: CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY:

Making of good concrete is not easy job. This is clear from the all-too-common bad concrete. Both good & bad concrete can be prepared from the exactly same constituent: cement, sand, aggregate & water (and sometimes, admixture). It is the mix proportion, the know-how & do-how makes the difference. Good concrete is one that has the desired: (a) strength (b) impermeability (c) durability etc. in the harden state. To achieve this concrete has to be Satisfactory in the fresh state ( which includes mixing, handling, placing, compacting & curing. Broadly speaking this means that: (i) Mix must be of right proportion, (ii) Must be cohesive enough to be transported, (iii) Placed without segregation by means available in mould/ formwork, (iv) Consistency must be such that it is workable & (v) can be compacted by means that are available ( hand compacting, vibrators etc. )

CEMENT:
Cement may be described as a material with adhesive & cohesive properties which make it capable of bonding mineral fragments ( aggregate fine & coarse) into compact whole. Cements used for making concrete are called hydraulic cement- so named, because they have property of reacting chemicals with water in an exothermic (heat generating) process called hydration. The products of form a viscous cement paste, which coats the aggregate pieces. The cement paste stiffens (sets) gradually & subsequently hardens, transforming the mixture into a solid mass. If the consistency of the cement paste is either excessively harsh or excessively wet, there is a danger of segregation i.e. the aggregate tends to separate out of mix; this will adversely affect the quality of hardened concrete & result in a honeycomb appearance. There is a common misconception regarding use of cement (even some civil engineers)assume that it is desirable to put in as much cement as possible in a concrete mix-provided, of course, the cost is not a constrain. This is simply not true. The use of excessive cement results in cracking of concrete (due to heat of hydration generated & due to plastic shrinkage of cement paste, & leads to increased long term effect of creep & drying shrinkage of hardened concrete resulting in undesirable large d eflection & cracking. (Ref. Reinforced concrete design by S.Unnikrishna Pillai & Devdas Menon P-26, McGraw Hill Publication, New Delhi.)

PORTLAND CEMENT:
1. First patented in England in 1824. 2. So named because its grey colour resembled a lime stone (quarried in Dorset) called Portland Stone. 3. It is made by burning together at about 1400-1500 C an intimate mixture ( in the form of slurry) of limestone ( or chalk) with alumina, silica & iron oxide bearing material (such as clay or shale), & grinding the resulting clinker in to fine powder, after cooling & adding little gypsum.

4. The cement contains four major compounds, viz: a) tricalcium silicate (C3S), b) dicalcium silicate (C2S), c) tricalcium aluminate (C3A) & d) tetracalcium Aluminoferrite (C4AF) 5. Above four major compounds are termed as Bogues Compound. 6. By altering relative proportion of these major compounds, and including appropriate additives, different types of Portland cement can be made. BOGUE COMPOUNDS: The raw materials used for the manufacture of cement consist of mostly lime, silica, alumina & iron oxide. The raw material when subjected to high temperature (1400-1500 C) combines with each other to form complex compounds. The identification of the major compounds is largely based on R.H. Bogues work & hence it is called BOGUES COMPOUNDS. The four compounds usually regarded as major compounds are: Tricalcium Silicate- 3Cao.Sio2-(C3S) Dicalcium Silicate- 2Cao.Sio2-(C2S) TriCalcium Aluminate- 3Cao.Al2O3-(C3A) Tetracalcium Aluuminoferrite- 4Cao.Al2O3.FeO3-(C4AF)

It is to be noted that for simplicitys sake abbreviated notations are used: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. C-Stands for CaO S-for SiO2 A-for Al2O3 F-for Fe2O3 & H-for H2O.

ALKALI AGGREGATE REACTION: For long time aggregates have been considered as inert materials but later on, after 1940 it was clearly brought out that aggregate are not fully inert. Some of the aggregates contain reactive Silica, which reacts with alkali present in cement i.e. Sodium oxide & Potassium oxide. Types of rock which contains reactive constituents include Traps, Andesites, Rhyoites, Siliceous lime stones & certain types of sand stone. FACTORS PROMOTING THE ALKALI-AGGREGATE REACTION: a) b) c) d) Rective type of aggregates, High alkali contents in cement( more than 0.6%-expressed as Na2+0.658K2o) Availibility of moisture & Optimum temperature condition. (10C-30 C

CONTROL OF ALKALI-AGGREGATE REACTION: a) Selection of non-reactive aggregate. b) By use of low alkali cement (0.6% or less).

