Soman The Development of Certain Trends within Jewish Mysticism in Context of Adjacent Cultures The entirety of the Jewish

mystical tradition, known as kabbalah, is often interpreted to mean to receive, based on its Hebrew root word kbl (Gonzalez-Wippler xviii), however Gershom Scholem, the preeminent scholar in this field considers kabbalah to simply mean tradition (1). Kabbalah possibly developed over millennia, primarily through the study of the Five Books of Moses in the Bible, otherwise known as oral and written or miqrah Torah (Samuel 149). Yet, arguably the Jewish mystical tradition was formulated within the context of a certain amount of outside cultural influence. Being that the Jewish people have experienced multiple exiles and a lengthy Diaspora, developments within the kabbalistic tradition were not created insularly within a vacuum of normative Judaism alone, but likely considered the beliefs of surrounding cultures to some degree in their formulation. Kabbalah possibly originated in some form during Biblical times, and made its way to Western Europe via Babylon and other centers of Diasporic Jewry (Verman 9-20). It was originally a secretive tradition, passed down orally from teacher to student, rabbi to rabbi or father to son (Matt 2). Traditionally, one had to be a married man of at least forty years of age, with experience as a rabbi to study kabbalah (17). Rabbi Aryeh Kaplan categorically states that the Biblical Prophets were the first mystics, and that their prophetic tradition was somehow clandestinely kept alive after the destruction of the First Temple, eventually becoming kabbalah. He classifies three types of kabbalah: theoretical or philosophical, which constitutes a treatment of mechanics of the divine realm, meditative kabbalah, or how to attain direct experience of God, and practical or magical kabbalah, the manipulation of creation to bring about change in material world. Very little is truly known about this branch, of which there are forbidden means that are considered evil, known as sitra ahra, and permitted means, which require a divine directive to use these forces (Kaplan interview). Along with these distinctions, it is important to note that there are fundamentally two

Soman kinds of expression within kabbalah, the extensive textual or literary form, and the oral, unwritten kabbalah (de Lon 7). Transmission of the tradition occurred through both of these means, yet upon examination, the literary form naturally lends itself to presenting the most evidence of historical transmission. Depending on whether ones perspective is primarily religious or historical, typically the origin of kabbalah is ascribed to begin either with Moses receiving the Torah on Mt. Sinai (Verman 6), or it was created somewhere in medieval Western Europe, where its study and practice became the most prolific (29). Some even attribute the traditions beginnings with the book Sepher Raziel, after Adams receiving of a book of divine secrets from the angel Raziel, during his teshuva, or return (Halevi 14). There is also an allegory in the Sepher Ha Zohar that states that this knowledge was lost, yet returned to Abraham and thus to mankind by Melchizedek, high priest and manifestation of Enoch. Enoch was the only righteous man of his time, and ascended to heaven, becoming the angel Metatron (de Lon v). Regardless of any religious beliefs, there is plenty of evidence to suggest that kabbalah existed far before its most creative period of expression in 13th century Spain and France (Verman 29). Kabbalah involves not only nigleh or revealed aspects of Torah, but also nistar, the concealed aspects (Samuel 147). Mark Verman shares Kaplans view that mysticism began with the Prophets, and became something separate unto itself before or after the last prophet, Malachi (13). The Prophets were the original receivers of revealed knowledge, and after the destruction of the First Temple, the exile in Babylon, and the renewal and restoration that occurred there, there was no longer a need for prophecy. The messianic age was to come; Elijah and an unnamed prophet would return for one final mission to complete history. Because of this, it was assumed that God would no longer communicate to his people via revelation (10). Certain mystics disagreed with this notion, and held the belief that there was still concealed knowledge to discover. The tumultuous

