have a pure DC signal, but in other applications, such as when outputting voltage to power a logic chip, which needs a precise voltage fed into it in order to give the correct logic output, it is crucial. That's why it's a good idea to get into hooking up a voltage regulator properly from the sart. Okay, so let's recap on the circuit. The circuit begins at the 9-volt battery. This produces a voltage of 9 volts. The first capacitor, the ceramic 0.33uF, cleans up the signal if any (ac) noise is present on this. It shorts this noise to ground and allows the pure DC signal into the regulator. The regulator regulates this voltage down to 5 volts. After it comes out of the regulator, the other capacitor, the 0.1uF ceramic, cleans up any high-frequency or ac noise that may come out, again to produce a clean DC signal. Now this DC voltage, clean and crisp, is ready to power whatever you want it to, in this case, the load is a resistor and a LED. Keep in mind that the design of a voltage regulator depends on the voltage regulator being used and the intended use of a circuit. Always consult the Manufacturer's Datasheet for the voltage regulator in use for a circuit to see how to hook it up with the necessary required external components. Usually the only external components necessary are just capacitors, though heat sinks may also need to be added when heat dissipation is necessary. The Datasheet specifies which value of capacitors to use, so it's a good idea to learn from the people who manufacturered the chip. Also, design changes when dealing with the intended use of the circuit. When the load of a circuit is stable and unchanging, as in the example above, it is usually not necessary to add a large electrolytic capacitor on the output to act as a smoothing capacitor. But if you're going to have a varying load, a potentiometer, for instance, on the output, it is well advised to add an electrolytic capacitor in parallel to the ceramic capacitor. This electrolytic capacitor acts as a smoothing capacitor, when load resistance changes cause abrupt voltage spikes and drops, in a circuit. This capacitor charges up with voltage when the circuit has excess spikes in current and discharges to supply voltage when the circuit is low on current. Therefore, it has a smoothing effect and even things out. Essentially, it acts as a load balancer. More will be on this for more advanced projects, but this page is a good start for those starting off in connecting voltage regulators for basic circuits. Crystal ocl A quartz crystal resonator plays a vital role in electronics oscillator circuitry. Sometimes mispronounced as crystal oscillator, it is rather a very important part of the feedback network of the oscillator circuitry. Electronics oscillators are used in frequency control application finding their usage in almost every industry ranging from small chips to aerospace. A quartz crystal is the heart of such type of resonators. Their characteristics like high quality factor (Q), stability, small size and low cost make them superior over other resonators like LC circuit, turning forks, ceramic resonator etc. The basic phenomenon behind working of a quartz crystal oscillator is the inverse piezo electric effect i.e., when electric field is applied across certain materials they start producing mechanical deformation. These

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mechanical deformation/movements are dependent on the elementary structure of the quartz crystal. Quartz is one of the naturally occurring materials which show the phenomena of piezo electricity, however for the purpose of resonator it is artificially developed since processing the naturally occurring quartz is difficult and costly process. The image above shows a commonly used quartz crystal resonator. It is widely used in electronic oscillators circuitry used in digital circuits and microcontroller/processors. How to use Transistor (BJT) as Switch Transistor Terminology A transistor has three legs: a collector, an emitter and a base. Below is the symbols for an NPN and a PNP transistor.

NPN Transistor

PNP Transistor Transistors packages

Transistors comes in different packages and you have to find out the Emitter, Collector and Base of it from datasheet or using multimeter. Some of the packages are shown below.

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Transistors as switches The easiest way to understand transistors is to think of them as switches. Transistor is a current controlled device. as the current flows through the base of the transistor , it works like a close switch. You can switch a big current (between the collector and emitter) with a much smaller current (in the base). Lets look at a circuit diagram below.

NPN transistor as a switch (OFF) When there is no current in base of the Transistor then the transistor is in Cutt-off State hence the transistor act as an open switch in series with the LED thus no current flows in the circuit and the LED is OFF.

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NPN transistor as a switch (ON) When the current flow in the base of the Transistor then the transistor is in Saturation State hence the transistor act as an Close switch in series with the LED thus current flows in the circuit and the LED is ON.

The circuit above is a typical example of driving LED's from a microcontroller or a PC's parallel port. The port is well protected because it will only supply a small current, though the small current is enough to switch a much bigger load.

We can also use a single supply instead of two supplies for the transistor to act as switch. The figure below divides a single supply in to two supplies. The switching mechanism is same as discussed above.

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There is no current to the base, so the transistor is in the cut off condition with no collector current. All the voltage drop is accoss the transistor.

The base resistor is chosen small enough so that the base current drives the transistor into saturation. In this example the mechanical switch is used to produce the base current to close the transistor switch to show the principles. In practice, any voltage on the base sufficient to drive the transistor to saturation will close the switch and light the bulb. The transistor as a switch We need your help! This page requires proofreading - If you notice any errors, please post on our forums Because a transistor's collector current is proportionally limited by its base current, it can be used as a sort of current-controlled switch. A relatively small flow of electrons sent through the base of the transistor has the ability to exert control over a much larger flow of electrons through the collector. Suppose we had a lamp that we wanted to turn on and off with a switch. Such a circuit would be extremely simple as in Figure below(a). For the sake of illustration, let's insert a transistor in place of the switch to show how it can control the flow of electrons through the lamp. Remember that the controlled current through a transistor must go between collector and emitter. Since it is the current through the lamp that we want to control, we must position the collector and emitter of our transistor where the two contacts of the switch were. We must also make sure that the lamp's current will move against the direction of the emitter arrow symbol to ensure that the transistor's junction bias will be correct as in Figure below(b).

(a) mechanical switch, (b) NPN transistor switch, (c) PNP transistor switch. A PNP transistor could also have been chosen for the job. Its application is shown in Figure above(c). The choice between NPN and PNP is really arbitrary. All that matters is that the proper current directions are maintained for the sake of correct junction biasing (electron flow going against the transistor symbol's arrow). Going back to the NPN transistor in our example circuit, we are faced with the need to add something more so that we can have base current. Without a connection to the base wire of the transistor, base current will be zero, and the transistor cannot turn on, resulting in a lamp that is always off. Remember that for an NPN transistor, base current must consist of electrons flowing from emitter to base (against the emitter arrow symbol, just like the lamp current). Perhaps the simplest thing to do would be to connect a switch between the base and collector wires of the transistor as in Figure below (a).

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Transistor: (a) cutoff, lamp off; (b) saturated, lamp on. If the switch is open as in (Figure above (a), the base wire of the transistor will be left floating (not connected to anything) and there will be no current through it. In this state, the transistor is said to be cutoff. If the switch is closed as in (Figure above (b), however, electrons will be able to flow from the emitter through to the base of the transistor, through the switch and up to the left side of the lamp, back to the positive side of the battery. This base current will enable a much larger flow of electrons from the emitter through to the collector, thus lighting up the lamp. In this state of maximum circuit current, the transistor is said to be saturated. Of course, it may seem pointless to use a transistor in this capacity to control the lamp. After all, we're still using a switch in the circuit, aren't we? If we're still using a switch to control the lamp -- if only indirectly -- then what's the point of having a transistor to control the current? Why not just go back to our original circuit and use the switch directly to control the lamp current? Two points can be made here, actually. First is the fact that when used in this manner, the switch contacts need only handle what little base current is necessary to turn the transistor on; the transistor itself handles most of the lamp's current. This may be an important advantage if the switch has a low current rating: a small switch may be used to control a relatively high-current load. More important, the current-controlling behavior of the transistor enables us to use something completely different to turn the lamp on or off. Consider Figure below, where a pair of solar cells provides 1 V to overcome the 0.7 V BE of the transistor to cause base current flow, which in turn controls the lamp.