c) By use of corrective admixture such as Pozzolana. d) By controlling the void space in concrete & e) By controlling the moisture & temperature. TYPES OF CEMENTS: A) Ordinary Portland cement. (Generally used in building work) Ordinary Portland cement 33 grade-IS269-1989 Ordinary Portland cement 43 grade-IS8112-1989 Ordinary Portland cement 33 grade-IS12269-1987

B) Rapid hardening cement- IS: 8041:1990, used in prefabrication, early removable of formwork for reuse elsewhere, road repair, cold weather etc. C) Extra rapid hardening cement- cold weather concreting D) Sulphate resisting cement-IS: 12330:1988, marine use, foundation where sub-soil is infested with sulphate. E) Portland slag cement-IS: 455:1989-reduced heat of hydration, refinement of pore structure, reduces permeability. F) Quick setting cement-IS: under water construction where pumping is involved. G) Super sulphated cement-IS: 6909:1990, marine work, r.c.c. pipe to be buried in sulphate bearing soil. H) Low heat cement-IS: 12600:1989 I) Portland Pozzolana cement-cheap, economical, used in hydraulic & marine structures, reduced heat of hydration.(a) Fly ash based-IS1489-1991-Part-I,(b) Calcinated Clay-IS: IS1489-1991-Part-II K) Air entraining cementL) Coloured cement, white-IS: 8042:1989. M) Hydrophobic cement-IS: 8043:1991, used in humid regions like Assam N) Masonry cement-IS:3466:1988- used for masonry work. O) Expansive cement- used for grouting anchoring bolts, machine foundations, pre-stressed concrete ducts etc. P) Oil well cement-used in drilling of oil well. Q) Rediset cement-early strength of concrete & mortar, patch repair & emergency repair, quick use of forms, slip form of concrete construction etc.

R) Concrete sleeper grade-IS: IRS-T4:1985- used for the manufacture of sleeper, prestressed concrete, high-rise buildings etc. S) High alumina cement-IS: 6457:1989-used for refractory work. T) Very high strength cement. TESTING OF CEMENT: Testing of the cement can be done a) on field & b) laboratory. a) Field Testing: (i) No visible lumps in freshly open cement bag,(ii) Greenish grey colour of the cement, (iii) Cool feeling to hand when inserted in bag, (iv)If thrown on a bucket full of water-particle should float for some time before sinking, (v) Cake of stiff cement paste should maintain its shape taken under water. b) Laboratory test: (i) Fineness test: by sieving(No:9-90 micron), by determination of specific surface by air permeability apparatus, (ii) Setting time test: Initial setting time-about 30 min. Final setting time not more than 10 hours. (iii) Strength test: Compressive test most important. Three cube are prepared with standard sand (Ennore sand) as/IS: 650-1991. (iv) Soundness test: Cement after setting shall not undergo any appreciable change in volume especially of expansion. (v) Heat of hydration test: Reaction of cement with water is exothermic 65 Calorie/gram at 7days & 75 Cal. /gram at 28 days. (vi) Chemical composition test: The raw material used for the manufacture of cement consists mainly of lime, silica, alumina & iron oxide. These oxide interact with one another at high temperature to form more complex compounds. The relative proportion of this oxide composition is responsible for influencing the various properties of cement, rate of cooling, fineness of grinding etc. AGGREGATES: Concrete can be considered as two phase material i) paste phase & ii) aggregate phase. The study of aggregate can be done under following heading: a) Classification: (i) Normal weight, (ii) Light weight, (iii) Heavy weight, (iv) Natural: Sand , gravel, crushed stone, rocks- granite, basalt, sand stone etc. (v) Artificial: Broken bricks, Air cooled slag, Sintered fly ash, bloated clay etc. b) Source: Natural: (i) Igneous rocks, (ii) Sedimentary rocks, (iii) Metamorphic rocks etc. c) Size: (i) Coarse aggregate-bigger than 4.75mm in size & (ii) Fine aggregate- less than 4.75mm in size. Using largest possible maximum size if aggregate will result in cement content, water requirement & reduction of drying shrinkage. But maximum size will be governed by the thickness of the section, spacing of reinforcements, clear cover & mixing, handling & placement technique etc. In P.C.C. generally 160 to 80 mm size aggregates are generally used, while for beam, slabs etc generally 20 mm aggregates are used. d) Shape: (i) Rounded-less cement and W/C ratio, but less interlocking and hence less

e)

f) g) h)

i)

j) k)

l) m)

n) o) p)