Soman nature of this time gave rise to some splits within normative Judaism, that which would become defined later as rabbinical Judaism, and sectarian groups deemed heterodox by the former (11). The account of Ezekiels vision of the chariot, maaseh merkavah, experienced in the beginning of the 6th century B.C.E., served as a starting point for much of Jewish mysticism (Matt 3). This vision inspired a Talmudic story about four rabbis who attempted ascent to pardes, or paradise, with only Rabbi Akiva remaining unscathed (4). This type of mysticism inspired a branch of kabbalah called the Work of the Chariot, which involves an exploration of the microcosm, personal purpose and the individual relationship with the Divine (Cohen 1). It also inspired the Hekhalot literature, which deals with the ascent to the divine throne through heavenly halls or palaces (Schafer 13). An early account describing the body of God in an anthropomorphic sense, Shiur Qomah or the measurement of the divine stature was also written and was influential to later kabbalah (Matt 4). A branch of mysticism dealing with cosmology, maaseh bereshit the Work of Creation, was also created (Verman 45). This form focused more on pondering the macrocosm and the dynamic structure and function of the universe with relation to time and space (Cohen 1). During the exile in Babylon, the formulation of rabbinical Judaism occurred within proximity to the religions of the Babylonians, a type of Zoroastrianism being a prominent faith at the time. Zoroastrianism, a religion that originally possessed a complex pantheon of deities not unlike Hinduism, later exhibited particularly dualistic traits in the form of two primary cosmically and morally opposed principles, absolute Good as Ahura Mazda and absolute Evil as Ahriman (Guiley 278). This reformed tradition not only greatly influenced Gnosticism in several of its iterations, but branches of early Judaism and therefore Christianity as well (Segal 20). Jews were exposed to their oppressors religious culture for a lengthy seven decades. Whilst Judaism eventually emerged still as a monotheistic tradition, the dualistic influence of this period would forever impact Judaic religious culture. The presence of certain angels was already part of

Soman Israelite religion, yet the acknowledgement of lesser immortal beings in the formation of a complex, highly developed angelology reverberated the Zoroastrian belief in yazatas, or angelic beings (Guiley 278). Concepts that would play an even greater role in later Jewish Christianity, such as the adversary, known to Christians as Satan, Messianism, the idea of a coming savior, and apocalyptic or eschatological preoccupations with Final Judgement and the realms of Heaven and Hell are also thought to be influenced by the Persians. The Essenes, a dualist Jewish sect of ascetics living at Qumran in the 1st century C.E. particularly embodied these ideas (Segal 20). From what little is known of them from the discovery of the Dead Sea Scrolls in 1947, they did practice a type of mysticism that included some form of the Tree of Life, a prominent glyph and structure in later kabbalah (Cohen 262). While the Zoroastrian tradition did have some kind of effect on Judaism, the efforts of 19th century Christian theosophists Adolphe Franck and Eliphas Lvi to make kabbalah out to be some sort of universal, non-Jewish tradition stemming from Zoroaster may be more than a bit of a stretch (Hanegraaff 126). There is plenty of textual evidence to suggest a longstanding, continuous tradition of Jewish input into kabbalah that predates the exile in Babylon. The Sepher Yetzira is a book of emanationist cosmogony and cosmology that concerns itself with the ten numbers or sephirah (Halevi 25), the nature of the Hebrew alphabet and Gods creation of the world. It was not necessarily a mystical text, yet was used as such by many (Stenring vi). It is considered the earliest or one of the earliest kabbalistic texts (Yetzirah ix), thought by some to be composed in Palestine between the 3rd and 6th centuries C.E. (Matt 4). Its authorship is usually attributed to Talmudist Rabbi Akiba Ben Yoseph (Stenring vii), yet both the Zohar and Raziel state that Abraham wrote the text (Yetzirah xii). There is speculation that Joseph Ben Uzziel may have actually the true author, writing down the revelations of prophet Jeremiah (Stenring 12). The numerous translations, versions of and commentaries on the Sepher Yetzirah are perhaps the most extensive of any text within kabbalah (Yetzirah xxvi).