Solar cell serves as light sensor. Or, we could use a thermocouple (many connected in series) to provide the necessary base current to turn the transistor on in Figure below.

A single thermocouple provides 10s of mV. Many in series could produce in excess of the 0.7 V transistor V BE to cause base current flow and consequent collector current to the lamp. Even a microphone (Figure below) with enough voltage and current (from an amplifier) output could turn the transistor on, provided its output is rectified from AC to DC so that the emitter-base PN junction within the transistor will always be forward-biased:

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Amplified microphone signal is rectified to DC bias the base of the transistor providing a larger collector current. The point should be quite apparent by now: any sufficient source of DC current may be used to turn the transistor on, and that source of current only need be a fraction of the current needed to energize the lamp. Here we see the transistor functioning not only as a switch, but as a true amplifier: using a relatively low-power signal to control a relatively large amount of power. Please note that the actual power for lighting up the lamp comes from the battery to the right of the schematic. It is not as though the small signal current from the solar cell, thermocouple, or microphone is being magically transformed into a greater amount of power. Rather, those small power sources are simply controlling the battery's power to light up the lamp. REVIEW: Transistors may be used as switching elements to control DC power to a load. The switched (controlled) current goes between emitter and collector; the controlling current goes between emitter and base. When a transistor has zero current through it, it is said to be in a state of cutoff (fully nonconducting). When a transistor has maximum current through it, it is said to be in a state of saturation (fully conducting). How to Choose Decoupling Capacitors By Peter Syslo, eHow Contributor A photo of various sizes of surface-mount capacitors. An integrated circuit, also known as an IC, is comprised of microscopic transistors that act as electronic switches. Each time one of those switches operates, the IC draws current from the circuit power supply. That current draw causes "spikes" or "ripples" in the overall circuit voltage, similar to a power surge in household wiring. Those spikes/ripples are called "noise" and they can affect digital circuits and IC functioning. To ensure error-free operation, capacitors are used to smooth-out any voltage ripples. When used for that purpose, they are called decoupling or bypass capacitors. Both the circuit power supply and certain ICs may require decoupling capacitors. The best way to choose these capacitors is to use the manufacturer's datasheet as a reference. Other People Are Reading

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Print this article Things You'll Need LM7805 voltage regulator datasheet AD7376 digital potentiometer datasheet Instructions 1. Controlling Noise in a Power Source o 1 Obtain the datasheet for the circuit power source. Often, a voltage regulator such as a five-volt LM7805 is used in digital circuits. For this example, National Semiconductor's "LM340/LM78XX..." datasheet will be used.

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2 Locate the section of the LM7805 datasheet titled "Typical Applications." Refer to the diagram that is labeled "Fixed Output Regulator." For the LM7805 regulator, the datasheet suggests using two capacitors, C1 and C2. On datasheets and schematics, capacitors are symbolized by two horizontal lines and are labeled with "C" and a number. o Sponsored Links OCR Software - Transym V3.3 now available- highly accurate New features added - Download Now www.transym.com/download o 3 Locate the suggested capacitor type for C1 and C2. On the LM7805 datasheet, the second note under the "Fixed Output Regulator" diagram suggests a ceramic disc capacitor for C2. A ceramic disc capacitor can also be used for C1. Ceramic disc capacitors are effective for controlling noise in power sources/regulators because they have a low ESR, or Equivalent Series Resistance. Low-ESR is a quality to look for in decoupling/bypass capacitors. o 4 Locate any polarity indications for C1 and C2. On the LM7805 datasheet there are no polarity indications for C1 and C2. If a capacitor is polarized, it will have a "+" next to one side of the capacitor symbol. Also, one side of the capacitor symbol may be curved, which designates the negative or "-" side. A polarized capacitor has to be connected in a specific way, like a battery. Polarity indications also mean that the manufacturer wants you to use an electrolytic or tantalum capacitor. o 5 Convert the values of C1 and C2 to capacitor codes. Use a code reference such as "Capacitor Code Information" in the "Resources" section. The LM7805 datasheet lists .22uF for C1 and .1uF for C2. The three-digit capacitor code for C1 is 224 and the code for C2 is 104. Most disc-type capacitors use a three-digit code for the value, which is printed on the surface of the capacitor. Converting the capacitor value into the correct code is essential. o 6 Examine the size of the connections for C1 and C2. One side of C1 is connected to the LM7805 input pin and the other side of C1 is connected to the LM7805 gnd pin. On side of C2 is connected to the LM7805 output pin and the other side of C2 is connected to the LM7805 gnd pin. Typically, the LM7805 is a through-hole (has pin/legs) component. A through-hole disc capacitor is a good match and it can accommodate the length of the required connections. o 7 Calculate the overall space requirements for the capacitor. This may dictate the packaging-style (through-hole or surface-mount) of the capacitor. In general, a decoupling/bypass capacitor is most effective when it is placed close to the power supply and the capacitor leads/legs are kept as short as possible. Again, through-hole, ceramic disc capacitors are a proper match for the LM7805. o 8 Verify maximum voltage ratings for C1 and C2. It is important to choose a capacitor with a voltage rating that is above the highest voltage level of the circuit. Ceramic disc voltage ratings are printed on the capacitor or are listed on the manufacturer's specifications sheet. For the 5V, LM7805 circuit, a safe capacitor rating is 25V. Most ceramic disc capacitors are actually rated at 50V or above. 2. Controlling Noise in an IC o 9 Obtain the manufacturer's datasheet for the IC. Analog Devices' datasheet for the AD7376 digital potentiometer will be used for this example. The datasheet is often the best source for capacitor information because it usually explains how to use the IC in a circuit. o 10 Locate the section of the AD7376 datasheet titled "Layout And Power Supply Biasing." Four bypass capacitors (C1, C2, C3 and C4) are pictured in the diagram. o 11 Locate the suggestions for capacitor type. The AD7376 datasheet states that tantalum or electrolytic capacitors should be used for C3 and C4. Tantalum is the best choice for noise suppression because of the low-ESR rating. C2 and C1 are not specified, but low-ESR ceramic disc capacitors are ideal. o 12 Locate any polarity indications for the capacitors. The AD7376 datasheet has a "+" on one side of C3 and C4. The other two capacitors, C1 and C2, have no polarity indications. C3 and C4 are tantalum capacitors, which are polarity-sensitive. C1 and C2 are ceramic disc, which are not polarized. o 13 Examine the size of the capacitor connections. For Vdd and gnd, the positive side of C3 is connected to Vdd and the negative side of C3 is connected to gnd or ground. One side of C1 is connected to Vdd and the other side of