Strength, (ii) Irregular & partly rounded, (iii) Angular-additional cement, more W/C ratio but high strength due to interlocking of aggregates.(iv) Flaky-thickness small compared to width & length. Texture: (i) Polished & smooth & (ii) Rough. Surface texture depends on hardness, grain size, pore structure, surface of rock & degree to which acting on the particle surface smoothened or roughened it. Strength: Depends on-cement quality, strong aggregate, bond between cement paste & aggregate, proper curing etc. Specific gravity & bulk density: (i) Light wt. conc. (ii) Heavy wt. conc. Average weight varies 2.4 to 2.8. Moisture content: Porous & absorptive aggregate affects W/C ratio. Absorption based on 24 hours test is not sufficient as such aggregate absorbs water at the time of setting from concrete. Bulking factor: Free moisture in fine aggregate results in bulking/volume. Fill sand in watertight measuring box (Farma) up to top & then pour water to inundate the sand. Measure subsidence & express it in %. Cleanliness: Sand shall be clean and free from silt, clay & salts. Coarse aggregate stacked in open & unused for long may contain moss & mud especially in lower level. Soundness: Ability of aggregate to resist excessive changes in volume as a result of changes in physical conditions such as freezing, thawing, variation in temperature, alternate wetting & drying etc. Chemical properties: Alkali aggregate reaction. Thermal properties: (i) Coefficient of expansion, (ii) Specific heat, (iii) thermal conductivity. Specific heat & thermal conductivity are most important for concrete. First criteria for general r.c.c.-9.9x10-6 per C for increase in volume. Durability: Concrete work shall be durable for entire span of life which depends on good concrete. Sieve analysis: This is the name given to the operation of dividing a sample of aggregate into various fractions each containing particles of same size. Grading: Aggregate comprises about 55% of volume of mortar & about 85% volume of mass concrete. Aggregate size for mortar-4.75mm maximum, for other concrete work it varies from 20mm for general R.C.C. work to 150mm maximum for P.C.C. work. Well graded concrete means: (i) Workable, (ii) Minimum voids, (iii) Minimum paste to fill up voids in the aggregate, (iv) Less quantity of cements. (v) Minimum W/C ratio, (vi) Economy, (vii) Higher strength, (viii) Lower shrinkage & (ix) Greater durability.

WATER: A popular yard stick for suitability of water for mixing of concrete is that, If water is fit for drinking, it is fit for making concrete. But it is not always true. Some water with small amount of sugar would be suitable for drinking, but not for mixing concrete & vice versa. Conc. Made from questionable water shall be compared with similar conc. Made from pure water. Some specification accepts water for making conc. If the pH value lies between 6 &8, but water should be free from organic matter.

Best course will be suitability of water can be determined by making conc. With available water source & then compare its 7 days & 28 days strength of the conc. Made from pure water. If the test value is about 90%, the source of water is o.k. Carbonates & bio-carbonates of sodium & potassium affects the setting time of cements. Salts of manganese, tin, zinc, copper & lead cause marked reduction in strength of concrete. Various salts of sodium cause reduction in initial strength of concrete. Silts & suspended particles are undesirable as they may interfere with setting, hardening & bond characteristics of concrete. Sea water can be used for un-reinforced conc. But for r.c.c. work it should be used with caution. Water which causes staining shall not be used for curing. Water which can used for making of conc. Can safely be used for curing.

WATER CONTENT & WORKABILITY OF CONCRETE: Water is required for hydration of cement as well as for proper workability. Workability may be defined as: that property of the freshly mixed conc. (or mortar) which determines the ease & homogeneity with which it can be mixed, placed, compacted & finished. Workability is required for: i) Full placement in formwork. ii) Full compaction. iii) Mix if too dry-danger of segregation. iv) Mix if too wet-danger of bleeding. The optimum water content in the mix is that at which the sum of volumes of entrapped air & entrapped water is minimum; & for which the density achievable (by method of compaction employed) is maximum. For the purpose of mix design water content is usually taken in the range of 180-200 litres/m3 (unless admixtures are used).