Soman The text expounds a doctrine of numerological and linguistic heavenly, bodily and zodiacal correspondences that were extended by the authors of the Zohar (8-9), such as the inclusion of the actual names of the sephirah (14). Unwise use of this book as a magical text may have started the formation of the practical kabbalah tradition (Stenring viii), however it gained widespread approval for use in meditative purposes (Yetzirah x). The commentary by Saadiah Gaon attached to the book was supposedly written to counter dualist heretics in Babylon (12). Emanationist cosmogony was present as a common theme in many dualist, Gnostic, neo-Platonic and theosophical traditions (Matt 5); it is no surprise that since Saadiah Gaon was against these kinds of heterodox philosophies (Solomon 38), he would make an attempt to house the Sepher Yetzirah under the umbrella of what was considered regular, orthodox Judaism at the time. The Sepher Ha Bahir, the Book of Brilliance (Cohen 263), most likely written by Rabbi Nehuniah ben HaKana (Bahir xi) and published around 1176 in Provence, is one of the oldest writings on theoretical kabbalah and is considered one of the most important as well (ix). It comprised part of the maaseh merkavah literature, drew from the Sepher Yetzirah and inspired a small, exclusive school of its own, influencing individuals such as Rabbi Eliezer the Great (xiii), Isaac the Blind, and Rabbi Moshe ben Nachman or Nachmanides (xvii). This school was known as the hasedei ashkenaz, or German Pietists. The Bahir comments on part of Genesis, the Hebrew alphabet, the Seven Voices, the sephira and the nature of the soul (xviii) in relation to Gilgul (xx). A main concept introduced in this text is tzimtzum, the contraction of Gods light done to form a space with which to introduce creation (xxii). This idea has been falsely attributed to Lurianic kabbalah, and in fact is one of the elements that were commented on in the later Zohar (xxiii). The Sepher Ha Zohar, the Book of Splendour, is by far the best-known work of kabbalah. Because so much of the authorship within Jewish mystical texts was anonymous or pseudonymous (Verman 21) it is unclear whether Moses de Lon really wrote this book or if he simply was the

Soman scribe for Rav Shimon bar Yochai and his group of havrayya, or mystical companions (Matt 6). The text doesnt comment very frequently on mystical or meditative experience; more so, it focuses on the relationship between the sephirot and how they relate to ethical and spiritual conduct of humanity (Matt 11). Along with the tradition stemming out of the writings of the Iyyun, or contemplation meditation group, especially those of the Ari, or Rabbi Yitzchak Luria (Samuel 149), the Zohar would become the most popular writing within all of kabbalah (Halevi 19). Abraham Abulafia, a controversial and well-traveled man who lived in Sepharad, or Spain in the 13th century, was one of the best-known proponents of ecstatic kabbalah. This form of kabbalah emphasized forms of meditation that revolved around recitation of divine names and contemplation of the letters of the Hebrew alphabet over all other aspects. During his travels, Abulafia may have encountered and incorporated the teachings of Sufism and yoga. He met with many obstacles along the way. Not only did he narrowly escape death after boldly attempting to convert Pope Nicholas III, he was condemned as a charlatan by Solomon Adret, a rabbinical authority, forcing him to flee Spain (Matt 12). His influence on Spanish kabbalah was minimal, yet his teachings were accepted in Palestine, which accounts for Sufisms introduction into kabbalah (13). A Cathar influence on Abulafia and the Bahir has also been speculated about, proposed by Shulamit Shahar (Idel 33). Part of the theory is based on what Shahar views as similar conceptions of evil and Satan. The other part of her theory points out the peculiarity of the presence of Gilgul, the transmigration of the soul being present within an Abrahamic tradition. She points out the interesting correspondence of a similar Cathar belief in metempsychosis, or a form of reincarnation (39). While there were Jews living simultaneously in the same regions as the Cathars, the Languedoc and parts of Catalonia, and while kabbalistic spiritual traditions shared many doctrinal similarities, the association cannot be proven (Scholem 97). During the Middle Ages, in certain circles, the trend of secretiveness in kabbalah shifted to a