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C1 is connected to gnd. Since the AD7376 is a small IC and the pins are tightly spaced, surface-mount ceramic and tantalum capacitors can be used. Surface-mount have flat terminals instead of pins/legs. o 14 Calculate the overall space requirements for the capacitors. The AD7376 datasheet states that a remote connection to the gnd pin is desirable. This means that the gnd connection of the capacitors will be a wire or circuit trace that travels a short distance to the gnd pin of the AD7376 chip. Because the smallest circuit pathway and shortest connections are most effective, surface-mount capacitors are the best choice for the AD7376. o 15 Convert the values of C3 and C4 to capacitor codes. They are listed as 10uF but the datasheet states that they can be between 1uF and 10uF. On a surface-mount tantalum capacitor, the printed code for 10uF will be 106. o 16 Convert the values of C1 and C2 to capacitor codes. They are both listed as .1uF. Ceramic capacitors will have a three-digit code printed on the surface. For both C1 and C2, the printed code will be "104." o 17 Verify the voltage ratings for the capacitors. Again, make sure the rating is higher than the maximum circuit voltage. The voltage rating is printed on the capacitor or listed on the manufacturer's specifications sheet. NVRAM (Non-Volatile Random Access Memory) NVRAM is an acronym for Non-VolatileRandom Access Memory. NVRAM is a type of Random Access Memory (RAM) that retains its information when power is turned off. The NVRAM is a small 24 pin DIP (Dual Inline Package) integrated circuit chip and is thus able to obtain the power needed to keep it running from the CMOS battery installed in your motherboard. It keeps track of various system parameters such as serial number,Ethernet MAC (Media Access Control) address, HOSTID, date of manufacture, etc. NVRAM is therefore a type of non-volatile memory that offers random access. Types of NVRAM One type of NVRAM is SRAM that is made non-volatile by connecting it to a constant power source such as a battery. Since SRAM requires continual power supply in order to maintain its data, an NVRAM that is made from an SRAM will need to use an available power supply to make sure it continues working. Another type of NVRAM uses EEPROM (Electrically Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory) circuit chips to save its information when power is turned off. In this case, NVRAM is composed of a combination of SRAM and EEPROM chips incorporated into a single semi-conductor die. Benefits of NVRAM NVRAM chips work like static RAM NVRAMs provide superior performance over other NVM products NVRAM's serve applications that require high-speed read/write operations with non-volatile memories such as parallel processing controllers for LANs and antilock braking systems. NVRAM chips don't require much power and backup can be guaranteed for up to ten years. Bad NVRAM When NVRAM is failing, it generally means that your computer hardware is not retaining the necessary specialized settings that it ought to though the default BIOS settings remain. Since the BIOS relies on the settings stored in NVRAM in order to handle the particular hardware you have, performance may lack in stability. The contents of the NVRAM chip can become corrupted for a variety of reasons: A failure of the embedded battery. If the battery embedded in the NVRAM chip fails, then this means that your system clock will stop running and important system configuration information may not be maintained. A failure of the CMOS (BIOS) chip on your motherboard. If the CMOS chip is going bad or is not making proper contact with the motherboard's contacts, then the NVRAM will fail. When you get an error message about your NVRAM: You may need to purchase a new CMOS battery at your computer store to replace your current one. It is advisable to have a technician observe the battery first and determine whether you really need a new one. If the BIOS chip was the problem, then you will need to contact your hardware manufacturer who may give you a replacement chip depending on your warranty. If not, then you will need to replace your motherboard. You could also try to reprogram the NVRAM chip with a hostid and Ethernet address. You should only attempt to do this if you know exactly what you are doing; otherwise you should seek a technician's guidance. Flash memory basics and its interface to a processor: Introduction: Flash memory or a flash RAM is a type of nonvolatile semiconductor memory device where stored data exists even when memory device is not electrically powered. It's an improved version of electrically erasable

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programmable read-only memory (EEPROM). The difference between Flash Memory and EEPROM are, EEPROM erases and rewrite its content one byte at a time or in other words, at byte level. Where as Flash memory erases or writes its data in entire blocks, which makes it a very fast memory compared to EEPROM. Flash memory can't replace DRAM and SRAM because the speed at which the DRAM/SRAM can access data and also their ability to address at byte level can't be matched by Flash. The flash memory is also termed as Solid-state Storage Device (SSD) due to the absence of moving parts in comparison to traditional computer hard disk drive. Flash memory types: The two main types of flash memory are the NOR Flash & NAND Flash. Intel is the first company to introduce commercial (NOR type) flash chip in 1988 and Toshiba released world's first NAND-flash in 1989. NOR-flash is slower in erase-operation and write-operation compared to NAND-flash. That means the NANDflash has faster erase and write times. More over NAND has smaller erase units. So fewer erases are needed. NOR-flash can read data slightly faster than NAND. NOR offers complete address and data buses to randomly access any of its memory location (addressable to every byte). This makes it a suitable replacement for older ROM BIOS/firmware chips, which rarely needs to be updated. Its endurance is 10,000 to 1,000,000 erase cycles. NOR is highly suitable for storing code in embedded systems. Most of the today's microcontrollers comes with built in flash memory. NAND-flash occupies smaller chip area per cell. This maker NAND available in greater storage densities and at lower costs per bit than NOR-flash. It also has up to ten times the endurance of NOR-flash. NAND is more fit as storage media for large files including video and audio. The USB thumb drives, SD cards and MMC cards are of NAND type. NAND-flash does not provide a random-access external address bus so the data must be read on a block-wise basis (also known as page access), where each block holds hundreds to thousands of bits, resembling to a kind of sequential data access. This is one of the main reasons why the NAND-flash is unsuitable to replace the ROM, because most of the microprocessors and microcontrollers require byte-level random access. A write operation in any type of flash device can only be performed on an empty or erased unit. So in most cases write operation must be preceded by an erase operation. The erase operation is fairly straightforward in the case of NAND-flash devices. But for a NOR-flash, it is mandatory that all bytes in the target block should be written with zeros before they can be erased. The size of an erase-block in NOR-flash ranges from 64 to 128 Kbytes. Here a write/erase operation can take up to 5 s. But the NAND-flash has erase blocks 8 to 32 Kbytes in size. So it is obvious that the NAND performs the identical operation in a lesser time duration. INOR-flash interface resembles closely to a SRAM memory interface, which has enough address pins to map its entire media, allowing for easy access to every byte contained in it, where as the NAND-flash go for serially accessed complicated I/O mapped interface. Here the same pins are used for control, address & data. In traditional single-level cell flash devices, each cell stores only one bit of information. Later, many developers have developed a new form of flash memory known as multi-level cell flash that can store/hold more than one bits rather than a single bit in each memory cell, thus doubling the capacity of memory. Flash memory cell structure: Flash memory stores data in an array of memory cells. The memory cells are made from floating-gate MOSFETS (known as FGMOS). These FG MOSFETs (or FGMOS in short) have the ability to store an electrical charge for extended periods of time (2 to 10 years) even without a connecting to a power supply. The FGMOS is actually fabricated by electrically isolating the gate of a standard MOS transistor, so that there are no resistive connections to this gate (floating gate) (see Fig 1). A secondary gate (more than one in the case of multiple gate transistor) known as control gate is then deposited above this floating gate and is electrically isolated from it using an insulator like Si02. There will be only capacitive connection between the new inputs (control gates) and the floating gate, because the floating gate is completely surrounded by highly resistive material (SiO2). So, in terms of its DC operating point, the FG is a floating node.

