VI Winter04 Tolyiat Babak

Reconfigurable Motor Drives and Power
Electronics Based Architectures for Military

Vehicles
Babak Fahimi Hamid A. Toliyat
Department of Electrical & Computer Engineering Department of Electrical Engineering
University of Missouri-Rolla Texas A&M University
Outline of Topics (Part 1)
Review of Induction Motor Drive
Fault Tolerant and Hierarchical Control Schemes
Multi-Converter Systems
Block Diagram of Drive System Interconnection
Typical Power Electronic Topology
For most vehicular applications, transistors are IGBTs or MOSFETs
3-Phase Induction Machine
Rotor/Stator iron constructed with slots
Stator and rotor both have conductors
Rotor windings typically short circuited
Equations of motion derived using laws of
Faraday, Ampere, Newton
Expression for electromagnetic torque
derived using energy balance
Modeling Dynamics of Induction Machine
Faradays law applied to stator and rotor windings
Relationship between flux linkage and current established through Amperes law (if obtained
analytically)
Stator/rotor coupling expressed through time-varying flux linkage (function of rotor position)
Mechanical motion established using Newtons 2
nd
law
( / ) v r i p p d dt = + =
as asas as asbs bs asbr br
L i L i L i = + +
( )
2
r m r e L
P
Jp B T T + =
Equations of Motion: Induction Machines
0
0 0
( )
( )
abcs abcs s abcs
abcr abcr r
abcs s sr r abcs
abcr rs r rr abcr
( ( ( (
= +
( ( ( (

( ( (
=
( ( (

i r v
i r
L L i
L L i
0
2
( )
where ( ) (0), and as an example cos
1
( )
2 2
2 2
t
r r r asar ms r
as
c asas asbs as bs asar r as ar
r
c
e
r
r e L m r
d L L
i
W L L i i L i i
W P
T
Jp T T B

= + =
= + +
=
=
Difficulties Analyzing Machines in Terms of Physical Variables

Time-Varying Coefficients
Difficult to analytically establish dynamic or steady-state behavior
State Variables Time-Varying in Steady State
Methods to establish control for time-invariant systems not valid
Application of Floquet theory or time-varying phasors are sometimes considered
Reference Frame Theory
Transform stator (rotor) equations of motion into fictitious set of variables
1 1 1
2 2 2
( )
cos( ) cos( 120) cos( 120)
2
( ) sin( ) sin( 120) sin( 120)
3
qdos s abcs
s

=
( +
(
= +
(
(

f K f
K
0
( ) (0)
t
d = +
(0) = initial position of reference frame

= speed of reference frame
Use superscripts to denote speed of reference frame chosen
e synchronous
r rotor
s stationary
Reference Frame Theory Cont.
Transform rotor equations (induction machine)
Use superscripts to denote speed of reference frame chosen
e synchronous
r rotor
s stationary
( )
0
( )
( ) ( ) (0) (0)
qdor r abcr
t
r r
d

=
= +
f K f
Transformed Equations of Motion: Induction Machine in
Synchronous Reference Frame
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
Stator
0
0
e e e e
qs s qs e ds qs
e e e e
ds s ds e qs ds
os s os os
e e e e
qs ls qs M qs qr
e e e e
ds ls ds M ds dr
e e e
r qr e r dr qr
e e e
r dr e r qr dr
e e e e
qr lr qr M qs qr
e
dr l
v r i p
v r i p
v r i p
L i L i i
L i L i i
Rotor r i p
r i p
L i L i i
L

= + +
= +
= +
= + +
= + +
= + +
= +
= + +
=
( )
( )
( )
3
2 2
2
e e e
r dr m ds dr
e e e e
P
e qs ds ds qs
r e L m r
P
i L i i
T i i
Jp T T B

+ +
=
=
Properties of Transformed Equations of Motion
Equations are non-linear (speed voltage terms)
No time-varying coefficients
Flux linkages, currents, voltages constant in steady state
Phasors of actual variables directly related to q-d variables
Leads to standard steady-state T equivalent circuit of machine
2
e e
as qs ds
F F jF =
Simplest IM Control: Volts/Hz

Motivation: Keep rated flux in machine
assuming r
s
small
switch-level control
Termed scalar control since controlling magnitude of
s
as s as as
v r i p = +
as e as
v =
constant
rated
as
e rated
v
v

= =
Torque/speed for Volts/Hz
Volts/Hz Implementation
Direct Method of Vector Control
(Rotor Flux Oriented)
Indirect Vector Control Rotor Flux Oriented
Requirements for vehicular components:
Components/system that does not fail
Components/system that maintains best possible performance in case of failures
Components/system that is serviced only when needed
Robust System Operation
Sensor
Failures
Sensor
Failures
Preventive
Diagnostics
Preventive
Diagnostics
Machine
Failures
Machine
Failures
Electronics
Failures
Electronics
Failures
Environmental
Changes
Environmental
Changes
Manufacturing
Imperfections
Manufacturing
Imperfections
Self-reorganizing
controllers
Self-reorganizing
controllers
Adaptive/self tuning
controllers
Adaptive/self tuning
controllers
Condition
Monitoring
Condition
Monitoring
General structure of a fault tolerant controller
Partial
Failures
Catastrophic
Failures
Perspective on the problem
Electric machine in critical path
Degraded operation preferred to NO operation
Fault tolerance and recovery desired
Self-Reorganizing Controller
Best control with remaining sensors
Sensor Failures
Reorganizing Control Strategy
Vector Control
Sensorless
Current Magnitude
Voltage Magnitude
Increasing Sensor
Dependence
Decreasing
Performance
Sensors
Position, Current
Current, Voltage
Current
None (voltage)
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1
1
&
1
1
x
x
x
x
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1
1
0
&
1
1
0
x
x
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1
0
0
&
1
0
0
x
x
Otherwise
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4
3
2
1
S
S
S
S
Indirect Vector
Current Control
Sensorless Vector
Current Control
Control of Magnitude
of Current/Frequency
Volts/Hertz
Control
IM Indirect Field Oriented Controller
Proper angular alignment decouples torque and flux control
Challenge of Vector Controller is to Maintain Angular Alignment
Required Sensors for IFOC
Current Sensors
Position Sensors
Sensorless Control
Use measurements of currents and voltages to deduce position
Open Loop Voltage Model
( )
( )
s s s
qs qs s qs
s s s
ds ds s ds
v r i dt
v r i dt
=
=
Sensorless Vector Control

(Rotor Flux Oriented)
2 2
2 2
2 2
cos sin
sin cos
sin
setting 0
cos
sin
sin
cos
cos
s
s
qr
qr
s s
e
qr dr
dr
s
s
qr
dr
e
s s
dr
qr dr
s e
qr qr
e e
s e
e e
dr dr
s e
qr e dr
e e s s
qr dr qr dr
s e
dr e dr
e
e
e
e
+
+
( (
(
( (
=
(
( (

=
= = +
=
=
=

=
=
( ) / ( )
( ) / ( )
s s s s s s
qr lr qs ss qs m m qs qs ss qs
s s s s s s
dr lr ds ss ds m m ds ds ss ds
L L i L L i L i
L L i L L i L i

= + +
= + +
Sensorless Current Controller
Implementation issues: Integrator
Offset
Pulsing Magnitude
Estimate
Band Limited Integration
Low Frequency Bound
High Frequency Bound
Integration with Low Pass Filter
Closed Loop Control Torque Generation
500 RPM
Command
Encoder
Sensorless
Sensorless Controller Characteristics
Operates over range of speeds
Band limited integrator (voltage model)
Requires current sensors
Requires voltage sensors or bus voltage knowledge
Current Magnitude Control (scalar)
No angular synchronism (loss of vector generator)
Self generated angle implies frequency control
DQ transformation not valid
Current magnitude is controlled
2 2
3
2
s s
ds qs
I i i = +
Current Magnitude Controller
Current Magnitude/Frequency Control Characteristics
Distribution of magnetizing current and rotor current depends on frequency and slip, and therefore load
Requires current sensors
Volts/Hertz Control
Constant flux operation
Load dependent operating point
Voltage sensor or bus voltage knowledge needed
Volts/Hertz (constant flux) Controller
Reconfigurable Controller
When do we reconfigure and to which controller?
Use available sensors
May be dependent upon operating region
Controller transitions may in general occur between any two controllers
Sensitivity of controllers to operating point as well as available sensors is important
S1-S3 realize different controllers
Switch controller determines reorganization
Low
Speed
Upper
Speed
Position
Sensor
Current
Sensor
Voltage
Sensor
Bus
Voltage
Sens.
Vector
Current
Controller
X X X X
Sensorless
X X X X
Current
Magnitude
X X X
Voltage
Magnitude
X X X X
Sensorless vs Encoder Control
When NOT to use sensorless control
Torque sensitive to speed: preferred operating region
Sensorless
Encoder
Encoder
Or Encoder
Torque sensitivity to bus voltage variations
Sensorless
Encoder
Torque
Percent
Error
Vbus Percent Error
When NOT to use encoder controller
Position Sensor Failure
Encoder Slippage
Detection: Standard Deviation of Velocity
Recovery: Operate Encoder-Based Angle Generator in Parallel with Sensorless Controller
Continued Tracking Needed
Signature Detection
Failure in Encoder
Detection
Switch to sensorless
Encoder recovers
Detection
Switch to encoder
Velocity Standard Deviation
Encoder-Sensorless Transition
Under Encoder Control, Sensorless Angle Being Calculated in Parallel
Tracks Rotor Flux Angle
Under Sensorless Control, Encoder Electrical Angle Generator Being Calculated in Parallel
Drifts over Time
Torque Transient at Switchover
Sensorless to Encoder Angle Drift
Parallel
Sensorless
Angle
Generator
Parallel
Encoder Based
Angle
Generator
Torque Transient
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
To
rq
ue
[N-
m]
Speed[rad/sec]
Transient Torque in Switching
from sensorless to IFOC
Bumpless Transition
sensorless
encoder
Point of
Crossover

Bumpless Transition
Velocity
Encoder
Sensorless
Encoder
Encoder to Current Magnitude Control
Position Encoder Lost
Out of Sensorless Speed Range or Bus Voltage Unknown
Engage Transition to Current Magnitude Control
Maintain Ids* and Iqs*
Generate Last Known Electrical Frequency
Transition to Magnitude Control
Sometimes Torque Increases
Sometimes Torque Reverses!
Transition Sensitive to Small Angular Variation at Instant of Switchover
Resolution Sensitivity of Transition
0.032
0.030
Switch to
Magnitude
Control
Change in electrical angle
time
Min_ws=95.49 Hz
Max_ws=101.86 Hz
1000 RPM
4096-Count Encoder
rad
Operation can vary greatly along different torque-speed curves
Torque/Speed Curves
-60
-40
-20
0
20
40
900 950 1000 1050 1100
Speed (RPM)
T
o
r
q
u
e

(
N
M
)
0.03
0.032
Nominal:
-20 NM
1000 RPM
Fault Resilient Control Summary
Motor Based Systems used in Critical Applications
Closed-Loop Control Sensitive to Sensors
Limp-Back Operation Preferred to No Operation
Controller Performance AND Fault Tolerance
Adaptive Reorganization
Sensor Degradation
Sensor Recovery
Sustain Best Control Performance with Complement of Remaining Sensors
MULTI-CONVERTER POWER ELECTRONIC
SYSTEMS
INTRODUCTION
Multi-converter Power Electronic Systems are primarily systems which have
more than one power electronic based source and load converter
connected to common bus, controlled by unit and system states and may
constitute a hybrid (DC and AC) system architecture.
Advanced Networks
Advanced Industrial Systems
Telecommunication
Terrestrial Computer Systems
Automotive Power System (HEV, EV, MEV)
International Space Stations (ISS)
Spacecrafts & Modern Aircrafts (MEA)
Submarines and More Electric Ships (MES)
MULTICONVERTER SYSTEMS
Constant Voltage Load
Constant Power Load
High Power
Varied Load
Distributed Control
High Degree of Reliability
Expandable
Fault Tolerant
Modular
MAJOR LOADS IN MULTICONVERTER SYSTEMS
ISSUES IN MULTICONVERTER SYSTEMS
Instability
High Power
Complex Sources
Undefined Loads
Loads & Source Components and their Integration
Integration of different Vendor subunits
Negative Impedance
Operating and Component Parameter Deviation
Dynamics
Security
Reliability
Expandability
Electrical Loads in the current and next generation of vehicles.
Generation/Distribution systems for the next generation of vehicles.
FUNDAMENTALS AND BACKGROUND
Internal
Combustion
Engine
Generator
/Starter
Electrical
Control
Center
Power steering
Anti-lock braking
Throttle actuation
Ride-height adjustment
Rear-wheel steering
Fans and pumps
Air-conditioning
Active suspension
Electrically heated catalyst
Other electrical Systems
Electrical loads in the more electric car power system
Motivations for architectural change in electric power system in cars:
An increasing demand for more electrification in engine driven/new loads
Need for better communication in signal and power level.
Enhanced Survivability/safety:
a) Fall-back strategies, collision avoidance.
b) Electric brake, electric power assist steering, active suspension, etc.
c) Communications, web enabled/monitoring and maintenance
Improved Fuel Economy
Reduced Emission
1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
3500
W
a
t
t
a
g
e
Year
1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015
0
50
100
150
200
250
Year
C
u
r
r
e
n
t
[
A
]
Anticipated Power and current requirements
in the conventional car of the future
1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400
1600
#