WATER CEMENT RATIO & STRENGTH: 1. W/C ratio can be defined as the ratio of mass of free water (i.e. excluding that absorbed by aggregate) to the cement in mix, is the major factor that controls the strength & many other properties of concrete. 2. GENERALLY RATIO IS IN THE RANGE OF 0.35 TO 0.65,although for purely chemical requirements ( for the purpose of complete hydration of cement) is only about 0.25 3. Abrams law states that compressive strength of hardened conc. Is inversely proportional to the W/C ratio. WATER FOR CURING: The water in conc. Mix takes one of the following three forms, as a consequence of hydration: 1. Combined water: Which is chemically combined with the product of hydration, it is

non-evaporable. 2. Gel water: Which is held physically or absorbed on the surface area of the cement gel ,Solid hydrates located in tiny, impermeable gel pores & 3. Capillary water: Which partially occupies the capillary pores that constitute the space in the cement paste remaining after accounting foe the volumes of cement gel and un-hydrated cement; this water is easily evaporated. Curing is the name given to the procedure that are employed for actively promoting the hydration of cement in suitable environment during early stages of hardening of conc. Curing is essential for producing good conc. That has the desired strength, impermeability and durability. Moist curing aims to keep conc. As nearly as possible at normal temperature-by continually spraying of water or by ponding or by covering the conc. With layer of any kind of sacking which is kept wet. As per code at least 7 days curing is essential from the date of placing of conc.[IS:7861(Part-1)-1975], min. 10 days curing under hot weather condition. Ice water shall be used during preparation conc. & curing in hot weather. For accelerated curing steam curing or autoclave curing may be resorted to in cold climate or winter. ADMIXTURES: Admixtures are additives which are introduced in conc. Mix to modify the properties of conc. In its fresh & hardened state. (For guide refer IS: 9103-1979). Types are as under: 1. Accelerators: Chemicals (such as calcium chloride) to accelerate hardening or the development of early strength of conc. For urgent repairs or while concreting in cold weather. 2. Retarders: Chemicals (including sugar) to retard the setting time of conc. especially in hot weather & in ready mix conc.(which has to be transported to the site before placement) 3. Water reducer ( Or plasticizers): Chemicals to improve plasticity in fresh conc. These are mainly used for achieving higher strength by reducing the W/C ratio or for improving workability to facilitate placement of conc. In locations that are not easily accessible. 4. Super-plasticizers(or high-range water reducers): Purpose is same as above i.e. to reduce W/C ratio, high strength & flowing conc. 5. Air-entraining agents: Organic compounds (e.g. animal/vegetable fats & oils, wood resins etc) which introduce discrete & microscopic air bubbles in conc.(about 5% by volume) of conc. Mainly to protect conc. From damage due to alternate freezing & thawing. 6. Bonding admixtures: Polymer emulsions(latexes) to improve the adherence of fresh conc. To (old) hardened conc. Suitable for repair work. 7. Mineral additives: (i) Pozzolana (fly ash & blast furnace slag (which have cementitious properties & can be used as partial replacement of cement. (ii) Silica fumes (or micro silica) by product of silicon industry-Pozzolana in character & capable of producing high strength conc. (iii) Powdered zinc, Powdered aluminum &

hydrogen peroxide(gas forming admixture) used for light weight aerated conc. For its high thermal insulation properties. REINFORCEMENTS: Reinforcements used in concrete wok can classified as under: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. M.S. bars confirming to IS:432(Part-1)-1966 Hot rolled M.S. deformed bars confirming to IS:1139-1966 Medium tensile steel confirming to IS: 432 (Part-1)-1966 Hot rolled Medium tensile steel deformed bars confirming to IS:1139-1966 Hot rolled high yield strength deformed bars (HYSD) confirming to IS:1139-1966 Hot rolled high yield strength deformed bars (HYSD) confirming to IS:1139-1966 Cold worked steel high strength deformed bars confirming to IS: 1786-1979 (Grade Fe415 & Fe500). 8. Hard drawn steel wires fabric confirming to IS: 1566-1967. For all types of reinforcements Modulus of elasticity E can be taken as: 2x105 N/mm2. All the reinforcements shall be of: (i) Uniform in size & weight, (ii) free from rust & scales, (iii) free from grease oil etc. (iv) soft for cutting & bending, (iv) proper effective cover to be provided for protection from adverse weathering condition. In building Fe250 6mm bars are used for rings/links & distribution reinforcements in slabs & Fe415, Fe500 are used as main reinforcements of slabs, beams, columns, foundations etc. Advantages of HYSd are as under: Because of high yield strength the quantity of steel required in r.c.c. work is reduced & hence cost of construction also reduced. HYSD bars have very good bond with concrete than M.S., so that they may be placed without end hook & much smaller anchorage length, resulting in further saving in costs. By cold working the strength of the bar is increased. During the twisting process the defects, if any, in steel are noticed & they are rejected. Thus each bar is severely tested.

The disadvantages are: With increase in stress level the cracking tendency increases, hence it is necessary to use grade conc. Especially for Fe500. Due to reduction in percentage in tensile steel, the design shear strength of concrete is reduced.