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Fig 1 Each cell (FGMOS) of a NOR-flash memory resembles a standard MOSFET, except the FGMOS has two gates instead of one (see fig 2). On top is the control gate, as in ordinary MOS transistors. Below this control gate, situates the new gate called floating gate, which is insulated all around by the oxide layer (SiO2). The floating gate is interposed between the control gate and the MOSFET channel. Because the floating gate is electrically isolated by the oxide layer, any electrons placed on it are trapped there and, under normal conditions, will not discharge for many years.

Fig2 The names, NOR-flash & NAND-flash came from the structure used for the interconnections between memory cells (see fig 3). Cells in NOR-flash are connected in parallel to the bit lines so that each cell can be read/write/erase individually. This parallel connection of cells closely resembles to the parallel connection of transistors in a CMOS NOR gate, that's how it derives the name as NOR flash. In NAND-flash, cells are connected in series resembling a NAND gate, and so the name. The series connection prevents the cells from being programmed individually. These cells must be read in series.

Fig 3 A typical flash-array has a grid of columns and rows of FGMOS-transistor cells as shown in the Fig 4. The word line WL is the horizontal line and bit line BL is the vertical line (shown in Fig 4). The Control gates of the FGMOS cells are connected to the word-line WL. The decoded address is actually applied to this word-line. The bit line BL connects drains of the FGMOS cells together and represent data bus. The Source-line SL connects sources of the FGMOS to common ground. The voltage combinations applied to WL and BL define an operation, whether it is read, erase or program.

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Fig 4 Working principle: Flash stores the data by removing or putting electrons on its floating gate (see fig 5). Charge on floating gate affects the threshold of the memory element. When electrons are present on the floating gate, no current flows through the transistor, indicating a logic-0. When electrons are removed from the floating gate, the transistor starts conducting, indicating a logic-1. This is achieved by applying voltages between the control gate and source or drain.

Fig 5 Fowler-Nordheim (F-N) Tunneling and hot-electron injection are some of the process by which these operations are carried out in the flash cell. Tunneling is a process where electrons are transported through a barrier. Here the barrier is considered as the thickness of the Si02 insulator layer surrounding the floating gate. The tunneling process in oxide was first reported by Fowler and Nordheim, so the name. Let us now try to know how a NOR-flash cell operates. In NOR-flash program (or the memory write) is carried out via "hot electron injection" and erase via quantum tunneling. 1. Erase operation: The raw state of flash memory cells (A single-level NOR flash cell) will be bit 1's, (at default state) because floating gates carry no negative charges. Erasing a flash-memory cell (resetting to a logical 1) is achieved by applying a voltage across the source and control gate (word line). The voltage can be in the range of -9V to -12V. And also apply around 6V to the source. The electrons in the floating gate are pulled off and transferred to the source by quantum tunneling (a tunnel current). In other words, electrons tunnel from the floating gate to the source and substrate. 2. Write (program) operation: A NOR flash cell can be programmed, or set to a binary "0" value, by the following procedure. While writing a high voltage of around 12V is applied to the control gate (word line). If high voltage around 7V is

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applied to Bit Line (Drain terminal), bit 0 is stored in the cell. The channel is now turned on, so electrons can flow from the source to the drain. Through the thin oxide layer electrons move to the floating gate. The sourcedrain current is sufficiently high to cause some high-energy electrons to jump through the insulating layer onto the floating gate, via a process called hot-electron injection. Due to applied voltage at floating-gate the excited electrons are forced through and trapped on other side of the thin oxide layer, giving it a negative charge on the floating gate. These negatively charged electrons act as a barrier between the control gate and the floating gate. If low voltage is applied to the drain via the bit line, the amount of electrons on the floating gate remains the same, and logic state doesn't change, storing the bit 1. Since floating gate is insulated by oxide, the charge accumulated on the floating gate will not leak out, even if the power is turned off. A device called a cell sensor watches the level of the charge passing through the floating gate. If the flow through the gate crosses 50 percent threshold, it has a value of 1. When the charge passing through decline to below 50-percent threshold, than the value changes to 0. Because of the very good insulation properties of SiO2, the charge on the floating gate leaks away very slowly. 3. Read operation: Apply a voltage around 5V to the control gate and around 1V to the drain. The state of the memory cell is distinguished by the current flowing between the drain and the source. To read the data, a voltage is applied to the control gate, and the MOSFET channel will be either conducting or remain insulating, based on the threshold voltage of the cell, which is in turn controlled by charge on the floating gate. The current flow through the MOSFET channel is sensed and forms a binary code, reproducing the stored data. Flash Memory Interfacing: Flash memory interface is same as SRAM interface, except that the flash memory requires a 12V/5V programming voltage to erase and write new data.

Fig 6 The above figure is the schematic circuit diagram of a NOR flash IC 28F400 from Intel interfaced to a 16-bit (data) processor or a microcontroller. The 28F400 can be configured as 512K x 8 memory device or as a 256K x 16 memory device. Here in the above case its 512K x 8 configuration. The control connections pins CE, OE & WE are similar to SRAM interface.

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The A0 - A17 are address pins and DQ0 to DQ15 are data pins. The function of each control pins are, OE (OUTPUT ENABLE): Enables the device's outputs through the data buffers during a read cycle. OE is active low. WE (WRITE ENABLE): Controls writes to the command register and array blocks. WE is active low. Addresses and data are latched on the rising edge of the WE pulse. CE (CHIP ENABLE): Activates the device's control logic, input buffers, decoders and sense amplifiers. CE is active low. CE high de-selects the memory device and reduces power consumption to standby levels. If CE and RP are high, but not at a CMOS high level, the standby current will increase due to current flow through the CE and RP input stages. BYTE: Configures whether the device operates in byte-wide mode (x8) or word-wide mode (x16). This pin must be set at power-up or return from deep power-down and not changed during device operation. BYTE pin must be controlled at CMOS levels to meet the CMOS current specification in standby mode. When BYTE is at logic low, the byte-wide mode is enabled, where data is read and programmed on DQ0-DQ7 and DQ15/A-1 becomes the lowest order address that decodes between the upper and lower byte. DQ8-DQ14 are tri-stated during the byte-wide mode. When BYTE is at logic high, the word-wide mode is enabled, where data is read and programmed on DQ0-DQ15. Vpp (PROGRAM/ERASE POWER SUPPLY): For erasing memory array blocks or programming data in each block, a voltage either of 5 V 10% or 12 V 5% must be applied to this pin. When VPP < VPPLK all blocks are locked and protected against Program and Erase commands. RP/PWD (RESET/DEEP POWER-DOWN): Uses three voltage levels (VIL, VIH, and VHH) to control two different functions: reset/deep power-down mode and boot block unlocking. It is backward compatible with the BX/BL/BV products. When RP is at logic low, the device is in reset/deep power-down mode, which puts the outputs at High-Z, resets the Write State Machine, and draws minimum current. When RP is at logic high, the device is in standard operation. When RP transitions from logic-low to logic-high, the device defaults to the read array mode. When RP is at VHH, the boot block is unlocked and can be programmed or erased. This overrides any control from the WP input. The decoder IC 74LS139 is employed in the above circuit for selecting the flash memory through A19 and IO/M as inputs. Rs232 In telecommunications, RS-232 is the traditional name for a series of standards for serialbinary singleended data and control signals connecting between a DTE (Data Terminal Equipment) and a DCE (Data Circuitterminating Equipment). It is commonly used incomputer serial ports. The standard defines the electrical characteristics and timing of signals, the meaning of signals, and the physical size and pinout of connectors. The current version of the standard is TIA-232-F Interface Between Data Terminal Equipment and Data CircuitTerminating Equipment Employing Serial Binary Data Interchange , issued in 1997. An RS-232 port was once a standard feature of a personal computer for connections to modems, printers, mice, data storage,uninterruptible power supplies, and other peripheral devices. However, the low transmission speed, large voltage swing, and large standard connectors motivated development of the universal serial bus, which has displaced RS-232 from most of its peripheral interface roles. Many modern personal computers have no RS232 ports and must use an external converter to connect to older peripherals. Some RS-232 devices are still found, especially in industrial machines or scientific instruments. In RS-232, user data is sent as a time-series of bits. Both synchronous and asynchronous transmissions are supported by the standard. In addition to the data circuits, the standard defines a number of control circuits used to manage the connection between the DTE and DCE. Each data or control circuit only operates in one direction, that is, signaling from a DTE to the attached DCE or the reverse. Since transmit data and receive data are separate circuits, the interface can operate in a full duplex manner, supporting concurrent data flow in both directions. The standard does not define character framing within the data stream, or character encoding. [edit]Voltage levels