o
f

C
i
r
c
u
i
t
s
Calendar Year
The exponential increase in the electrical
components can be translated in:
Complexity in wiring/harness
Need for low cost, high quality
architectures in interconnect system
Increase in generation capacity
Novel electrical power system in vehicles
Internal
Combustion
Engine
Alternator
/Rectifier
12V
Battery
Starter
Manual
Switches
and
Relays
Lighting System
Ignition System
Electric Motors
Electronic Loads
Heater
Other Loads
Dashboard Control
Cranking System Main Bus
Charging System
Energy Storage System
Conventional 12 V DC distribution system architecture
Internal
Combustion
Engine
Alternator
/Starter
Bi-directional
Power
Converter
Main Bus
Power Bus
Power Bus
Remote
Module
Remote
Module
Load
Load
Load
Load
12V Battery
Battery
Charge/Discharge
Unit
Power
Management
Center
Communication Buses
Advanced multiplexed automotive power system architectures of the
future with power and communication buses
Internal
Combustion
Engine
Alternator
/Starter
Bi-directional
Power
Converter
Remote
Module
Remote
Module
Load
Load
Load
Load
12V Battery
Battery
Charge/Discharge
Unit
DC/AC
Inverter
To Other AC Loads
AC Bus
AC Network
DC/DC
Converter
To Other Low Voltage
DC Loads
Low Voltage
DC Bus
Conventional (Low Power)
DC Network
High Voltage
DC Bus
Remote
Module
Load Load
High Power DC Network
The concept of a hybrid multi-voltage level automotive power
system architecture of the future
Internal
Combustion
Engine
Alternator
/Starter
Bi-directional
Power
Converter
Battery
Charge/Discharge
Unit
36V
Battery
B1
36V Storage System
42V DC Bus
DC/DC
Converter
Loads
Loads
14V DC Bus
Battery
Charge/Discharge
Unit
12V
Battery
B2
12V Storage System
The concept of a dual voltage automotive power system
architecture of the future
Battery
Charge/
Discharge
Unit
Power
Electronic
Converter
Electric
Machine
Propulsion
System
DC/DC
Converter
12V Loads
DC/DC
Converter
5V Loads
Battery
Charge/
Discharge
Unit
12V Storage System
12V
Battery
14V DC Bus 5V DC Bus
High Voltage DC Bus
High Voltage Storage System
Internal
Combustion
Engine
Starter/
Generator
Bi-directional
Power
Converter
Electrical Power system architecture for conventional hybrid electric vehicles
Battery
Charge/
Discharge
Unit
Power
Electronic
Converter
Electric
Machine
Propulsion
System
Main 42V DC Bus
36V Storage System
36V Batteries
To main hotel and ancillary loads
DC/DC
Converter
To other low power DC loads
DC/AC
Inverter
To AC loads
14V DC Bus
AC Bus
Concept of low-voltage electrical power system
Battery
Charge/
Discharge
Unit
Power
Electronic
Converter
Electric
Machine
Propulsion
System
Main 42V DC Bus
36V Storage System
36V Batteries
Hotel and ancillary loads associated
with the MEHV environment
DC/DC
Converter
Conventional low power loads
Internal
Combustion
Engine
Starter/
Generator
Bi-directional
Power
Converter
DC/DC
Boost
Converter
High Voltage DC Bus
14V DC Bus
Low voltage (42 V) main electrical power system
with high voltage bus for propulsion
Power
Management
Center
Temperature Sensors
Batteries
Accelerometer
Speed Sensors
Driver Commands
Brake Pedal
Accelerator Pedal
Electric Generator
Traction Machine Controller
Battery Charge/Discharge Units
Auxiliary Power Converter Units
Ignition System
Starter/Generator Power Converter
Speedometer and Odometers
Power Management system
High-Voltage
(300V or 140 V)
DC source
Traction
Load
DC/DC
Converter
42 V DC
generation system
New features/
Loads
DC/DC
Converter
14 V DC
generation system
Ancillary
Loads
Conventional Cars
More Electric Car
EV/HEV
14 V DC system
42 V DC system
High Voltage system
DC/AC
Inverter
M Load
Controller
to maintain
the speed fixed
Speed Reference
Speed
=
=
= =
Const
T Const
P T Const
.
.
. .
Rotating load
with one-to-one
torque-speed
characteristic
Z
in
Source
Subsystem
A DC/AC inverter reflecting a constant
power load characteristic to the system.
Source
Converter
DC/DC
Converter
Load
Converter
#1
Load
Converter
#N
Resistive
Loads
Other Loads of
the Source Converter
Iin Iout
Vin Vout
Interconnecting DC/AC inverter
reflecting a constant power load
characteristic to the system
L
L
S
S
I
V
I
V
Condition Stability
<
:
! Stable Not
I
V
I
V
L
L
S
S
>
. const I V P
L L L
= =
V
I
Vs(Is)
Stability issues in the presence of constant power loads
Source Subsystem Load Subsystem
Req.
Leq.
Ceq.
Vin
Vo
R
i iin
o
v
P
Equivalent circuit of a DC distribution
system in a typical bus
|
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+
+
|
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.
|
\
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ +
= =
. .
.
.
2
.
. 2
. .
~
~
1
1 1
/ 1
) (
) (
) (
eq eq
eq
eq o eq
eq
eq eq
in
o
L C
R
s
C V
P
R L
R
s
L C
s v
s v
s H
2
.
. .
2
o
eq
eq eq
o
V
L
C R
R
V
P condition Stability + <
DC/DC
Converter
Constant
power
Loads
Constant
Voltage
Loads
Vin vo vo
vo
iin io io1
io2
P=Const.
Vo=Const.
Equivalent constant power and
constant voltage loads.
V-i characteristic of the equivalent
load along with stability regions
v
o
i
o
Stable Region
*
V
*
I
) (
) (
) (
) (
*
t P
t R
V
t R
v
v
t P
i
o
o
o
=
+ =
CONTROL FOR CONSTANT POWER LOADS
Conventional Linear Control Method
- Stability limitation around operating point
Non-linear PI Stabilizer
- Variable switching freq may be required
Sliding Mode Control
- Constant Power O/P over a voltage range
Rectifier with Constant Power Load
- Better performance than current control
- O/P voltage not controlled
Feedback Linearization Control
- Enhanced reliability, large signal control & simplicity
- Supplies Constant Volt Load and Constant Power Load
STABILITY
Stability of the system in term of I/O signal
One form of instability than can be considered is the divergence of one or
more of the I/O voltage or current (signals) for the desired value to some
value which is outside the zone of tolerance, and the failure of the signal to
return to within the zone of tolerance within a predefined period of time.
Stability in the context of Power Electronics Based System
Stability may be defined as, the absence of instability on the main bus
(between sources & loads) and on the smaller buses (between loads).
Stability of systems have been conventionally analyzed on the basis of small
signal and not by large signal which will be required of in multi-converter
systems.
STABILITY ANALYSIS OF LINEAR AND NON-LINEAR SYSTEM
Stability Analysis for Linear Systems
Routh Hurwitz
Root Locus
Bode Plot
Nyquist Criterion
Lyapunovs Second Method
Stability Analysis for Non-linear Systems
Lyapunovs Second Method
STABILITY ANALYSIS
Middlebrook Criterion
|Y
L
| = 1/(|Z
S
|GM)
Opposing Component Criterion
S = -1/ GM
Gain Margin and Phase Margin
|Y
L
|| Z
L
| < 1/GM or
Y
L
(s) + Z
S
(s) <= 180
0
PM
Y
L
(s) + Z
S
(s) >= -180
0
+ PM
ESAC Criterion
Similar to GMPM and require GM
& PM to be specified
MODELING
Time Domain Simulation
- Protection circuit, system control dynamics and limitation included for
accuracy of system performance
Transient Simulations using Converter Switching Models
- High computing resources and long simulation time
Average Model
- Unlike Transient method uses less computing resources and time
Averaging Technique Conventional Method
- Small signal analysis and does not account for rapid and large signal
variation and oscillatory behaviours
Generalized Method Average of State Space Variables and Harmonics
- Small and Large Signal Analysis
Extended State Space Averaging Method
-Small and Large Signal Analysis with higher accuracy
MODELING
Primary concern Dynamics
-Interaction between Power Electronic converters, changing power
demands & various disturbances
Advantage of Generalized Approach
Increasing Time-step
Simplfying analytical procedure
Simulation of rapid & large signal dynamics
Simulation of each converter internal state variables
Flexible for modification and application to other system models
Reduces modeling complexity by modeling less complex subsystems
GENERALIZED STATE SPACE AVERAGING MODEL
State space representation of a multi-converter system over a complete period
) ( ) ( ) (
) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
t x t C t y
t u t B t x t A x
eq
eq eq
=
+ =

{ } ) ( ) (
1
1
i i
m
i
i eq
T t u T t u A A =

=
{ } ) ( ) (
1
1
i i
m
i
i eq
T t u T t u B B =

=
{ } ) ( ) (
1
1
i i
m
i
i eq
T t u T t u C C =

=
{ }
) ( ) (
2
1
) (
) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
2
1
) (
s X C L
j
s Y
s U B L s X A L
j
s sX
eq
eq eq
=
+ =

[ ] + + =
+
(
(

+ =
)
`
=

s A A s
T T
T T A
s
e e
A A L
i i
i i
m
i
i
s T s T
m
i
i eq
i i
1 0
2 2
1
1
1 1
! 2
) (
1
[ ] + + =
+
(
(

+ =

s B B s
T T
T T B B L
i i
i i
m
i
i eq 1 0
2 2
1
1
1
! 2
) (
[ ] + + =
+
(
(

+ =

s C C s
T T
T T C C L
i i
i i
m
i
i eq 1 0
2 2
1
1
1
! 2
) (
[ ]
[ ]
[ ]

m
i
i i i eq
m
i
i i i eq
m
i
i i i eq
T T C C
T T B B
T T A A
1
1
1
1
1
1
First approximation
x(t) =
k=-n
n
<x>
k
(t) e
jkw
n = degree of accuracy
State variable only constant, K=0
State variable only oscillating, K= -1,1
State variable with DC and oscillations, K= -1,0,1
Selection of Time period for converter
DC-DC converter, T = switching period
FACTORS EFFECTING GENARALISED AVERAGING METHOD

Increasing order of approx increases accuracy
Simulation of stand alone converter operation
- If switching freq not very high that converter resonant freq increase
approx order for accuracy
Complex topology in terms of number of components
- Increase in approx order does not determine accuracy
Increasing converter dynamic complexity results in reaching stable position
slower
Same converter parameter with increase in converter complexity
Non-zero elements in state space matrix
- Show dynamic complexity & kind of variables effecting damping speed
In terms of theory of control system
- Easier when Jordan Matrix closer to Diagonal matrix
MULTICONVERTER POWER ELECTRONIC BASED SYSTEMS
Very large networks designed based on Impedance Specification
Approach relationship between source and load and their effect on
stability
Approach limited by theoretical and practical limits on component design
as presented by each system segment
No practical analytical tool available to ensure large signal stability for
large system
No explicit impedance constraints on secondary system so as to keep it
flexible however, primary system constrained.
System broken down to load and source subsystems
Interface requirements need understanding of EMI, Orbital Replacement
Units, cable characteristics, inrush and ripple requirement.
Bus Impedance determines the quality of distribution system
MORE ELECTRIC VEHICLE
INTRODUCTION
The Past
World War 2 War aircraft begin use of electric power
- Start of conversation alternate power use
End of 1970s Advances in PM materials and power drives
- Single electrical secondary power system idea
Early 1980s Integrated Digital/Electric Aircraft
The Present and Future
US Joint Strike Fighter (JSF)
C-141 Transport Aircraft, F-18 & F-16
UK Future Offensive Aircraft (FOA)
MEA
MEA Concept offers
Reliability
Maintainability
Supportability
Survivability
Recent Advancements leading to MEA applicability
Solid State Switching devices
Control electronics & microprocessors
High power density motor/generators
Efficient, high power converter topologies
Evolution of Fault Tolerant electrical power system (EPS)
Breakthroughs in electrically driven actuators
MEA BENEFITS
Improved performance
Reliability (15%) and enhanced safety
Better fuel economy
Electrical system require less engine power with increased efficiency
Reduced design complexity - One electrical type secondary system
Easy aircraft modification
Less ground support equipment (20%) & spares inventory
Lower flight test hours and shorter checkout time
Reduced life cycle cost
Reduced total component/system cost
Reduced weight
Enhanced safety & less environmental impact
MEA COMPONENTS
Generation systems
Distribution Architecture
Converters (DC-DC, DC-AC, AC-DC)
Electric Load Management System
Electromechanical Power Contactors
Data communication for Vehicle Management System
GENERATION TECHNOLOGIES
Constant Frequency Integrated Drive Generator (IDG)
Variable Speed Constant Frequency (VSCF) DC Link
Variable Frequency (VF)
Variable Speed Constant Frequency (VSCF) Cycloconverters
VF
Low & Medium Power
Cost effective solution
considering majority galley
loads resistive
Risk High power motor
loads
VSCF Cycloconverter
High Power (65 KVA/Channel)
Reliable for motor loads
Characteristic power
generation efficiency increases
when P.F. decreases
DC DISTRIBUTION TEST BED
Fuel Cell
Energy
Storage
Device
Power Conversion
and Distribution
Ship Service
Loads
Combat
Systems
Power Electronic
Driver
M
G
G
Propeller
High Voltage DC
High Voltage DC
Power Electronic
Driver
Power Conversion
and Distribution
Ship Service
Loads
Combat
Systems
M
Propeller
P
o
w
e
r