Soman method of more public and open dispensation for a time (Verman 27). By the 15th and 16th centuries, with the Renaissance in full swing, kabbalah was being translated, studied and perpetuated outside the context or guidance of Judaism (Stenring x), and study of some form of it became integral to membership in several secret societies (xii). Its teachings were fused with alchemical doctrines (Hogan 9), tarot card correspondences and other occult traditions by Gentile kabbalah enthusiasts and practitioners (Stenring 13). By the 18th century, during the Haskalah, or what approximated a Jewish Enlightenment movement, one of the elements of Jewish heritage that was sacrificed by most Western European Jews in favor of adopting European culture was kabbalah (Scholem 1). With the rise of science in the 19th century, kabbalah was largely abandoned in Jewish circles outside of Eastern European Hasidim (Hoffman 1). This mystical revival movement, initiated by Israel Baal Shem Tov, was based on Lurianic teachings, emphasized joy as a way to achieve union with God (Bernstein 187) and it added a psychological component to kabbalah (Matt 16). As a resurgence of interest in spirituality occurred in the 20th century, and with the work of scholars such as Gershom Scholem, kabbalah has gained a renewed interest from Jews and non-Jews alike that continues in the present (Hoffman 2). So much time has passed since the inception of Jewish mysticism, along with much cultural exchange and revision, intentional and otherwise. What ultimately constitutes a proper or true kabbalah today is difficult to determine and largely based on opinion; however, the myriad interpretations and streams of practice that have arisen from the original dispensation make for a rich and colorful collection of related traditions.

Soman Works Cited Ben Joseph, Akiba. The Book of Formation or Sepher Yetzirah. Trans. Knut Stenring. Berwick: Ibis Press. 2004. Print. Ben Shimon Halevi, Zev. Kabbalah: The Divine Plan. New York: HarperCollins Publishers, Inc. 1996. Print. Bernstein, Henrietta. Cabalah Primer: Introduction to English/Hebrew Cabalah. Caramillo: DeVorss Publications. 1984. Print. Cohen, Penny. Personal Kabbalah: 32 Paths to Inner Peace and Life Purpose. New York: Sterling Publishing Co., Inc. 2005. Print. de Lon, Moses. The Kabbalah: The Essential Texts from the Zohar. Trans. S.L. MacGregor Mathers. London: Watkins Publishing. 2006. Print. Gonzalez-Wippler, Migene. Kabbalah for the Modern World. Woodbury: Llewellyn Worldwide. 2006. Print. Guiley, Rosemary Ellen. The Encyclopedia of Demons & Demonology. New York: Infobase Publishing, Inc. 2009. PDF File. Hanegraaff, Wouter J. The Beginnings of Occultist Kabbalah: Adolphe Franck and Eliphas Lvi. Ed. Huss, Boaz, Marco Pasi and Kocku von Stuckrad. Kabbalah and Modernity: Interpretations, Transformations, Adaptations. Leiden: Koninklijke Brill NV, 2010. 107-128. PDF file. Hoffman, Edward, ed. Opening the Gates: New Paths in Kabbalah and Psychology. Boston: Shambhala Publications. 1995. Print. Hogan, Timothy. The 32 Secret Paths of Solomon: A New Examination of the Qabbalah in Freemasonry. Lexington: Lulu Publishing. 2011. Print. Idel, Moshe. Studies in Ecstatic Kabbalah. Albany: State University of New York Press. 1988. PDF file.

Soman Kaplan, Aryeh. Jewish Mysticism. The First Estate: Religion in Review. By Dr. Russell Barber. 1979. Web. Kaplan, Aryeh. The Bahir: Illumination. York Beach: Samuel Weiser, Inc. 1979. Print. Kaplan, Aryeh. Sefer Yetzirah: The Book of Creation In Theory and Practice. York Beach: Samuel Weiser, Inc. 1997. Print. Matt, Daniel C. The Essential Kabbalah: The Heart of Jewish Mysticism. New York: HarperCollins Publishers, Inc. 1996. Print. Samuel, Gabriella. The Kabbalah Handbook: A Concise Encyclopedia of Terms and Concepts in Jewish Mysticism. New York: Penguin Group. 2007. Print. Schafer, Peter. The Hidden and Manifest God. Albany: State University of New York Press. 1992. PDF File. Segal, Alan F. Two Powers in Heaven: Early Rabbinic Reports About Christianity and Gnosticism. Leiden: Koninklijke Brill NV. 1977. PDF file. Scholem, Gershom. On the Kabbalah and Its Symbolism. New York: Schocken Books. 1996. Print. Solomon, Norman. Judaism: A Very Short Introduction. New York: Oxford University Press, Inc. 2000. Print. Verman, Mark. The Books of Contemplation: Medieval Jewish Mysticism. Albany: State University of New York Press. 1992. Print.