Diagrammatic oscilloscope trace of voltage levels for an uppercase ASCII "K" character (0x4b) with 1 start bit, 8 data bits, 1 stop bit. This is typical for start-stop communications, but the standard does not dictate a character format or bit order.

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Upper Picture: RS-232 signalling as seen when probed by an actual oscilloscope (Tektronix MSO4104B) for an uppercase ASCII "K" character (0x4b) with 1 start bit (always), 8 data bits, 1 stop bit and no parity bits (8N1) Lower Picture: Same signal was inputted into an RS-232 to UART converter, the output is depicted. The RS-232 standard defines the voltage levels that correspond to logical one and logical zero levels for the data transmission and the control signal lines. Valid signals are either in the range of +3 to +15 volts, or the range -3 to -15 volts; the range between -3 to +3 volts is not a valid RS-232 level. Data signals and control signals use opposite polarity to represent a "true" or logic 1 asserted state. For data transmission lines (TxD, RxD and their secondary channel equivalents) logic one is defined as a negative voltage, the signal condition is called marking. Logic zero is positive and the signal condition is termed spacing. Control signals have the opposite polarity; the asserted state is positive voltage and the inactive state is negative voltage. Examples of control lines include request to send (RTS), clear to send (CTS), data terminal ready (DTR), and data set ready (DSR). The standard specifies a maximum open-circuit voltage of 25 volts: signal levels of 5 V, 10 V, 12 V, and 15 V are all commonly seen depending on the voltages available to the line driver circuit. Some RS-232 driver chips have inbuilt circuitry to produce the required voltages from a 5 volt supply. RS-232 drivers and receivers must be able to withstand indefinite short circuit to ground or to any voltage level up to 25 volts. The slew rate, or how fast the signal changes between levels, is also controlled. Because the voltage levels are higher than logic levels typically used by integrated circuits, special intervening driver circuits are required to translate logic levels. These also protect the device's internal circuitry from short circuits or transients that may appear on the RS-232 interface, and provide sufficient current to comply with the slew rate requirements for data transmission. Because both ends of the RS-232 circuit depend on the ground pin being zero volts, problems will occur when connecting machinery and computers where the voltage between the ground pin on one end, and the ground pin on the other is not zero. This may also cause a hazardous ground loop. Use of a common ground limits RS-232 to applications with relatively short cables. If the two devices are far enough apart or on separate power systems, the local ground connections at either end of the cable will have differing voltages; this difference will reduce the noise margin of the signals. Balanced, differential, serial connections such as USB, RS-422 and RS485 can tolerate larger ground voltage differences because of the differential signaling. [7] Unused interface signals terminated to ground will have an undefined logic state. Where it is necessary to permanently set a control signal to a defined state, it must be connected to a voltage source that asserts the logic 1 or logic 0 level. Some devices provide test voltages on their interface connectors for this purpose. [edit]Connectors RS-232 devices may be classified as Data Terminal Equipment (DTE) or Data Communication Equipment (DCE); this defines at each device which wires will be sending and receiving each signal. The standard recommended but did not make mandatory the D-subminiature 25 pin connector. In general and according to the standard, terminals and computers have male connectors with DTE pin functions, and modems have female connectors with DCE pin functions. Other devices may have any combination of connector gender and pin definitions. Many terminals were manufactured with female terminals but were sold with a cable with male connectors at each end; the terminal with its cable satisfied the recommendations in the standard. Presence of a 25 pin D-sub connector does not necessarily indicate an RS-232-C compliant interface. For example, on the original IBM PC, a male D-sub was an RS-232-C DTE port (with a non-standard current loop interface on reserved pins), but the female D-sub connector was used for a parallel Centronics printer port. Some personal computers put non-standard voltages or signals on some pins of their serial ports. The standard specifies 20 different signal connections. Since most devices use only a few signals, smaller connectors can often be used. [edit]Signals The following table lists commonly used RS-232 signals and pin assignments. [8] See serial port (pinouts) for nonstandard variations including the popular DE-9 connector. Signal Name Data Terminal Ready Typical purpose Indicates presence of DTE to DCE. DB-25 pin Abbreviation DTE DCE DTR DCD DSR RI 20 8 6 22 Origin

Data Carrier DCE is connected to the telephone line. Detect Data Set Ready Ring Indicator DCE is ready to receive commands or data. DCE has detected an incoming ring signal on the telephone line.

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Request To DTE requests the DCE prepare to receive data. Send Clear To Send Indicates DCE is ready to accept data. RTS CTS TxD RxD GND PG common common 4 5 2 3 7 1

Transmitted Carries data from DTE to DCE. Data Received Data Common Ground Protective Ground Carries data from DCE to DTE.

TTL Transistortransistor logic (TTL) is a class of digital circuits built from bipolar junction transistors (BJT) and resistors. It is called transistortransistor logicbecause both the logic gating function (e.g., AND) and the amplifying function are performed by transistors (contrast with RTL and DTL). TTL is notable for being a widespread integrated circuit (IC) family used in many applications such as computers, industrial controls, test equipment and instrumentation, consumer electronics, synthesizers, etc. The designation TTLis sometimes used to mean TTL-compatible logic levels, even when not associated directly with TTL integrated circuits, for example as a label on the inputs and outputs of electronic instruments. [1] After introduction in integrated circuit form in 1963 by Sylvania, TTL integrated circuits were manufactured by several semiconductor companies, with the7400 series by Texas Instruments becoming particularly popular. TTL manufacturers offered a wide range of logic gate, flip-flops, counters, and other circuits. Several variations from the original bipolar TTL concept were developed, giving circuits with higher speed or lower power dissipation to allow optimization of a design. TTL circuits simplified design of systems compared to earlier logic families, offering superior speed to resistortransistor logic (RTL) and easier design layout thanemitter-coupled logic (ECL). The design of the input and outputs of TTL gates allowed many elements to be interconnected. TTL became the foundation of computers and other digital electronics. Even after much larger scale integrated circuits made multiple-circuit-board processors obsolete, TTL devices still found extensive use as the "glue" logic interfacing more densely integrated components. TTL devices were originally made in ceramic and plastic dualin-line (DIP) packages, and flat-pack form. TTL chips are now also made in surface-mount packages. Successors to the original bipolar TTL logic often are interchangeable in function with the original circuits, but with improved speed or lower power dissipation. Examples of binary logic levels: Technology CMOS TTL ECL L voltage 0 V to VDD/2 0 V to 0.8 V H voltage VDD/2 to VDD 2 V to VCC Notes VDD = supply voltage VCC = 5 V 10%