E
l
e
c
t
r
o
n
i
c

I
n
t
e
r
f
a
c
e
Prime
Mover
P
o
w
e
r

E
l
e
c
t
r
o
n
i
c

I
n
t
e
r
f
a
c
e
Fuel Cell
Energy
Storage
Device
G
G
Prime
Mover
Prime
Mover
Prime
Mover
Fuel Cell
Energy
Storage
Device
Power Conversion
and Distribution
Ship Service
Loads
Combat
Systems
Power Electronic
Driver
M
G
G
Propeller
High Voltage DC
High Voltage DC
Power Electronic
Driver
Power Conversion
and Distribution
Ship Service
Loads
Combat
Systems
M
Propeller
P
o
w
e
r

E
l
e
c
t
r
o
n
i
c

I
n
t
e
r
f
a
c
e
Prime
Mover
P
o
w
e
r

E
l
e
c
t
r
o
n
i
c

I
n
t
e
r
f
a
c
e
Fuel Cell
Energy
Storage
Device
G
G
Prime
Mover
Prime
Mover
Prime
Mover
STABILITY ANALYSIS
Best performed Time domain simulation of Large Signal Model
- Change in power demand
- Loss of Generation
- Short circuit & open circuit
- Dynamics of interconnected system
Including actual control & protection circuit dynamics
Under and Over Voltage
Over current protection
Switching effects of power converters
Non-linearity due to magnetic saturation & leakage
Semi-conductor operation
Temperature variation
System and component aging
DYNAMIC BEHAVIORS
Improving Dynamic Behaviors by
Suitable fast response protection device
Overrating sources ensuring reserves in power generation
Overrating power distribution system ability to deliver power to the
load
Avoiding long links
Managing loads according to source & distribution system operating
condition to avoid overloading
Controlling loads via management centers to operate system at nominal
power
Avoiding over & under voltage
MODELING & SIMULATION
Modeling and Simulation
Allows evaluation of subsystem and interactions among them
Reduces costly redesign
Supports trade and parametric studies
Supports test case definitions and explanation of test anomalies
- Modeling should take a modular approach
- example Two Port Modeling
VERIFICATION
Many operating condition must be verified
Verify under uncertainties such as component aging & load variation
Use models of power system to perform analysis on compatibility of
various DC-DC converters
Model - identify Worst Case scenarios which then become
candidates for extensive laboratory test
FAULT TOLERANT POWER SYSTEM
FAULT TOLERANT POWER SYSTEM ARCHITECTURE
Architecture Types
Centralized
Distributed
Combined Centralized & Distributed
Sub-classifications
Conventional systems
Redundant supplies
Redundant supplies and subsystems
Duplicate systems
CENTRALIZED ARCHITECTURE
CONVENTIONAL
CENTRALIZED FAULT TOLERANT
REDUNDANT SUPPLIES
CENTRALIZED ARCHITECTURE
CENTRALIZED FAULT TOLERANT
REDUNDANT SUPPLIES AND SUBSYSTEMS
CENTRALIZED DUPLICATE
SYSTEMS
DISTRIBUTED ARCHITECTURE
CONVENTIONAL DISTRIBUTED
SYSTEM
DISTRIBUTED FAULT TOLERANT
REDUNDANT SUPPLIES
DISTRIBUTED ARCHITECTURE
DISTRIBUTED FAULT TOLERANT
REDUNDANT SUPPLIES AND SUBSYSTEMS
DISTRIBUTED DUPLICATE
SYSTEMS
COMBINATION FAULT TOLERANT ARCHITECTURE
REDUNDANCY MANAGEMENT
Function
Protect power buses from faults in other buses
Protect power buses from subsystem faults
Connect non-faulted subsystems to non-faulted buses
Additional tasks
Detect failed subsystems & power bus
Remove failed subsystems from power bus
Remove redundant subsystems from power bus
Provide initialization to subsystems
REDUNDANCY MANAGEMENT IMPLEMENTATION
Optimize fault tolerance & reliability - weighing benefits & risks
Redundancy Management building blocks
- Current limit
- ORing function
- Switches
Return path isolation
WITHOUT CURRENT LIMITING
CURRENT LIMITING IN
SUBSYSTEM
REDUNDANCY MANAGEMENT IMPLEMENTATION
CURRENT LIMITING IN POWER
BUSES
CURRENT LIMITING IN
SUBSYSTEM
DC Machine
(
(
(
+
+
=
(
i
i
dt
d
L R K
dt
d
L r
v
v
f
r
FF f
f
0
( )
+
=
+
=
f
l
f
l f
KI
T B
I
RB KI
RT V KI
2
V
f
V L
FF
L
R
i
i
f
Ki
f
Winding Diagrams
DC Motor Control
Block Diagram of DC Motor with Fixed Field Excitation
Block Diagram of Speed Control DC Motor with Current Regulator
V
K
t
1
J s + B
K
e
1
R + s L
T
L
+
_
_
+
T I
E
a
V
K
t
1
J s + B
K
e
1
R + sL
T
L
+
_
_
+
T
I
E
a
K
I
K +
K
S
p
s
Current Loop
_
+
+
_
I
*
*
Motor & Load
Current
Regulator
Current
(torque)
Limit
Speed
Regulator
Outer Speed Loop
a
E
dt
dI
L RI V + + =
I K T
t
=
T T B
dt
d
J
L
= + +
e a
K E =
I I a
K sL K R E
I 1 1
+ +
=
Permanent Magnet Brushless DC Motor Drives
Permanent Magnet AC Motor (PMAC) and Permanent
Magnet Brushed DC Motor
Brushed DC
Stator: Permanent Magnet
Rotor: Winding
Commutator: Mechanical
Brush: Yes
PMAC (PMSM-BLDC)
Stator: Winding
Rotor: Permanent Magnet
Commutator: Electrical
Brush: No
Surface
Mount
Magnet
Inset
Magnet
Interior
Magnet
Buried
Magnet
Types of Permanent Magnet Motors
Permanent Magnet Spindle Motor
36 slots in stator and 48 poles in rotor
Permanent Magnet Brushless DC Motor Operation
Torque Generation for Brushless DC Permanent Magnet
Motor
11
/ ) (
c c b b a a e
i e i e i e T + + =
. K e e e
c b a
= = =
I K T
e
. =
H1
ea i a
H3
H5
e b i b
ec i c
1 2 3 4 5 0
Torque
PM Synchronous Motor (PMSM)
PM Brushless Motor (BLDC)
PMAC Motor
PMSM BLDC
Flux Density
(in space)
Back-EMF
Stator Current
Total Power
Sinusoidal wave
Sinusoidal wave
Sinusoidal wave
Constant
Constant
Square wave
Trapezoidal wave
Square wave
Constant
Constant
Electromagnetic
Torque
PMAC Motor Classifications
B
V
i
P/T
PMSM
t
t
t
t
t
t
BLDC
PMSM vs. BLDC
The current in each phase is synchronized with the
crest of its back-EMF waveform to yield an almost
constant torque.
Suitability
Rotor
Complexity
Flux
Distribution
Speed Limit
BLDC
Low
Square
Wave
1.2 X Rated
speed
BLDC/PMSM
Medium
Square Wave or
Sinusoidal
1.5 X Rated
speed
PMSM
High
Sinusoidal
(2~3) X Rated
speed
Surface Mounted
Magnet
Inset Magnet
Buried Magnet
PM Rotor Comparison
Multi-Phase Brushless DC Motor Drives
Background
Introduction
Approach Followed
Fault-Tolerant Drive Requirements
Fault-Tolerant Machine Design
Fault-Tolerant Inverter Design
Results for 3-phase, 4-phase and 5-phase Drives
Comparison
Conclusions
The Brushless DC (BLDC) Motor
Synchronous motor with permanent magnets on the rotor and armature windings on
stator.
Trapezoidal back-emf waveforms and rectangular stator currents to produce constant
torque.
3-phase BLDC motor with 4
rotor poles and 12 stator slots.
Back-emf and
current waveforms
BLDC Motor Drive
Six-switch inverter for bipolar excitation.
Three Hall sensors provide position feedback for a 3-phase motor.
Three-phase inverter
Drive Schematic
BLDC Motor Equations
The back-EMF amplitude is proportional to the speed.
m
k E =
Power output in each 60
o
interval is
EI T P
e m o
2 = =
Torque is then proportional to the phase current amplitude
I k I k T
t e
= = 2
The similarity in control characteristics has given rise to the name Brushless DC
motor, while it is actually an ac motor.
However, the armature MMF does not rotate smoothly, but jumps in steps of 60
o
at
each commutation.
Finite Element Simulation Results
Flux Plot for 2-Phase motor Flux Plot for 3-Phase motor
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180
0
0.05
0.1
0.15
Angle(deg)
T
o
r
q
u
e
(
N
m
)
3-Phase
120 deg.
Tmax=0.1258 Nm
Tavg=0.1146 Nm
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
-0.2
-0.15
-0.1
-0.05
0
0.05
0.1
0.15
Angle (deg)
T
o
r
q
u
e

(
N
m
)
Static Torque for 3-Phase, 120
0
Conduction
Back EMF Calculation
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180
-50
-40
-30
-20
-10
0
10
20
30
40
50
Mechanical Angle (deg)
B
a
c
k
-
E
M
F

(
V
)
FEM simulation
Actual
e N
d
d
d
dt
N
d
d
= =
.
0 2 0 4 0 6 0 8 0 1 0 0 1 2 0 1 4 0 1 6 0 1 8 0
- 0 . 5
- 0 . 4
- 0 . 3
- 0 . 2
- 0 . 1
0
0 . 1
0 . 2
0 . 3
0 . 4
0 . 5
A n g l e ( d e g )
F
l
u
x

D
e
n
s
i
t
y

(
T
e
s
l
a
)
0 2 0 4 0 6 0 8 0 1 0 0 1 2 0 1 4 0 1 6 0 1 8 0
-0 . 5
-0 . 4
-0 . 3
-0 . 2
-0 . 1
0
0 . 1
0 . 2
0 . 3
0 . 4
0 . 5
A n g l e ( d e g )
F
l
u
x

D
e
n
s
i
t
y

(
T
)
Tooth flux density
Simulated
Measured
Simulated
Measured
Back-iron flux density
2-Phase BPM Motor Flux Densities
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180
-0.5
-0.4
-0.3
-0.2
-0.1
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
Angle (deg)
F
l
u
x

D
e
n
s
i
t
y

(
T
)
5-phase
3-phase
2-phase
Comparison of Back-Iron Flux Densities
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180
-0.5
-0.4
-0.3
-0.2
-0.1
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
Angle(deg)
F
l
u
x

D
e
n
s
i
t
y

(
T
e
s
l
a
)
For 3-phase BPM
For 5-phase BPM
For 2-phase BPM
Iron utilization is best in the 5-phase BPM motor
Comparison of Tooth Flux Densities
Generalized Dynamic Model of BPM Motors
T (e i e i e i ) /
e 1 1 2 2 n n

r
= + + +
The electromagnetic torque is
p
i
i
i
.
V
V
.
V
R 0 0
0 0
0 0 R
i
i
i
e
e
e
1
2
n
1
2
1
2
n
-1
1
n
n
L M . M
M . . .
M
M . M M

(
(
(
(
=
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
. . .
3-phase,180
o
2-phase,180
o
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03
0
0.05
0.1
0.15
time (sec)
T
o
r
q
u
e

(
N
m
)
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03
0
0.05
0.1
0.15
time (sec)
T
o
r
q
u
e

(
N
m
)
(a)
(b)
Dynamic Electromagnetic Torque Waveforms
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03
0
0.05
0.1
0.15
time (sec)
T
o
r
q
u
e

(
N
m
)
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03
0
0.05
0.1
0.15
time (sec)
T
o
r
q
u
e

(
N
m
)
(a)
(b)
5 phase,144
o
5 phase,180
o
Dynamic Electromagnetic Torque Waveforms
Results
# Phases Conduction
Angle
Tavg (Nm)
Static
Tmax (Nm)
Static
% Torque
Ripple Static
3 120 0.1146 0.1258 25.68
3 180 0.1212 0.1400 58.12
2 180 0.1349 0.1500 42.16
5 144 0.1283 0.1406 18.39
5 180 0.1271 0.1429 32.08
0
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.08
0.1
0.12
0.14
0.16
3ph-
120deg
3ph-
180deg
2ph-
180deg
5ph-
144deg
5ph-
180deg
T_avg T_max
Comparison
Conclusions I
Maximum average torque is obtained with the 2-phase BPM Motor.
Minimum torque ripple is obtained with the 5-phase 144
0
scheme.
Iron utilization is best in case of 5-phase motor.
Choice of motor is application dependent.
Further experimental investigation needed to compare the average torque and torque ripple for the
developed BPM motors.
Fault-Tolerant Multi-Phase Permanent Magnet
Brushless DC Motor Drives
Introduction
Applications like aerospace, automotives, and defense require high reliability.
In the event of a fault, these drives should continue operating until maintenance is possible.
The Switched Reluctance Motor (SRM) is known to have fault-tolerant characteristics.
By using winding designs similar to SRMs in BLDC motors, similar degrees of fault tolerance can be
achieved at a higher torque density.
There should be minimal electrical, magnetic and thermal interaction between the phases.
Each phase is wound around a single tooth.
Only one phase winding per slot.
This study uses polyphase structures to compare their torque outputs under healthy operation and the
loss of a single phase.
Introduction: The BLDC Motor
BLDC motors have a trapezoidal back-emf and are excited with rectangular stator currents.
A current-regulated voltage source inverter (VSI) is used to drive the motors.
Currents are sensed by using a current sensor in each phase.
Position information is obtained using 3/4/5 Hall-effect sensors.
VSI
BLDC
motor
Currents control
system
Reference current
Current sensing
Rotor position
sensing
Approach Followed
3-phase, 4-phase and 5-phase BLDC motors with inherent fault-tolerance are designed with the same
amount of copper and iron. The same rotor is used in all the motors.
The motors are modeled using FEM to obtain the back-EMF waveforms.
Dynamic simulations in Matlab compare the torque outputs under healthy operation, winding open-
circuit, switch open-circuit, and upon applying remedial strategies.
Magnet Type Ferrite-8D
Rotor Outer 1.06
Bc 0.4 T
Hr 266584.5A/M
Orientation Radial
Shaft Diameter 0.33

ROTOR PARAMETERS
Electromagnetic torque output
( )
r
n n
e
i e i e i e
T

+ + +
=
....
2 2 1 1
Fault-Tolerant Drive Requirements
Machine Faults:
Short-circuit due to insulation failure
Open-circuit
Inverter Faults:
Power device failing in short-circuit mode
Power device failing in open-circuit mode
Drive design must follow a modular approach
There should be minimal electrical, magnetic and thermal interaction between the phases both in the
inverter and in the machine.
Machine Design
Only one phase winding per slot.
Each phase is wound around a single tooth.
Large leakage inductance limits short-circuit currents.
Each phase is overrated by a factor F=n/(n-1) = 1.5 (n=3)
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180
-50
-40
-30
-20
-10
0
10
20
30
40
50
Inverter Design
Complete electrical isolation between phases.
Doubles the number of switches. 3-ph:12, 4-ph:16, 5-ph:20.
Considerable flexibility in shaping the phase currents.
Conventional operation:120
0
currents. 180
0
conduction produces lower torque ripple and is the
preferred mode for fault-tolerant drives.
S1
S4
S2
S3
A
D1
D2
D3
D4
S5
S6
S7
S8
B
S9
S10
S11
S12
C
3-Phase Current Waveforms
Following a fault, phase currents are boosted in
certain 60
0
intervals to decrease torque pulsation.
wt
wt
60
o
1A
180
o
wt
360
o
120
o
(a)
wt
wt
60
o
1A
180
o
wt
360
o
120
o
(b)
wt
wt
60
o
1A
180
o
wt
360
o
120
o
(c)
wt
wt
60
o
180
o
wt
360
o
120
o
2.3A
1.15A
(d)
wt
wt
60
o
1A
180
o
wt
360
o
120
o
2A
1A
(e)
(a) Normal operation with 180
o
bipolar currents, (b) One winding open-circuited, (c) One switch
open-circuited, (d) Remedial strategy adopted with one winding open, (e) Remedial strategy adopted
with one switch open.
3-Phase Torque Outputs
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03
0
0.5
1
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03
0
0.5
1
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03
0
0.5
1
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03
0
0.5
1
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03
0
0.5
1
time(s)
Healthy operation
Open-circuited winding
Open switch
Remedial strategy following open winding
Remedial strategy following open switch
4-Phase Motor
8 slots, 4 poles, 1/2 short-pitched coils.
F=1.33
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180
-50
-40
-30
-20
-10
0
10
20
30
40
50
4-Phase current waveforms
wt
wt
wt
90
o
1A
180
o
wt
(a)
36 0
o
1A
2 A
1A
wt
wt
wt
90
o
1A
180
o
wt
(b)
36 0
o
1A
2 A
1A
1A
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03
0
0.5
1
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03
0
0.5
1
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03
0
0.5
1
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03
0
0.5
1
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03
0
0.5
1
time(s)
(a) Remedial strategy for open-circuit in one winding, (b) Remedial strategy for an open switch.
Healthy operation
Open switch
5-Phase Motor
10 slots, 8 poles, full-pitched
F=1.25
Rated speed: 900rpm.
Less Ampere-turns per phase
Higher frequency of torque pulsation
Higher current for the same voltage per phase
High reliability
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
-20
-15
-10
-5
0
5
10
15
20
5-Phase Current Waveforms
wt
wt
wt
36
o
1A
180
o
wt
(a)
36 0
o
wt
72
o
144
o
2 A
1A
wt
wt
wt
36
o
1A
180
o
wt
(b)
36 0
o
wt
72
o
144
o
2 A
1A
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03
0
0.5
1
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03
0
0.5
1
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03
0
0.5
1
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03
0
0.5
1
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03
0
0.5
1
time(s)
Open switch
Healthy operation
(a) Remedial strategy for open-circuit in one winding, (b) Remedial strategy for an open switch.
Comparison
Normal Mode Open winding Open switch Machine
Avg. Torque
(Nm)
Torque ripple Avg. Torque
(Nm)
(Nm)
Torque ripple
3-PHASE
(237 turns/ph)
0.4256 6.37% 0.2838 80.69% 0.3547 66.14%
4-PHASE
(192 turns/ph)
0.4141 14.83% 0.3106 76.65% 0.3625 66.32%
5-PHASE
(161 turns/ph)
0.7211 9.07% 0.5769 36.8% 0.6489 36.6%
Open winding with remedial strategy Open switch with remedial strategy Machine
Avg. Torque
(Nm)
(Nm)
Torque ripple
3-PHASE 0.4080 65.54% 0.3902 59.36%
4-PHASE 0.4047 53.24% 0.4132 22.83%
5-PHASE 0.6879 30.46% 0.7044 29.19%

Without remedial strategies
With remedial strategies
Conclusions II
Three multi-phase fault-tolerant motors have been designed following winding techniques usually
used in SRMs.
The different types of faults have been discussed and the operating mode that ensures highest
reliability has been identified.
The remedial strategy to be adopted following a fault involves changing the waveshapes of the
reference currents.
The advantage of increasing the number of phases is evident from the results.
The optimum number of phases appears to be five.
Unipolar Multi-Phase Brushless DC Motor
Drives
VSI
BLDC
motor
Currents control
system
Reference current
Current sensing
Rotor position
sensing
Introduction
BLDC motors have a trapezoidal back-emf and are excited with rectangular stator currents.
BLDC motors are conventionally excited with bipolar currents.
The cost of the converter can be minimized by using unipolar current excitation.
Introduction
The main issue in unipolar BLDC drives: Torque ripple.
Causes of torque ripple
Machine related
Cogging torque
Emf waveform imperfections Emf waveform imperfections
Supply related
Current ripple (PWM/ Hysteresis control)
Commutation ripple
This paper uses polyphase structures and different combinations of back-emf width and current pulses to minimize
torque ripple in unipolar BLDC drives.
Approach Followed
The performance of 2-phase, 3-phase, 4-phase and 5-phase BLDC motors with unipolar currents is compared.
A 3-phase, 4-pole, 12-slot BLDC motor excited with 120
o
bipolar currents is used as the reference.
The same rotor is used in all the motors.
All the motors are designed with the same amount of copper and iron.
The RMS currents are made equal in all cases.
Magnet Type Ferrite-8D
Rotor Outer 1.06
Magnet Arc 90
o
Bc 0.4 T
Hr 266584.5A/M
Orientation Radial
Shaft Diameter 0.33
ROTOR PARAMETERS
The motors are modeled using FEM to obtain the back-emf waveforms. These are used in dynamic simulations to
obtain the torque outputs.
Approach Followed
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
=
(
(
(
(

n n n n
e
e
e
i
i
i
R
R
R
v
v
v
L M M
M L M
M M L
i
i
i
p
: :
... 0 0
: : : :
0 ... 0
0 ... 0
.
...
: : : :
...
...
:
2
1
2
1
2
1
1
2
1
( )
r n n e
i e i e i e T / ....
2 2 1 1
+ + + =
Dynamic model of the BLDC motor
Electromagnetic torque output
3-phase bipolar converter 3-phase unipolar converter
Unipolar Current Excitation
Limits the phases to only one direction of current.
Advantages
Minimizes total conduction losses.
Eliminates shoot-through faults.
High-side device switching can be avoided.
Disadvantages
The motor neutral has to be available.
Winding utilization is lower than the bipolar case.
Q1 Q5
Q3
Ph A
Ph B Ph C
L
Q1 Q3
Q5
D1 D3 D5
Q4 Q6
Q2
Ph C
Ph A
Ph B
Unipolar current excitation
Disadvantages
The motor neutral has to be available.
Winding utilization is lower than the bipolar case.
The peak currents are higher than the corresponding bipolar
schemes for the same RMS current.
With this simple unipolar drive, stored inductive energy
must be dissipated within the motor. This drive has no
regenerative control, but with other unipolar converter
topologies, four-quadrant operation is possible.
[Krishnan,1996]
Two Phase Motor
Motor Description Turns/phase Current Waveform Max. Torque
(Nm)
Avg. Torque
(Nm)
Torque
Ripple
3-ph 12 slot 208 120 Bipolar 0.4943 0.4632 13%
2-ph 4 slot 356 180 Unipolar 0.5155 0.3968 151.4%
4 slot, 4 poles.
Integral slots/pole
Coil span = 1 slot.
1 current sensor + 1 position sensor
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03 0.035
0
0.5
1
1.5
C
u
r
r
e
n
t
s

(
A
)
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03 0.035
-100
0
100
B
a
c
k
-
e
m
f
s

(
V
)
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03 0.035
-0.5
0
0.5
1
T

(
N
m
)
time (s)
Simulated waveforms over one mechanical cycle.
180
o
unipolar conduction.
Three Phase Motors
12 slots, 4 poles.
Integral slots/pole.
(Reference)
6 slots, 4 poles.
Fractional slots/pole(unipolar).
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180
-50
-40
-30
-20
-10
0
10
20
30
40
50
B
a
c
k
-
e
m
f

(
V
)
Rotor position (deg)
12 slots
6 slots
Torque Output of 3-phase Motors
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03 0.035
-5
0
5
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03 0.035
-5
0
5
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03 0.035
-5
0
5
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03 0.035
0
0.5
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03 0.035
-5
0
5
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03 0.035
-5
0
5
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03 0.035
-5
0
5
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03 0.035
0
0.5
12-slot motor with 120
o
bipolar conduction (Reference) 12-slot motor with 120
o
unipolar conduction
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03 0.035
-5
0
5
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03 0.035
-5
0
5
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03 0.035
-5
0
5
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03 0.035
0
0.5
o
unipolar conduction 6-slot motor with 120
o
unipolar conduction
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03 0.035
-5
0
5
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03 0.035
-5
0
5
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03 0.035
-5
0
5
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03 0.035
0
0.5
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03 0.035
-5
0
5
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03 0.035
-5
0
5
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03 0.035
-5
0
5
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03 0.035
0
0.5
o
unipolar conduction
(Nm)
Avg. Torque
(Nm)
Torque Ripple
3-ph 12 slot 208 120 Bipolar 0.4943 0.4632 13%
3-ph 12 slot 208 180 Unipolar 0.4972 0.3525 73.6%
3-ph 6 slot 262 180 Unipolar 0.3383 0.3247 8.53%
Four Phase motors
16 slots, 4 poles.
3/4 short-pitch.
8 slots, 4 pole.
Full pitch.
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180
-40
-30
-20
-10
0
10
20
30
40
B
a
c
k
-
e
m
f

(
V
)
16 slots
8 slots
Four phase current waveforms
wt
wt
wt
90
o
1.96A
180
o
wt
360
o
wt
wt
wt
90
o
1.38A
180
o
wt
360
o
90
o
conduction.
Higher peak current for same RMS value.
Only one current sensor is required.
Back-emfs of the incoming and outgoing phases
are almost equal : Lower torque ripple.
180
o
conduction.
Four current sensors are required.
Higher torque ripple with both motors.
Torque output of 4-phase motors
(Nm)
Avg. Torque
(Nm)
Torque
Ripple
3-ph 12 slot 208 120 Bipolar 0.4943 0.4632 13%
4-ph 16 slot 172 90 Unipolar 0.3446 0.3230 19.6%
4-ph 16 slot 172 180 Unipolar 0.4609 0.3436 65.8%
4-ph 8 slot 156 90 Unipolar 0.3088 0.2943 10.5%
4-ph 8 slot 156 180 Unipolar 0.4007 0.3678 49.1%
o
unipolar currents
o
unipolar currents
o
unipolar currents
o
unipolar currents
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03 0.035
0
0.5
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03 0.035
0
0.5
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03 0.035
0
0.5
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03 0.035
0
0.5
Time (s)
Five Phase Motors
20 slots, 4 pole.
10 slots,4 pole.
Fractional slots/pole.
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180
-40
-30
-20
-10
0
10
20
30
40
B
a
c
k
-
e
m
f