VEE to 1.4 V 1.2 V to 0 V VEE is about 5.2 V; VCC=Ground

High impedance From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia In electronics, high impedance means that a point in a circuit (a node) allows a relatively small amount of current through. High impedance circuits are low current, high voltage, whereas low impedance circuits are the opposite. [edit]Digital electronics In digital circuits, a high impedance (also known as hi-Z, tri-stated, or floating) output is not being driven to any defined logic level by the output circuit. The signal is neither driven to a logical high nor low level; this third condition leads to the description "tri-stated". Such a signal can be seen as an open circuit (or "floating" wire) because connecting it to a low impedance circuit will not affect that circuit; it will instead itself be pulled to the same voltage as the actively driven output. The combined input/output pins found on many ICs are actually tri-state capable outputs which have been internally connected to inputs. This is the basis for bus-systems in computers, among many other uses. The high-impedance state of a given node in a circuit cannot be verified by a voltage measurement alone. A pull-up resistor can be used to try to pull the wire to high and low voltage levels. If the node is not in a highimpedance state, extra current from the resistor will not significantly affect its voltage level.

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[edit]Analog electronics In analog circuits a high impedance node is one that does not have any low impedance paths to any other nodes. Since the terms low and high depend on context to some extent, it is possible in principle for some high impedance nodes to be described as low impedance in one context, and high impedance in another. High impedance nodes have higher thermal noise and are more prone to capacitive and inductive noise pick up. They are often difficult to probe as the impedance of a scope or meter can heavily affect the signal or voltage on the node. High impedance nodes are used because some transducers require a high impedance load, and useful in amplifiers since high impedance allows for large voltage gains without large power consumption. Three-state logic From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia In digital electronics three-state, tri-state, or 3-state logic allows an output port to assume a high impedance state in addition to the 0 and 1 logic levels, effectively removing the output from the circuit. This allows multiple circuits to share the same output line or lines (such as a bus which cannot listen to more than one device at a time). Three-state outputs are implemented in many registers, bus drivers, and flip-flops in the 7400 and 4000 series as well as in other types, but also internally in many integrated circuits. Other typical uses are internal and external buses in microprocessors, memories, andperipherals. Many devices are controlled by an activelow input called OE (Output Enable) which dictates whether the outputs should be held in a high-impedance state or drive their respective loads (to either 0- or 1-level). The term tri-state[1] should not be confused with ternary logic (3-value logic). INPUT OUTPUT A 0 1 X B 1 0 C 0 1 Z

A tristate buffer can be thought of as a switch. If B is on, the switch is closed. If B is off, the switch is open. Contents [hide] 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Uses Output enable vs. chip select Use of pull-ups and pull-downs Alternatives to three-state bus See also Notes and references External links

[edit]Uses The whole concept of the third state (Hi-Z) is to effectively remove the device's influence from the rest of the circuit. If more than one device is electrically connected, putting an output into the Hi-Z state is often used to prevent short circuits, or one device driving high (logical 1) against another device driving low (logical 0). Three-state buffers can also be used to implement efficient multiplexers, especially those with large numbers of inputs.[2] In particular, they are essential to the operation of a shared electronic bus. Three-state logic can reduce the number of wires needed to drive a set of LEDs (tristate multiplexing or Charlieplexing). [edit]Output enable vs. chip select Many memory devices designed to connect to a bus (such as RAM and ROM chips) have both CS (chip select) and OE (output enable) pins, which superficially appear to do the same thing. If CS is not asserted, the outputs are high impedance. The difference lies in the time needed to output the signal. When chip select is deasserted, the chip does not operate internally, and there will be a significant delay between providing an address and receiving the data. (An advantage of course, is that the chip consumes minimal power in this case.) When chip select is asserted, the chip internally performs the access, and only the final output drivers are disabled by deasserting output enable. This can be done while the bus is in use for other purposes, and when

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output enable is finally asserted, the data will appear with minimal delay. A ROM or static RAM chip with an output enable line will typically list two access times: one from chip select asserted and address valid, and a second, shorter time beginning when output enable is asserted. [edit]Use of pull-ups and pull-downs When outputs are tri-stated (in the Hi-Z state) their influence on the rest of the circuit is removed, and the circuit node will be "floating" if no other circuit element determines its state. Circuit designers will often use pullup or pull-down resistors (usually within the range of 1100 k) to influence the circuit when the output is tristated. For example, the I2C bus protocol (a bi-directional communication bus protocol often used between devices) specifies the use of pull-up resistors on the two communication lines. When devices are inactive, they "release" the communication lines and tri-state their outputs, thus removing their influence on the circuit. When all the devices on the bus have "released" the communication lines, the only influence on the circuit is the pullup resistors, which pull the lines high. When a device wants to communicate, it comes out of the Hi-Z state and drives the line low. Devices communicating using this protocol either let the line float high, or drive it low thus preventing any bus contention situation where one device drives a line high and another low. The PCI local bus provides pull-up resistors, but they would require several clock cycles to pull a signal high given the bus's large distributed capacitance. To enable high-speed operation, the protocol requires that every device connecting to the bus drive the important control signals high for at least one clock cycle before going to the Hi-Z state. This way, the pull-up resistors are only responsible for maintaining the bus signals in the face of leakage current. [edit]Alternatives to three-state bus A three-state bus is typically used between chips on a single printed circuit board (PCB), or sometimes between PCBs plugged into a common backplane. An open-collector bus is often used between PCBs plugged into a common backplane, or connected over longer cables. Usage of three-state logic is not recommended for on-chip connections but rather for inter-chip connections. Basic multiplexers can be used on chip because they are implemented in silicon, unlike the large equivalent offchip components. Pull-up resistor From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Pull-up resistors are used in electronic logic circuits to ensure that inputs to logic systems settle at expected logic levels if external devices are disconnected or high-impedance. They may also be used at the interface between two different types of logic devices, possibly operating at different power supply voltages.