(
V
)
20 slots
10 slots
5-phase current waveforms
wt
wt
wt
36
o
2.19A
180
o
wt
360
o
wt
72
o
144
o
wt
wt
wt
36
o
1.38A
180
o
wt
360
o
wt
72
o
144
o
72
o
conduction.
Higher peak current for same RMS value.
Only one current sensor required.
Low torque ripple because the back-emfs of the
incoming and outgoing phases are almost equal.
180
o
conduction.
Five current sensors required.
2 or 3 switches conduct at any time.
Can be advantageously used with the
10-slot motor to minimize torque ripple.
Torque output of 5-phase motors
(Nm)
Avg. Torque
(Nm)
Torque
Ripple
3-ph 12 slot 208 120 Bipolar 0.4943 0.4632 13%
5-ph 20 slot 125 72 Unipolar 0.2827 0.2606 17.5%
5-ph 20 slot 125 144 Unipolar 0.3857 0.3471 22.4%
5-ph 20 slot 125 180 Unipolar 0.4301 0.3506 42.4%
5-ph 10 slot 162 72 Unipolar 0.3529 0.3366 13.1%
5-ph 10 slot 162 144 Unipolar 0.4721 0.4420 39.3%
5-ph 10 slot 162 180 Unipolar 0.4203 0.4108 6.3%
o
unipolar currents
o
unipolar currents
o
unipolar currents
o
unipolar currents
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03 0.035
0
0.5
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03 0.035
0
0.5
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03 0.035
0
0.5
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03 0.035
0
0.5
Time (s)
Conclusions III
The unipolar BLDC motor drive is a viable choice in low-cost, high volume applications.
The choice of unipolar drives is application-dependent, and has to be based on the following
considerations:
Current Sensing requirements.
Complexity and cost of the converter.
Availability of the motor neutral.
Performance versus cost trade-off.
Current Sensors Failures in Three-Phase
Permanent Magnet Motors
Outline
Introduction
Mathematical model
Simulation Results
Experimental Results
Conclusions
Introduction
The operation of permanent magnet motor drive relies on proper operation of:
current sensors
position sensor
or voltage sensors
However, to guarantee a reliable drive, a self reconfigurable system with soft sensors should be
designed to substitute the actual sensors in case of sensor failure specially in critical applications such
as hybrid electric vehicles.
Introduction
A novel state observer is designed to estimate the phase currents based on :
motor electrical and mechanical subsystem models and
the rotor speed measurement.
A low resolution position sensor (hall sensor) has been used in this application.
The rotor position at each instant of time is calculated by speed estimation and position interpolation.
Mathematical Model
] [
1
ds s ds
ds
ds
i r u
L dt
di
=
] [
1

m qs s qs
qs
qs
i r u
L dt
di
=
J
T
i u
J
P
dt
d
L
qs m
n
+ = ] [
The d-axis current has been decoupled from the other state variables.
Consequently, a reduced order observer can be designed that does not
include the d-axis current. This current is estimated using the stator voltage
equation directly.
Motor d-q equations:
qs qs ds ds
i L v u + =
ds ds qs qs
i L v u =
ds qs ds qs
i i L L u ) ( =
Mathematical Model
Assuming a relatively stiff load torque with respect to the electrical subsystem:
0 =
dt
dT
L
(
(
(
(
(
(
(

=
0 0 0
1
0
0
J J
L L
r
A
m
qs
m
qs
s
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
=
0 0
0
0
1
J
P
L
B
n
qs
[ ] 0 1 0 = C
(
(
(
=
L
qs
T
i
X
A, B, C, and X matrices are defined by:
Mathematical Model
In order to transform the above equations into the discrete-time format, the following
equations are employed:
where G and H matrices are represented by:
) ( ) ( ) 1 ( k Hu k Gx k x + = +
AT
e G =
B d e H
T
A
) (
0
=
where T is the controller sampling period
State Observer
For the digital system represented above, a state observer is designed as following:
)
(

1 k k k k
x C y Hu x G x + + =
+
where is the estimated state vector at the k
th
step
k
x
In order to guarantee the observer stability, the observer gain vector, , should be
chosen properly to satisfy the following equation.
1 <
j
z
where is determined based on the following system of equation:
j
z
0 ) ( det = C G zI
where I is the identity matrix
State Observer
From the above discussions, the estimated d- and q-axes stator currents based on the
speed measurement are determined as:
)
](
1
[

, , 1 , k qs qs k ds
s
T
L
r
k ds
T
L
r
k ds
i L v
r
e
i e i
ds
s
d
s
+
+ =
+
) ( )

1 , 1 13 12 , 11 1 , k k k ds ds k qs L k k qs k qs
i L v h T g g i g i

+ + + + =
+
Simulation Results
Estimated load torque
Estimated current
qs
i
In order to show that the state variables are estimated correctly even when the load torque
has variations, the periodic load torque (like a reciprocal compressor) has been considered
Control Block Diagram
Schematic block diagram of self reconfigurable system for
PMSM
State Observer Block Diagram
Block diagram of state
estimator
The motor is equipped with hall sensors therefore speed is calculated based on
the elapsed time between any two detected consecutive edges of the 60
0
from the
hall-effect signals.
The calculated speed will be used to interpolate the position during the next 60
degrees.
The machine parameters are =300 H and =150 , =6.2 m, and J=0.00116
kg.meter
2
. The rotor magnets are Nd-Fe-Br.
TMS320LF2407 fixed-point DSP is used for performing the digital control.
From top to bottom: hall effect signal, rotor position, and phase current,
respectively.
iq_actual
iq_est
id_actual
id_est
The measured and the estimated q and d axes currents when the load suddenly changes. As, it can be
seen from the figure, the estimated current follows the measured current with a very good accuracy. It is
also clear that the proposed observer has a very fast response to the sudden load changes.
Conclusions
A novel approach to design a self reconfigurable electric motor controller for hybrid electric vehicle
application was presented.
A state observer was designed to estimate the phase currents based on the motor electrical and
mechanical subsystem models and the rotor speed measurement from the hall-effect sensors.
The validity of the proposed closed loop state estimator has been shown through simulation results
and experiments.
Fault Tolerant Multi-Phase Induction Motor
Drives
Outline
Introduction
Background
Motivation
Harmonic Analysis
Finite Element Simulation and Experimental Results.
Research Conducted in this Dissertation
Five-Phase Induction Motor
Enhanced Rotor Field Oriented Control
Simulations and DSP-Based Experiments
Conclusions
STATOR
WINDINGS
ROTOR
ROTOR
STATOR
FRAME
Alternating Current (AC) Motors (induction motors)
Advantages of Induction Motor:
Simple, economical and small;
More robust and reliable;
High speed and high power.
Problems of Induction Motor:
Complex in modeling and control;
High cost of drive system.
Solutions:
New control theory of ac motors such as field oriented
control/vector control;
Reduced cost of power semiconductors,
microprocessors and DSPs.
Adjustable Speed Drives (ASD)
Advantages of ASD:
Providing variable voltage and variable frequency
power supply,
Increased drive performance;
Saving energy,
Removing limitation of motor phases. Any number of
motor phases can be used.
~
Single Phase
Power Supply
Single Phase
Motor
~
Three Phase
Power Supply
Three Phase
Motor
~
Three Phase
Power Supply
Any Phase
Motor
Converter
High Phase Order Machines
Less Power Rating per Switch
Lower cost
May prevent paralleling the switches
Might Use Slow Switching Devices
Lower Input Voltage
Limited battery voltage for battery operated applications
Less insulation due to less voltage per phase
In high order phase (HOP) machines losing one or more of the phases do not prevent starting or running
More sensors might be needed as the number of phases are increased
General Assumptions
In comparing the effect of number of phases on the machine performance the following assumptions
are made:
Similar geometries
Same total number of turns
Same amount of iron and copper
Same rotor
p mt m
I N
m
MMF
|
.
|
\
|
=
4
2
3
3
t tm
N
m
N =
mp tm gm
N V =
1. Same MMF
2. Same Flux
p t
I N MMF
3 3
4
2
3
|
.
|
\
|
=
p t g
N V
3 3 3
=
3
3
ph phm
V
m
V =
Choosing Number of Turns (N
t
) and Phase Voltage (V
ph
)
for HPO
Total number of turns per phase
Phase voltage of HPO machine
Equivalent Circuit for 3-Phase Machine
+
-
3 m
L
3 ls
X
3
R 3 lr
X
s
R
r 3
3
V
Ratio Equation Parameter
2
3
3
|
.
|
\
|
=
m L
L
s
sm
1
2
S
P
l kN L
s
e s s
=
s
L
p zz e
s
zz
K p l
S
kN
L
1
2
=
zz
L
2
3
3
|
.
|
\
|
=
m L
L
zz
zzm
e
s
e
K k
P
kN
L
2
1
2
=
e
L
2
3
3
|
.
|
\
|
=
m L
L
e
em
2
2
'
2
=
|
.
|
\
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
n
n
e
e is
o
s
lk
n
k
g
l D
P
N
k L
lk
L
2
3
3
|
.
|
\
|
=
m L
L
lk
lkm
Stator Winding Leakage Inductance Components
m L
L
m
mm
3
3
=
m
L
s
R
c
c s
A
l
C
N
R
|
.
|
\
|
=
m R
R
s
sm
3
3
=
e
e is
o
s
ms
g
l D
P
N k
m L
2
1
|
.
|
\
|
=
Stator Circuit Parameters
be
s
r
R
S
N mk
R
2
2 2
1
4
=
m R
R
r
r m
3
31
2
=
r
R
ew b be
R R R + =
( )
) (
2
2 2
1
4
har b be
s
lr
L L
S
N mk
L + =
m L
L
lr
lrm
3
32
2
=
lr
L
) 2 ) ( ( sin 2
2
2
S P
L
L L
e
b be
+ =
2
1
2
2
) (
1
2
1
) (

=
|
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
=
n
har b
P
nS
P
S
k L
Rotor Circuit Parameters
Equivalent Circuit for an m-Phase Induction Machine
+
-
3
3
m
L
m
|
.
|
\
|
3
2
3
ls
X
m
|
.
|
\
|
3
3
R
m
|
.
|
\
|
3
3
lr
X
m
|
.
|
\
|
s
R
m
r 3
3
|
.
|
\
|
3
3
V
m
|
.
|
\
|
Torque Characteristics
Starting Torque
Slip at Peak Torque
Peak Torque
) ) ( (( 2
2 '
2 1
2
2
m m mth mth sync
th
peak
X X R R
V m
T
+ + +
=
2
2 1
2
) (
m m mth
mr
m
X X R
R
S
+ +
=
) ) ( ) ((
2 '
2 1
2
2
2
2
m m mth sync
m th
starting
X X R R
R V m
T
+ + +
=
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800

0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
Speed (rpm)
P
o
w
e
r

F
a
c
t
o
r
3-phase
5-phase
7-phase
9-phase
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800
0
50
100
150
Speed (rpm)
t
o
r
q
u
e

(
N
m
)
3-phase
5-phase
7-phase
9-phase
Torque and PF vs. Speed using the Equivalent Circuits
Winding Distribution and Current Waveform of Three-
Phase Induction Motor
N
0
120
a
b
c
'
a
'
b
'
c
0
2
) (
a
N
2 N
0 2
a
i
m
I
6
6
5
t
6
7
6
11
Two-pole, three-phase concentrated
winding induction motor.
Winding function of phase a.
Phase a current.
Magneto Motive Force (MMF) Equation for 3-Phase
))
2
1
3
2 ) (
cos( ) sin(
)
2
1
3
2 ) (
)(cos (sin( cos
2
sin
2
4 1
1
2
1
+
+
+ +
+
|
.
|
\
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
+ + = + + =
n m
n m
n m
n m m
n
I
N
nm
i N i N i N F F F F
n
m
m
c c b b a a c b a
Space Harmonics
Time
Harmonics
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15
1
F
053 . 1
B
211 . 0
F
15 . 0
B
0
180 096 .
F
081 . 0
3
5
B
0
180 211 .
F
0
180 042 .
B
.03
F
.019
B
0
180 016 .
7
F
0
180 15 .
B
0
180 03 .
F
.021
B
.014
F
0
180 012 .
9
11
B
0
180 096 .
F
.019
B
0
180 014 .
F
0
180 009 .
B
.007
13
F
.081
B
.016
F
0
180 012 .
B
0
180 007 .
F
.006
15
Multiply all entries by NI
Finite Element Simulation
3-Phase induction motor
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25
-100
-50
0
50
100
ti ( )
P
h
a
s
e
s

C
u
r
r
e
n
t
s

(
A
)
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25
-100
-50
0
time (sec)
T
o
r
q
u
e

(
N
m
)
Stator phase currents
Electromagnetic torque
Winding Distribution and Current Waveform of Five-
Phase Induction Motor
Two-pole, five-phase concentrated
winding induction motor.
Winding function of phase a.
Phase a current.
5 3N
0
72
a
b
c
'
a
'
b
'
c
d
e
'
d
'
e
0
2
) (
a
N
10 3N
0

2
m
I
t
a
i
10
10
9
10
11
10
19
Magneto Motive Force (MMF) Equation 5-phase
))
2
1
5
4 ) (
cos
5
2 ) (
)(cos cos( )
2
1
5
4 ) (
cos
5
2 ) (
)(cos ((cos(
10
cos
10
3 4 1
2
1 1
+
+
+
+
+ + +
|
.
|
\
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
+ + + + =
n m n m
n t m
n m n m
n t m
m NI
nm
i N i N i N i N i N F
m
n m
e e d d c c b b a a
Space Harmonics
Time
Harmonics
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15
1
F
1.156
B
.128
F
0
180 105 .