When the switch is open the voltage of the gate input is pulled up to the level of Vin. When the switch is closed, the input voltage at the gate goes to ground. A pull-up resistor weakly "pulls" the voltage of the wire it is connected to towards its voltage source level when the other components on the line are inactive. When all other connections on the line are inactive, they are high-impedance and act like they are disconnected. Since the other components act as though they are disconnected, the circuit acts as though it is disconnected, and the pull-up resistor brings the wire up to the high logic level. When another component on the line goes active, it will override the high logic level set by the

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pull-up resistor. The pull-up resistor assures that the wire is at a defined logic level even if no active devices are connected to it. A pull-down resistor works in the same way but is connected to ground. It holds the logic signal near zero volts when no other active device is connected. Contents [hide] 1 Applications 1.1 IC 2 References 3 See also

[edit]Applications

A circuit showing a pull-up resistor (R2) and a pull-down resistor (R1), as well as an open collector (7407) to drive the line to the FET only when given a low 0 V input A pull-up resistor may be used when interfacing logic gates to inputs. For example, an input signal may be pulled by a resistor, then a switch or jumper strap can be used to connect that input to ground. This can be used for configuration information, to select options or for troubleshooting of a device.

When the switch is open the voltage of the gate input is pulled down to the level of ground. When the switch is closed, the input voltage at the gate goes to Vin. Pull-up resistors may be used at logic outputs where the logic device cannot source current, such asopencollector TTL logic devices. Such outputs are used for driving external devices, for a wired-OR function in combinational logic, or for a simple way of driving a logic bus with multiple devices connected to it. For example, the circuit shown on the right uses 5 V logic level inputs to actuate a relay. If the input is left unconnected, pull-down resistor R1 ensures that the input is pulled down to a logic low. The 7407 TTL device, an open collector buffer, simply outputs whatever it receives as input, but as an open collector device, the output is left effectively unconnected when outputting a "1". Pull-up resistor R2 thus pulls the output all the way up to 12 V when the buffer outputs a "1", providing enough voltage to turn the power MOSFET all the way on and actuate the relay.

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Pull-up resistors may be discrete devices mounted on the same circuit board as the logic devices. Many microcontrollers intended for embedded control applications have internal, programmable pull-up resistors for logic inputs so that minimal external components are needed. Some disadvantages of pull-up resistors are the extra power consumed when current is drawn through the resistor, and the reduced speed of a pull-up compared to an active current source. Certain logic families are susceptible to power supply transients introduced into logic inputs through pull-up resistors, which may force the use of a separate filtered power source for the pull-ups. Pull-down resistors can be safely used with CMOS logic gates because the inputs are voltagecontrolled. TTL logic inputs that are left un-connected inherently float high, thus they require a much lower valued pull-down resistor to force the input low. This also consumes more current. For that reason, pull-up resistors are preferred in TTL circuits. In bipolar logic families operating at 5 VDC, a typical pull-up resistor value will be 10005000 , based on the requirement to provide the required logic level current over the full operating range of temperature and supply voltage. For CMOS and MOS logic, much higher values of resistor can be used, several thousand to a million ohms, since the required leakage current at a logic input is small. [edit]IC

Pull-up resistors are needed on the clock and data line for an IC circuit because they are open-collector pins on the chips Main article: IC IC requires pull-up resistors on its clock (SCL) and data line (SDA) because the pins on the chips are of opencollector design. This means that a chip can only pull the lines low, otherwise they float up to V DD. In IC, pulling the line to ground indicates a logical zero while letting it float to V DD is a logical one. As a channel access method, this allows one node to determine if another is transmitting by asserting an output, letting the external pull-up resistor pull the line to logic 1 level, and monitoring the line state. If a second node pulls the line to zero, then the first node can detect that the other is transmitting. This article is about the electronic component. For the optical component, see optical isolator.

Schematic diagram of an opto-isolator showing source of light (LED) on the left, dielectric barrier in the center, and sensor (phototransistor) on the right.[note 1] In electronics, an opto-isolator, also called an optocoupler, photocoupler, or optical isolator, is "an electronic device designed to transfer electrical signals by utilizing light waves to provide coupling with electrical isolation between its input and output". [1] The main purpose of an opto-isolator is "to prevent high voltages or rapidly changing voltages on one side of the circuit from damaging components or distorting transmissions on the other side."[2] Commercially available opto-isolators withstand input-to-output voltages up to 10 kV[3] and voltage transients with speeds up to 10 kV/s.[4] Operation An opto-isolator contains a source (emitter) of light, almost always a near infrared light-emitting diode (LED), that converts electrical input signal into light, a closed optical channel (also called dielectrical channel [8]), and a photosensor, which detects incoming light and either generates electric energy directly, or modulates electric current flowing from an external power supply. The sensor can be aphotoresistor, a photodiode, a phototransistor, a silicon-controlled rectifier (SCR) or a triac. Because LEDs can sense light in addition to emitting it, construction of symmetrical, bidirectional opto-isolators is possible. An optocoupled solid state relay contains a photodiode opto-isolator which drives a power switch, usually a complementary pair of MOSFETs. A slotted optical switch contains a source of light and a sensor, but its optical channel is open, allowing modulation of light by external objects obstructing the path of light or reflecting light into the sensor. Photodiode opto-isolators

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A fast photodiode opto-isolator with an output-side amplifier circuit. Diode opto-isolators employ LEDs as sources of light and silicon photodiodes as sensors. When the photodiode is reverse-biased with an external voltage source, incoming light increases the reverse current flowing through the diode. The diode itself does not generate energy; it modulates the flow of energy from an external source. This mode of operation is called photoconductive mode. Alternatively, in the absence of external bias the diode converts the energy of light into electric energy by charging its terminals to a voltage of up to 0.7 V. The rate of charge is proportional to the intensity of incoming light. The energy is harvested by draining the charge through an external high-impedance path; the ratio of current transfer can reach 0.2%. [23] This mode of operation is called photovoltaic mode. The fastest opto-isolators employ PIN diodes in photoconductive mode. The response times of PIN diodes lie in the subnanosecond range; overall system speed is limited by delays in LED output and in biasing circuitry. To minimize these delays, fast digital opto-isolators contain their own LED drivers and output amplifiers optimized for speed. These devices are called full logic opto-isolators: their LEDs and sensors are fully encapsulated within a digital logic circuit.[35] The Hewlett-Packard6N137/HPCL2601 family of devices equipped with internal output amplifiers was introduced in the late 1970s and attained 10 MBd data transfer speeds.[36] It remained an industry standard until the introduction of the 50 MBd Agilent Technologies[note 10] 7723/0723 family in 2002. [7] The 7723/0723 series opto-isolators contain CMOS LED drivers and a CMOS buffered amplifiers, which require two independent external power supplies of 5 V each.[37] Photodiode opto-isolators can be used for interfacing analog signals, although their nonlinearity invariably distorts the signal. A special class of analog opto-isolators introduced by BurrBrown uses two photodiodes and an input-side operational amplifier to compensate for diode non-linearity. One of two identical diodes is wired into the feedback loop of the amplifier, which maintains overall current transfer ratio at a constant level regardless of the non-linearity in the second (output) diode. [38] Solid-state relays built around MOSFET switches usually employ a photodiode opto-isolator to drive the switch. The gate of a MOSFET requires relatively small total charge to turn on and its leakage current in steady state is very low. A photodiode in photovoltaic mode can generate turn-on charge in a reasonably short time but its output voltage is many times less than the MOSFET's threshold voltage. To reach the required threshold, solidstate relays contain stacks of up to thirty photodiodes wired in series. [22] An IR LED, also known as IR transmitter, is a special purpose LED that transmits infrared rays in the range of 760 nm wavelength. Such LEDs are usually made of gallium arsenide or aluminium gallium arsenide. They, along with IR receivers, are commonly used as sensors. The appearance is same as a common LED. Since the human eye cannot see the infrared radiations, it is not possible for a person to identify whether the IR LED is working or not, unlike a common LED. To overcome this problem, the camera on a cellphone can be used. The camera can show us the IR rays being emanated from the IR LED in a circuit. Photo sensors are used to activate / deactivate electronic circuits. The most common Photo sensors used are IR sensor modules . These devices are designed to receive Pulsed Infrared rays from the IR diode from remote handset. Photo modules are used in TV, CD player, FM receivers etc to control the functions. By pressing each button of the remote, it is possible to emit IR of a particular frequency and the Photo module senses these pulsed IR rays to change the activity of the device. TSOP 17 Series Photomodules are excellent Infrared sensors for remote control applications. These IR sensors are designed for improved shielding against electrical field disturbances.

Follow me @http://www.engineersgarage.com/experts/d.mohankumar TSOP 17. Series Photomodules are miniature IR sensor modules with PIN photodiode and a preamplifier stage enclosed in an epoxy case. Its output is active low and gives +5 V when off. Thedemodulated

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output can be directly decoded by a microprocessor. The important features of the module includes internal filter for PCM frequency, TTL and CMOS compatibility, low power consumption (5 volt and 5 mA), immunity against ambient light, noise protection etc. The added features are continuous data transmission up to2400 bps and suitable burst length of 10 cycles per burst. TSOP 1738 Pins Inside the Photo module The photo module has a circuitry inside for amplifying the coded pulses from the IR transmitter. The front end of the circuit has aPIN photodiode and the input signal is passed into an Automatic Gain Control (AGC) stage from which the signal passes into a Band pass filter and finally into a demodulator. The demodulated output drives an NPN transistor. The collector of this transistor forms the output at pin3 of the module. Output remains high giving + 5 V in thestandby state and sinks current when the PIN photodiode receives the modulated IR signals.

Pin assignment Photomodules are 3 pin devices. These pins are assigned for +V ( 5V ), V ( G) and Output( OP ). The pin assignment of TSOP 17 series from the front side (projected side) is Pin 1 Ground, Pin 2 + 5V and pin 3 Output. The photo module requires regulated 5V supply. If the supply voltage increases, the device will be destroyed.

Important Note For the proper functioning of the Photo module, it is necessary to consider some important aspects. 1. Supply voltage should be + 5 Volts. For this, a 5.1 volt Zener must be connected to the +V pin and ground or use 7805 regulator IC 2. A 100 uF capacitor should be connected to the +V pin as a buffer and filter capacitor. This will suppress the power supply disturbances. 3. Carrier frequency should be close to the center frequency of the band pass filter. 38 kHz in the case of TSOP 1738. 4. Burst length must be 10 cycles per burst or more. 5. Between each 10 to 70 cycles, a gap time of 14 cycles is necessary to reset the module.

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6. DC lights such as tungsten bulb and daylight affects the functioning of the photo module. 7. Signals from Fluorescent lamps with electronic ballast will affect the working of the photo module. 8. Continuous IR signal (non- pulsed) will disturb the photo module and it will not responds to it. Passive infrared sensor From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Typical residential/commercial PIR-based motion detector (PID). A passive infrared sensor (PIR sensor) is an electronic sensor that measures infrared (IR) light radiating from objects in its field of view. They are most often used in PIR-based motion detectors Operating principles All objects above absolute zero emit heat energy in the form of infrared radiation (infrared light). Usually infrared light is invisible to thehuman eye, but it can be detected by electronic devices designed for such a purpose. The term passive in this instance refers to the fact that PIR devices do not generate or radiate any energy for detection purposes. They work entirely by detecting the energy given off by other objects. [1] [edit]Construction Infrared radiation enters through the front of the sensor, known as the 'sensor face'. At the core of a PIR sensor is a solid state sensor or set of sensors, made from pyroelectric materials -- materials which generate energy when exposed to heat. Typically, the sensors are approximately 1/4 inch square, and take the form of a thin film. Materials commonly used in PIR sensors include gallium nitride(GaN), caesium nitrate (CsNO3), polyvinyl fluorides, derivatives of phenylpyrazine, and cobalt phthalocyanine. The sensor is often manufactured as part of an integrated circuit. [edit]PIR-based motion detector A PIR motion detector used to control an outdoor, automatic light. A PIR-based motion detector is used to sense movement of people, animals, or other objects. They are commonly used in burglar alarms and automatically-activated lighting systems. They are commonly called simply "PIR," or sometimes "PID," for 'passive infrared detector'. [edit]Operation Strictly speaking, individual PIR sensors do not detect motion; rather, they detect abrupt changes in temperature at a given point. As an object, such as a human, passes in front of the background, such as a wall, the temperature at that point will rise from room temperature to body temperature, and then back again. This quick change triggers the detection. Moving objects of identical temperature will not trigger a detection. [1][2][3][4][5]
[6][7]

PIDs can be equipped with more than one internal sensing element so that, with the appropriate electronics, it can detect the apparent direction of movement. As an object passes in front of adjacent sensors in turn, this implies the direction of movement. This may be used by on-board electronics to reduce false alarms, i.e., by requiring adjacent sensors to trip in succession. It may also be used to signal the direction of movement to a monitoring apparatus. PIDs come in many configurations for a wide variety of applications. The most common models have numerous Fresnel lenses or mirror segments, an effective range of about ten metres (thirty feet), and a field of view less than 180 degrees. Models with wider fields of view, including 360 degrees, are available -- typically designed to mount on a ceiling. Some larger PIDs are made with single segment mirrors and can sense changes in infrared energy over one hundred feet away from the PID. There are also PIDs designed with reversible orientation mirrors which allow either broad coverage (110 wide) or very narrow "curtain" coverage, or with individually selectable segments to "shape" the coverage. How Does An Ldr Work LDR is an abbreviation for light dependent resistor. The LDR is made of a semiconductor material. As light falls on the high resistance semiconductor, the light photons are absorbed by the semiconductor lattice. Some of their energy is transferred to the electrons. Some of the electrons conduct electricity as they gain sufficient energy to break free from the crystal lattice. As a result, the semiconductor resistance and hence the overall LDR resistance lowers. LDR is a very useful component used for a variety of light sensing applications. LDR (Light Dependent Resistor)

An LDR is a component that has a resistance that changes with the light intensity that falls upon it. They have a resistance that falls with an increase in the light intensity falling upon the device.

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The resistance of an LDR may typically have the following resistances. Daylight = 5000 ohms Dark = 20000000 ohms You can therefore see that there is a large variation between these figures. If you plotted this variation on a graph you would get something similar to that shown by the graph to the right. Applications There are many applications for Light Dependent Resistors. These include. Lighting switch The most obvious application for an LDR is to automatically turn on a light at certain light level. An example of this could be a street light. Camera shutter control LDRs can be used to control the shutter speed on a camera. The LDR would be used the measure the light intensity and the set the camera shutter speed to the appropriate level. Example

The circuit shown right shows a simple way of constructing a circuit that turns on when it goes dark. The increase in resistance of the LDR in relation to the other resistor which is fixed as the light intensity drops will cause the transistor to turn on. The value of the fixed resistor will depend on the LDR used, the transistor used and the supply voltage.