3
F
0
180 079 .
B
0
180 034 .
F
.0183

5

7
B
0
180 034 .
F
.0146
B
0
180 0078 .

9
B
0
180 128 .
F
0
180 014 .
B
.011

11
F
0
180 105 .
B
0
180 011 .
F
.009

13
F
.0183
B
.0078
F
0
180 0042 .

15

Finite Element Simulation
5-Phase induction motor
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25
-100
-50
0
time (sec)
T
o
r
q
u
e

(
N
m
)
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25
-100
-50
0
50
100
time(sec)
P
h
a
s
e
s

C
u
r
r
e
n
t
s

(
A
)
Electromagnetic torque
Stator phase currents
Torque-Speed Curve (FEA)
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
Speed (rpm)
T
o
r
q
u
e

(
N
m
)
Blue: 3-Phase Green:5-phase
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5
-40
-20
0
20
40
60
time (sec)
T
o
r
q
u
e

(
N
m
)
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5
-40
-20
0
20
40
60
ti ( )
T
o
r
q
u
e

(
N
m
)
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5
-40
-20
0
20
40
60
time (sec)
T
o
r
q
u
e

(
N
m
)
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5
-40
-20
0
20
40
60
ti ( )
T
o
r
q
u
e

(
N
m
)
3-Phase
5-Phase
7-Phase
9-Phase
FEA Simulations (Torque)
3-Phase
5-Phase
7-Phase
9-Phase
FEA Simulations (Rotor Current)
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5
-1000
-500
0
500
1000
time (sec)
R
o
t
o
r

C
u
r
r
e
n
t

(
A
)
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5
-1000
-500
0
500
1000
time (sec)
R
o
t
o
r

C
u
r
r
e
n
t

(
A
)
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5
-1000
-500
0
500
1000
time (sec)
R
o
t
o
r

C
u
r
r
e
n
t

(
A
)
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5
-1000
-500
0
500
1000
time (sec)
R
o
t
o
r

C
u
r
r
e
n
t

(
A
)
3-Phase
5-Phase
7-Phase
9-Phase
FEA Simulations (Rotor Voltage)
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5
-5
0
5
x 10
3
time (sec)
R
o
t
o
r

V
o
l
t
a
g
e

(
V
)
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5
-5
0
5
x 10
3
time (sec)
R
o
t
o
r

V
o
l
t
a
g
e

(
V
)
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5
-5
0
5
x 10
3
time (sec)
R
o
t
o
r

V
o
l
t
a
g
e

(
V
)
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5
-5
0
5
x 10
3
ti ( )
R
o
t
o
r

V
o
l
t
a
g
e

(
V
)
3-Phase
FEA Simulations (Eddy Current Losses)
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
ti ( )
P
o
w
e
r

L
o
s
s

(
W
)
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
ti ( )
P
o
w
e
r

L
o
s
s

(
W
)
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
ti ( )
P
o
w
e
r

L
o
s
s

(
W
)
9-Phase
7-Phase
5-Phase
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
time (sec)
P
o
w
e
r

L
o
s
s

(
W
)
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5
-40
-20
0
20
40
60
time (sec)
T
o
r
q
u
e

(
N
m
)
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5
-1000
-500
0
500
1000
time (sec)
R
o
t
o
r

C
u
r
r
e
n
t

(
A
)
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5
-5
0
5
x 10
3
time (sec)
R
o
t
o
r

V
o
l
t
a
g
e

(
V
)
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
time (sec)
P
o
w
e
r

L
o
s
s

(
W
)
(Torque)
(Rotor Current)
(Rotor Voltage)
(Eddy Power losses)
FEA Simulations (3-Phase Conventional)
NO Induction Machine
r
n
(rpm)
Torque
(N.m.)
Eddy
Current
Losses
(W)
Torque
Ratio
1 3 Conventional Wdg.
(Same Iron, Less Copper)
1730
1737
24.55
30.1
181.8
167.2
.762
.948
2 3 Conventional Wdg.
Extended Length
1738.2 32.2 158 1.0
3 3 Concentrated
Type-I
1730 29.8 385.8 .925
4 6 Concentrated
Type-I
1730
1733.5
28.6
32.6
180.6
175.4
.889
1.012
5 9 Concentrated
Type-I
1730
1734.4
26.4
32.9
139.5
123.4
0.886
1.021
6 5 Concentrated
Type-II
1730
1736.2
28.85
35.6
198.2
188.6
0.896
1.106
7 7 Concentrated
Type-II
1760
1737.5
28.6
35.2
165.5
152.3
0.888
1.093
8 9 Concentrated
Type-II
1760
1738.4
28.8
33
160.5
126.95
0.894
1.025

Comparison of Different Machines
Five Phase IM supplied by Combined Fundamental plus
3rd Harmonic of Currents
0 0 . 0 0 2 0 . 0 0 4 0 . 0 0 6 0 . 0 0 8 0 . 0 1 0 . 0 1 2 0 . 0 1 4 0 . 0 1 6
- 1 . 5
- 1
- 0 . 5
0
0 . 5
1
1 . 5
O n l y fu n d a m e n t a l fl u x ( F 1 )
O n l y t h i r d h a r m o n i c fl u x ( F 3 )
F 1 3 = F 1 + F 3
F u n d a m e n t a l p l u s t h i r d h a r m o n i c fl u x
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
-0.1
-0.05
0
0.05
0.1
0.15
0.2
0.25
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
-0.01
0
0.01
0.02
0.03
0.04
0.05
0.06
time (sec)
T
o
r
q
u
e

(
N
m
)
Torque Developed by the Five-Phase IM Supplied only
by the 3rd Harmonic Current
Output Torque
Flux Lines of 5-Phase
Average Output Torque
3 3.05 3.1 3.15 3.2 3.25
-0.015
-0.01
-0.005
0
0.005
0.01
0.015
Time (sec)
f
l
u
x

(
W
b
)
Fund
Fund+3rd
3 3.05 3.1 3.15 3.2 3.25
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
x 10
-3
time (sec)
F
l
u
x

(
W
b
)
Fund
Fubd+3rd
Backiron Flux
Tooth Flux
Flux Distribution in 5-Phase Machine
Flux Lines (Fund.)
Flux Lines (Fund.+3rd)
Conclusions IV
Based on the derived equivalent circuit and conducted FEA simulations, High Phase Order (HPO)
machines are capable to work with low voltage and provide higher peak torque
Through analyzing harmonic effects on multiphase induction motors, it is found that higher
Harmonics can play an important role in shaping machines flux and increasing output torque
HPO machines will be excellent choice for traction applications and high power applications
Vector Control of Fault Tolerant Five-Phase
Induction Motor with High Specific Torque
Outline
Five-phase induction motor,
Model of five-phase induction motor with the fundamental and third harmonic currents under
asymmetrical fault conditions,
Vector control implementation strategy for five-phase induction motor drives,
Resilient control scheme,
Simulation and experimental results,
Conclusions.
Characteristics of Five-Phase Induction Motor
Five phase induction motor is wound with concentrated windings, and the air gap flux could be taken
on a nearly rectangular distribution. So, the developed five phase induction motor has:
Reduced amplitude and increased frequency of torque pulsation
Reduced rotor harmonic currents and stator current per phase without increasing the voltage per phase
Increased torque per rms current
Higher reliability
Lower acoustic noise
Iron would be utilized better
Power density could be improved
Two-Pole, 3-Phase, wye-Connected Symmetrical
Induction Machine
as-axis
d-axis
q-axis
+as
-as
+bs
-bs
+cs
-cs
+ar
-ar
+br
+cr
-cr
-br
ar-axis
r
r
bs-axis
cs-axis
cr-axis
br-axis
226
a
-a
b
-e
c
d
-b
e
-c
-d
72
o
Stator
Lamination
Stator Slot
Rotor Bar
Rotor
Lamination
Problems of ASD and Traditional Solutions
Problem of ASD:
Undesired effects of harmonics on power supply and motors.
Solutions to reduce harmonics:
Active filters to prevent harmonic currents entering utility system;
Inverter design and control schemes;
Motor structure design.
Similarities:
Same orders of space and time harmonics generate forward MMFs rotating at the same synchronous speed;
No harmonics with a number of 3k (k=1, 3, 5) produce rotating MMFs in three-phase induction motor;
Harmonics with a number of 5k (k=1, 3, 5) are eliminated in five-phase induction motor.
Developing a five-phase induction motor;
Adopting concentrated windings;
Making use of harmonics;
optimum output torque;
minimum switch devices beyond three-phase inverter.
Applying rotor field oriented control (RFOC) to the five-phase
induction motor to directly control flux and torque like DC motor.
0 2
, I
,
Interaction between rectangular
current and flux generates
maximum torque ( ).
I T *
Comparison of Harmonic Effects on these Two
Induction Motors (Continued)
Differences:
Higher order harmonics in three-phase induction motor result in
high torque pulsation and reduction of the average torque;
Higher order harmonics have little effect in five-phase induction
motor. For lower order harmonics, the different harmonic effects
are removed.
So, a fundamental and third harmonic current can be considered
as the input of five-phase induction motor instead of using the
rectangular current.
+ + + + + = t t t t t t f 9 sin
9
1
7 sin
7
1
5 sin
5
1
3 sin
3
1
sin ) (
Third Harmonic Effects on Five-Phase Induction Motor
The third harmonic produces the positive torque in five-phase
induction motor. Despite the seemingly little improvement, the
third harmonic changes the flux distribution into the nearly
rectangular and hence results in much more torque;
Interaction of the space and time harmonics between the
fundamental and the third harmonic is eliminated in five-phase
induction motor, and MMFs generated rotate at the same
synchronous speed. Therefore, the fundamental and the third
harmonic can be equivalent to two same frequency components
in five-phase induction motor.
The proposed five-phase induction motor is wound
with the concentrated windings. By using the third
harmonic currents, the air-gap flux can be taken on
the nearly rectangular distribution, resulting in:
Even flux distribution;
improved flux density;
More output torque;
Higher reliability.
Characteristics of the Proposed Five-Phase Induction
Motor
Fundamental Current and Rectangular Field Space Harmonics for Five-Phase
Induction Motor
Magneto Motive Force (MMF) Equation
))
2
1
5
4 ) 1 (
cos
5
2 ) 1 (
)(cos cos(
)
2
1
5
4 ) 1 (
cos
5
2 ) 1 (
)(cos ((cos(
10
894 . 0 * 2 3 4
1
1
+
+
+
+
+
+ +
|
.
|
\
|
=
+ + + + =
n n
n t
n n
n t
NI
n
m
n
e e d d c c b b a a
Fundamental plus Third Harmonic Currents and Rectangular Field Space
Harmonics for Five-Phase Induction Motor
Magneto Motive Force (MMF) Equations
))
2
1
5
4 ) 1 (
cos
5
2 ) 1 (
)(cos cos( )
2
1
5
4 ) 1 (
cos
5
2 ) 1 (
)(cos ((cos(
10
9889 . 0 * 894 . 0 * 2 3 4
1
1
+
+
+
+
+ + +
|
.
|
\
|
=
+ + + + =
n n
n t
n
n
n t
NI
n
m
n
e e d d c c b b a a
))
2
1
5
4 ) 3 (
cos
5
2 ) 3 (
)(cos 3 cos( )
2
1
5
4 ) 3 (
cos
5
2 ) 3 (
)(cos 3 ((cos(
10
15 . 0 * 9889 . 0 * 894 . 0 * 2 3 4
1
3
+
+
+
+
+ + +
|
.
|
\
|
=
+ + + + =
n n
n t
n
n
n t
NI
n
m
n
e e d d c c b b a a
3 1 13
F F F + =
Comparison of MMFs under the Fundamental and
under Fundamental plus Third Harmonic Currents
Space Harmonics
Time
Harmonics
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15
1
F
1.194
B
.133
F
0
180 109 .
3
F
0
180 059 .
B
0
180 027 .
F
.0138
Space Harmonics
Time
Harmonics
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15
1
F
1. 207
B
.134
F
0
180 11 .
Multiply a ll entries by NI
0 0 . 0 0 2 0 . 0 0 4 0 . 0 0 6 0 . 0 0 8 0 . 0 1 0 . 0 1 2 0 . 0 1 4 0 . 0 1 6
- 1 . 5
- 1
- 0 . 5
0
0 . 5
1
1 . 5
O n l y fu n d a m e n t a l fl u x ( F 1 )
O n l y t h i r d h a r m o n i c fl u x ( F 3 )
F 1 3 = F 1 + F 3
F u n d a m e n t a l p l u s t h i r d h a r m o n i c fl u x
Stator Current and Air-Gap Flux Distribution
3 1 e e e
i i i + =
3 1 a a a
i i i + =
3 1 b b b
i i i + =
3 1 c c c
i i i + =
3 1 d d d
i i i + =
1 e
i
1 a
i
1 b
i
1 c
i
1 d
i
3 e
i
3 a
i
3 b
i
3 c
i
3 d
i
Equivalent Models of Five-Phase Induction Motor under the Fundamental plus
Third Harmonic Currents
+
s
r
+
ls
L
1
ds
1
) (
dr r

lr
L
r
r
1
qs
v
1
qr
v
1
qr
i
1
qs
i
1
m
L
circuit equivalent axis q
1

+
s
r
+
ls
L
1
qs
1
) (
qr r

lr
L
r
r
1
ds
v
1
dr
v
1
dr
i
1
ds
i
1
m
L
circuit equivalent axis d
1

+
s
r
+
ls
L
3
ds
3
3
) ( 3
dr r

lr
L
r
r
3
qs
v
3
qr
v
3
qr
i
3
qs
i
3
m
L
circuit equivalent axis q
3

+
s
r
+
ls
L
3
qs
3
3
) ( 3
qr r

lr
L
r
r
3
ds
v
3
dr
v
3
dr
i
3
ds
i
3
m
L
circuit equivalent axis d
3

s
r
ls
L
ns
v
ns
i
circuit equivalent axis n
Equivalent Circuits of Five-Phase Induction Motor under the Fundamental
plus Third Harmonic Currents
Stator voltage equations: Rotor voltage equations:
;
1
1 1 1
dt
d
i r V
qs
ds qs s qs

+ + =
;
1
1 1 1
dt
d
i r V
ds
qs ds s ds

+ =
; 3
3
3 3 3
dt
d
i r V
qs
ds qs s qs

+ + =
; 3
3
3 3 3
dt
d
i r V
ds
qs ds s ds

+ =
; ) (
1
1 1 1
dt
d
i r V
qr
dr r qr r qr

+ + =
; ) (
1
1 1 1
dt
d
i r V
dr
qr r dr r dr

+ =
; ) ( 3
3
3 3 3
dt
d
i r V
qr
dr r qr r qr

+ + =
; ) ( 3
3
3 3 3
dt
d
i r V
dr
qr r dr r dr

+ =
; ) (
1 1 1 1 1 qr m qs m ls qs
i L i L L + + =
; ) (
1 1 1 1 1 dr m ds m ls ds
i L i L L + + =
; ) (
3 3 3 3 3 qr m qs m ls qs
i L i L L + + =
; ) (
3 3 3 3 3 dr m ds m ls ds
i L i L L + + =
; ) (
1 1 1 1 1 qs m qr m lr qr
i L i L L + + =
; ) (
1 1 1 1 1 ds m dr m lr dr
i L i L L + + =
; ) (
3 3 3 3 3 qs m qr m lr qr
i L i L L + + =
; ) (
3 3 3 3 3 ds m dr m lr dr
i L i L L + + =
[ ] ) ( 3 ) (
2 2
5
3 3 3 3 1 1 1 1 ds qs qs ds ds qs qs ds e
i i i i
P
T + =
Stator flux linkage equations: Rotor flux linkage equations:
Torque equation:
dq Model of Five-Phase Induction Motor under the Fundamental plus Third
Harmonic Currents
;
;
3 3
1 1
r dr
r dr

=
=
; 0
; 0
3
1
=
=
qr
qr
Rotor filed orientation equations:

Or:
; 0 ) (
1 1 1 1
= + +
qs m qr m lr
i L i L L
; ) (
1 1 1 1 1 dr dr ds m dr m lr
i L i L L = = + +
; 0 ) (
3 3 3 3
= + +
qs m qr m lr
i L i L L
3 3 3 3 3 3
) (
r dr ds m dr m lr
i L i L L = = + +
Relation between stator and rotor q-axis currents:
;
) (
1
1
1
1 qs
m lr
m
qr
i
L L
L
i
+
=
;
) (
3
3
3
3 qs
m lr
m
qr
i
L L
L
i
+
=
Rotor voltage simplified equations:
; 0 ) (
1 1 1
= + =
dr r qr r qr
i r V
; 0
1
1 1
= + =
dt
d
i r V
dr
dr r dr

; 0 ) ( 3
3 3 3
= + =
dr r qr r qr
i r V
;
3
3 3
dt
d
i r V
dr
dr r dr

+ =
Rotor Field Oriented Control of Five-phase Induction
Motor
Decoupled flux equations:
;
1 1 1 1 ds m r dr
i L = =
;
3 3 3 3 ds m r dr
i L = =
;
2 2
5
1 1
1
1
1 dr qs
r
m
e
i
L
L P
T =
; 3
2 2
5
3 3
3
3
3 dr qs
r
m
e
i
L
L P
T =
;
3 1 e e e
T T T + =
Decoupled torque equations:
Rotor Field Oriented Control of Five-Phase Induction
Motor
Resilient Rotor Field Oriented Control (RRFOC) Block
Diagram of Five-Phase Induction Motor
L
C
1
2
3
4
5
5-Phase
IM
3-phase
supply
A
+
B
+
C
+
D
+
E
+
A
I
i
Five phase PWM inverter structure and its experimental setup
Five-Phase Current Regulated PWM Inverter
Five-Phase Induction Motor and DC Generator
Stator Current and Stator Tooth Flux Density
of Five-Phase Induction Motor
Stator current and stator tooth flux density
under the only fundamental currents.
Stator current and stator tooth flux density
under the fundamental plus third harmonic currents.
From top to bottom: (a) reference speed, (b) actual speed, (c) output torque, (d) stator current.
Dynamic Response of RFOC of Five-Phase Induction Motor under the
fundamental plus third harmonic currents with load
0
50
100
150
200
250
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
St at or current Is_rms (A)
T
o
r
q
u
e

(
l
b
-
i
n
)
Te1 (f=2 Hz)
Te13 (f=2Hz)
Te13 (f=1.8Hz)
Comparison of Torque with and without the Third
Harmonic Currents
t I t I i i i
a a a
3 cos cos
3 1 3 1
+ = + =
) 5 6 3 cos( ) 5 2 cos(
3 1 3 1
+ = + = t I t I i i i
b b b
) 5 12 3 cos( ) 5 4 cos(
3 1 3 1
+ = + = t I t I i i i
c c c
) 5 12 3 cos( ) 5 4 cos(
3 1 3 1
+ + + = + = t I t I i i i
d d d
) 5 6 3 cos( ) 5 2 cos(
3 1 3 1
+ + + = + = t I t I i i i
e e e
Five-phase stator input currents:
Rotor Field Oriented Control of Five-phase Induction
Motor
with the combined fundamental and third harmonic of currents
Space Vectors of the Fundamental and Third Harmonic
of Currents
Equivalent transformation of five-phase induction motor from abcde to dq
Resilient Current Control Strategy of Five-phase
Induction Motor under Asymmetrical Connections
] ) (
) [(
4
1
1
4
1
3
1
2
1 1
1 1
2
1
3
1
4
1 1 1
j
e d c b a
j
e d c b a s
e i a i a i a ai i
e ai i a i a i a i N MMF
+ + + + +
+ + + + =
] ) (
) [(
4
1
3
3
4
'
3
3
'
3
2
'
3
'
3
3
3
'
3
2
'
3
3
'
3
4
'
3 3 3
j
e d c b a
j
e d c b a s
e i a i a i a i a i
e i a i a i a i a i N MMF
+ + + + +
+ + + + =
3 1
MMF MMF MMF + =
MMF equations:
MMFs of Five-Phase Induction Motor
under the Fundamental and Third Harmonic of Currents
Fault-Free Operation Prerequisites of Five-Phase
Induction Motor
If any phases are open resulting from the device or motor winding failures, a rotating forward field is
still possible to be achieved by setting the currents of these phases equal to zero and keeping the same
MMF1 and MMF3.
In principle, if only two phases of the five-phase induction motor are in operation, the motor can
continue to operate steadily under the proper control methods.
Phasor diagram of the desired currents for the remaining four
healthy phases when phase a is open-circuited
Current Vectors of the Fundamental and Third
Harmonic under Phase a Open Circuited
)
5
cos( 382 . 1
)
5
cos(
)
5
2
(sin 4
5
1
2
1
'
1
'
1
=
= =
t I
t
I
i i
d b
)
5
4
cos( 382 . 1
)
5
4
cos(
)
5
2
(sin 4
5
1
2
1
'
1
'
1
=
= =
t I
t
I
i i
e c
)
5
3
3 cos( 618 . 3
)
5
3
3 cos(
)
5
(sin 4
5
3
2
3
'
3
'
3
=
= =
t I
t
I
i i
d b
)
5
12
3 cos( 618 . 3
)
5
12
3 cos(
)
5
(sin 4
5
3
2
3
'
3
'
3
=
= =
t I
t
I
i i
e c
Fundamental currents: Third harmonic currents:
Controlled Currents in the Remaining Four Healthy
Phases
Phasor diagram of the desired currents for the remaining three healthy
phases when phase a and b are open-circuited
Current Vectors of the Fundamental and Third
Harmonic under Phase aand b Open Circuited
Fundamental currents: Third harmonic currents:
)
5
2
cos( 2361 . 2
)
5
2
cos(
)
5
2
(sin 2
)
5
cos( 5
1
2
1
' '
1
=
=
t I
t
I
i
c
)
5
4
cos( 618 . 3
)
5
4
cos(
)
5
2
(sin
)
5
cos( 5
1
2
2
1
' '
1
+ =
+ =
t I
t
I
i
d
t I
t
I
i
e
cos 2361 . 2
cos
)
5
2
(sin 2
)
5
cos( 5
1
2
1
' '
1
=
=
)
5
6
3 cos( 2361 . 2
)
5
6
3 cos(
)
5
6
(sin 2
)
5
3
cos( 5
3
2
3
' '
3
=
=
t I
t
I
i
c
)
5
12
3 cos( 382 . 1
)
5
12
3 cos(
)
5
6
(sin
)
5
3
cos( 5
3
2
2
3
' '
3
+ =
+ =
t I
t
I
i
d
t I
t
I
i
e
3 cos 2361 . 2
3 cos
)
5
6
(sin 2
)
5
3
cos( 5
3
2
3
' '
3
=
=
Controlled Currents in the Remaining Three Healthy
Phases
3 sin 3 cos sin cos
*
3
*
3
*
1
*
1
*
ds qs ds qs as
I I I I I + + + =
) 5 2 ( 3 sin ) 5 2 ( 3 cos ) 5 2 sin( ) 5 2 cos(
*
3
*
3
*
1
*
1
*
+ + + =
ds qs ds qs bs
I I I I I
) 5 4 ( 3 sin ) 5 4 ( 3 cos ) 5 4 sin( ) 5 4 cos(
*
3
*
3
*
1
*
1
*
+ + + =
ds qs ds qs cs
I I I I I
) 5 4 ( 3 sin ) 5 4 ( 3 cos ) 5 4 sin( ) 5 4 cos(
*
3
*
3
*
1
*
1
*
+ + + + + + + =
ds qs ds qs ds
I I I I I
) 5 2 ( 3 sin ) 5 2 ( 3 cos ) 5 2 sin( ) 5 2 cos(
*
3
*
3
*
1
*
1
*
+ + + + + + + =
ds qs ds qs es
I I I I I
Reference Currents under Symmetrical Connections
) ) 5 ( 3 sin ) 5 ( 3 cos ( 618 . 3 ) ) 5 sin( ) 5 cos( ( 382 . 1
*
3
*
3
*
1
*
1
*
+ + + =
ds qs ds qs bs
I I I I I
) ) 5 4 ( 3 sin ) 5 4 ( 3 cos ( 618 . 3 ) ) 5 4 sin( ) 5 4 cos( ( 382 . 1
*
3
*
3
*
1
*
1
*
+ + + =
ds qs ds qs cs
I I I I I
) ) 5 4 ( 3 sin ) 5 4 ( 3 cos ( 618 . 3 ) ) 5 4 sin( ) 5 4 cos( ( 382 . 1
*
3
*
3
*
1
*
1
*
+ + + + + + + =
ds qs ds qs ds
I I I I I
) ) 5 ( 3 sin ) 5 ( 3 cos ( 618 . 3 ) ) 5 sin( ) 5 cos( ( 382 . 1
*
3
*
3
*
1
*
1
*
+ + + + + + + =
ds qs ds qs es
I I I I I
Reference Currents under Phase a Open-Circuited
Operations
) ) 5 2 ( 3 sin ) 5 2 ( 3 cos ) 5 2 sin( ) 5 2 cos( ( 2361 . 2
*
3
*
3
*
1
*
1
*
+ + + =
ds qs ds qs cs
I I I I I
) ) 5 4 ( 3 sin ) 5 4 ( 3 cos ( 382 . 1 ) ) 5 4 sin( ) 5 4 cos( ( 618 . 3
*
3
*
3
*
1
*
1
*
+ + + + + + + =
ds qs ds qs ds
I I I I I
) 3 sin 3 cos sin cos ( 2361 . 2
*
3
*
3
*
1
*
1
*

ds qs ds qs es
I I I I I + + + =
Reference Currents under Phase a and b Open-
Circuited Operations
From top to bottom: (a) stator phase-A current; (b) line to line
voltage A-B; (c) stator flux; (d) Speed
Experimental Results of RRFOC of Five-Phase
Induction Motor Drive under Symmetrical Connection
From top to bottom: (a) speed, (b) phase a current, (c) phase b current, (d) phase c current.
Resilient Current Control under Phase a open with
Load
Speed and phase a, b and c currents when phase a is open-circuited.
Speed and Stator Currents when the Faults Occur
Speed and phase a, b and c currents when phase a is open-circuited.
Steady Speed and Stator Currents when Phase a is
Open
From top to bottom: (a) speed, (b) torque, (c) phase b current, (d) phase c current.
Resilient Current Control under Load Adjustment when
Phase a is Open
Conclusions V
Through analyzing harmonic effects on multiphase induction motors, it is found that the third harmonic
plays an important role in the five-phase induction motor resulting in
a nearly rectangular flux distribution;
10% more output torque.
Based on model of the five-phase induction motor with the combined fundamental plus third harmonic
currents, rotor field oriented control is extended to the five-phase induction motor
achieving a high drive performance;
directly controlling two different frequency fluxes and torques;
realizing the desired currents and flux.
A resilient current control method has been developed to
Improve the reliability of the five-phase induction motor;
Enable the motor to operate continuously and steadily under fault conditions without any extra devices.
Fault Diagnosis of Electromechancial Devices
Contents
Introduction
Mechanical Faults
Detection Techniques
Performance Evaluation
Frequency analysis tools
Pattern Recognition (an example)
Bayes decision theory and Bayes Minimum Error Classifier
Block Diagram of the classifier
Feature Extraction
Test Bed and Experimental Results
Electric Motor Cross Section
ACTUAL MOTOR CONDITION
M
O
T
O
R

D
I
A
G
N
O
S
I
S
Healthy Not Healthy
H
e
a
l
t
h
y
N
o
t

H
e
a
l
t
h
y
MISSED
FAULTS
FALSE
ALARMS
O.K.
O.K.
I IV
II III
Diagnosis Scenarios
Introduction
A pair of voltage and current sensors are used to monitor electric motor conditions or do diagnostic.
Extra sensors such as accelerometer or temperature sensor can also be included depending on the
application.
The sensorless method relies on the presence of speed related saliency induced harmonics in the
motors line current.
The harmonic is used to estimate rotor speed.
A special feature extraction technique and a statistical classifier is utilized to detect eccentricity and
broken bar fault.
Frequency analysis plays a key role in this proposal.
Mechanical Faults
Broken rotor bar and end ring faults:
Broken rotor bars give rise to a sequence of side-band frequencies around the fundumental and its harmonics.
Presence of interbar currents in uninsulated rotor cages, where the contact between the rotor core and the bars
are good, might make broken bar detection difficult.
In practice, the current side bands around fundamental frequency may exist even when the machine is healthy.
Also rotor asymmetry, resulting from rotor ellipticity, misalignment of the shaft with the cage, magnetic
anisotropy, etc. shows up at the same frequency components as the broken bars. Therefore, other features of
this fault need to be investigated.
Mechanical Faults (contd)
Eccentricity related faults:
The condition of unequal air-gap between stator and rotor. It is called static air-gap eccentricity when the
position of the minimal radial air-gap length is fixed in the space. This maybe caused by the ovality of the
stator core or by the incorrect positioning of the rotor or stator at the commissioning stage.
In case of dynamic eccentricity, the center of rotor is not at the center of rotation, so the position of minimum
air-gap rotates with the rotor. This maybe caused by a bent rotor shaft, bearing wear or misalignment,
mechanical resonance at critical speed, etc. In practice, few percentage of air-gap eccentricity is permissible
because of the machining tools.
Bearing faults might manifest themselves as rotor eccentricity faults.
C
C2 C1
Healthy Machine Eccentric Machine
C= Center of Stator and Rotor C1=Center of Rotor C2=Center of Stator
and Center of Rotation Static Eccentricity: C1 is center of Rotation
Dynamic Eccentricity: C2 is center of Rotation
Mixed Eccentricity: Center of Rotation is anywhere
between C1 and C2
Eccentricity Fault
Faults Backlash
Symptoms that faults may cause in electric machines
Unbalanced air-gap voltages and line currents
Increased torque pulsation
Decreased average torque
Increased losses and reduction in efficiency
Excessive heating
The condition of unequal air-gap between the
stator and rotor.
Rotor Broken Bar
Eccentricity and Broken Bar Set-ups
( ) f kR n
s
p
d
(
( ) 1
f: fundamental frequency, n
d
= 0 for static eccentricity and
1,2,3for dynamic eccentricity, R: number of rotor slots,
: stator time harmonics, s: slip, k: any positive integer,
p: number of pole pairs.
High frequency components for static, dynamic, and mixed
Eccentricity are given at Principal Slot Harmonics (PSH):
PSH occur in some healthy machines and is used for
sensorless speed estimation for variable speed drives
applications.
Detection Techniques, Motor Current Signature
Analysis (MCSA)
20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
-80
-60
-40
-20
0
P
S
D
(
d
B
)
20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
-80
-60
-40
-20
0
P
S
D
(
d
B
)
Frequency (Hz)
s = 0.017
Healthy
Faulty
SE = 41%
DE = 21%
Experimental Low Frequency Line Current Spectra
with p = 2, R = 28
Frequency (Hz)
720 740 760 780 800 820
-120
-100
-80
-60
-40
P
S
D
(
d
B
)
720 740 760 780 800 820
-120
-100
-80
-60
-40
P
S
D
(
d
B
)
s = 0.023
Healthy
Faulty
SE = 41%
DE = 21%
Experimental High Frequency Line Current Spectra
with p = 2, R = 28
52 54 56 58 60 62 64 66 68
-230
-180
-130
-80
-30
Broken Bar harmonics around 60Hz
Slip=0.037
Frequency (Hz)
PSD
( ) ,.... 3 , 2 , 1 , 2 1 = = k f ks f
b
Broken Bar Harmonics
Broken Rotor Bars-Experiments
0 20 40 60 80
-140
-120
-100
-80
-60
-40
P
S
D

i
n

d
B
0 20 40 60 80
-140
-120
-100
-80
-60
-40
P
S
D

i
n

d
B

0 20 40 60 80
-140
-120
-100
-80
-60
-40
P
S
D

i
n

d
B
(Top to bottom) Experimental results with a. healthy machine b. with one bar partially
broken and c. with two bars partially broken.
Rotor bar number
Simulated rotor bar currents distribution right after switching off the mains under, Top:healthy, Bottom:faulty condition.
.
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
-300
-200
-100
0
100
200
B
a
r

c
u
r
r
e
n
t

i
n

a
m
p
s
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
-300
-200
-100
0
100
200
B
a
r

c
u
r
r
e
n
t

i
n

a
m
p
s
Simulation Results - Shut Down Test
Time in Secs
Stator voltage Vab after disconnection, healthy (top) and faulty (bottom) condition.
0.8 0.9 1 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5
-600
-400
-200
0
200
400
V
a
b

i
n

v
o
l
t
s
(
s
c
a
l
e
d
)
Experimental Results Shut Down Test
0.9 1 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6
-600
-400
-200
0
200
400
V
a
b

i
n

v
o
l
t
s
(
s
c
a
l
e
d
)
Experimental Results (Contd.)
Harmonic number
Spectrum of V
ab
after stator disconnection, Top: healthy, Bottom: faulty condition.
0 10 20 30 40 50
-100
-50
0
50
F
F
T

s
p
e
c
t
r
u
m

o
f

V
a
b

i
n

d
B
0 10 20 30 40 50
-100
-50
0
50
F
F
T

s
p
e
c
t
r
u
m

o
f

V
a
b

i
n

d
B
Performance Evaluation
Performance
Evaluation Package
Measured Data
Signal Processing Techniques
Spectral Analysis
Time - frequency Analysis
Sensor
Data Acquisition
DSP, FPGA,
Software
Electrical Parameters
Quality Control (Diagnostics)
Data Sheet
Terminal Report
INPUT
OUTPUT
Pattern
Recognition
Pattern Recognition
A pattern recognition system contains three parts, transducer, feature extractor and
classifier.
The transducer senses the input and converts into a form suitable for machine
processing.
The feature extractor extracts presumably relevant information from the input
data.
The classifier uses this information to assign the input data to one of a finite
numbers of classes
i
i=1,, N (N = number of classes). Feature extraction is
an open topic for research, however there are several well known techniques
for the classifier.
Healthy
Fault(s)
Feature
Extraction
Classifier
I
a
Torque
Measured or
estimated Inputs
Features Classes
Block Diagram of the Classifier
Stator Current
, I and their PSD

i and i
P and Nrb
PSD Analysis and
Speed Estimation
Feature Extraction
and
Bayes classifier
Healthy Fault(s)
Offline Training
Off-line training:
Finding the decision surfaces of a Gaussian distribution ends up with the line equations with
parameters and .
Torque developed by slot harmonic
Torque developed by broken bar harmonic
Normalized Phase of the two harmonics
Features:
=
Density Spectral Power
T
Excluding speed and load torque
Normalization :
Feature Extraction
Using MCSA:
Rotor Slot Harmonics to Estimate Speed
where n
d
=0 for static eccentricity, and (1, 2, 3,) for dynamic eccentricity.
R is the number of rotor slots
p is the number of poles, and = 1, 3, 5,
( )
( )
(

p
s
n kR f
d
1
Estimating Rotor Speed, Eccentricity Harmonics
Machine Test Bed Power Supply and
The Data Acquisition
System
Test Bed
To have a good set of data for off-line training, 97 sets of different data were collected and processed
to cover all possible different torque-speed machine conditions.
The induction motor was run from 10% to %130 of rated load with a healthy rotor, a 4 broken bar rotor, with
static eccentricity and 4 broken bar and static eccentricity together.
Probability distribution function for the derived features (next two slides)
As is shown, features do not overlap completely, that's why the algorithm works well!
-0.2 -0.15 -0.1 -0.05 0 0.05 0.1 0.15
0
5
10
15
F
r
e
q
u
e
n
c
y
-0.1 -0.08 -0.06 -0.04 -0.02 0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1
0
2
4
6
8
-- is healthy
._ is broken
- is broken & eccentricity
-..- is eccentricity
Variation of the First feature
F
r
e
q
u
e
n
c
y
Variation of the Second feature
Distributions of the Features After Removing Correlation
-0.3 -0.2 -0.1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
0
5
10
15
F
r
e
q
u
e
n
c
y
-0.08 -0.06 -0.04 -0.02 0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1
0
5
10
15
-- is healthy
._ is broken
_ is broken & eccentricity
-..- is eccentricity
Variation of the 3rd feature
F
r
e
q
u
e
n
c
y
Variation of the 4th feature
Distributions of the Features After Removing Correlation
Classification result after feature conditioning
Misclassification error = 5.2%
Classification Results
Block diagram of the system
AC
Motor
Severity of
The fault
Fault
Bayes Min.
Error Classifier
Fuzzy Rules
Stator
Currents
The objective of this approach is to come up with the degree of severity of broken bar fault
Fuzzy Reasoning for the Severity of Fault (Broken Bar)
Distribution of the broken bar feature with different number of broken bars
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
-1
-0.5
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
4
Labels of the data
A
m
p
l
i
t
u
d
e

o
f

t
h
e

f
e
a
t
u
r
e
2 Broken Bars
3 Broken Bars
1 Broken Bar
and Healthy
Rotors with different number of broken bars under different load conditions were tested
Broken Bar Analysis
If the classifier decides broken bar Fault and the Normalized Broken Bar Harmonic Torque is Zero, then the
Motor is Healthy (No Broken Bar Fault).
If the classifier decides broken bar Fault and the Normalized Broken Bar Harmonic Torque is Small, then Not
a Very Bad Broken Bar Fault.
If classifier decides broken bar Fault and the Normalized Broken Bar Harmonic Torque is medium, then a
Bad Broken Bar Fault.
If classifier decides broken bar Fault and the Normalized Broken Bar Harmonic Torque is large, then a Very
Bad Broken Bar Fault.
Fuzzy Rules
The drawbacks in assuming a pure sinusoidal supply in Method E of the IEEE Std. 112 are discussed in detail in literature and the benefits
of using the air gap torque method are highlighted
( ) ( ) [ ] ( ) ( ) [ ] { } t d i i r v i i dt i i r v i i
p
T
c a s ab a c a c s ca c a e

+ + = 2 2
6
3
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35
-40
-20
0
20
40
60
80
100
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500
-5
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
Foreshortened dynamic torque Steady state torque
Obtaining the Electromagnetic Torque Curve
0 500 1000 1500 2000
-40
-20
0
20
40
60
80
0 500 1000 1500 2000
-5
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
The complete speed-torque curve of the 28 bar 3hp machine, Left: No external inertia, Right: with an external inertia
Obtaining the Performance Curves
Conclusions
Pattern recognition can be used to classify incipient fault for ac induction machine
Suitable for quality control purposes
Can be applied for other other types of electric machines and also in power system
A fuzzy reasoning system is used to estimate the severity of the broken bar fault of an ac induction
motor, detected by the Bayes Minimum Error Classifier.
Other features for different applications need to be added.

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