rt--"

i L---

1\
#b$,organisations
l*---/
useICT2 -t

controlsystems
workingpractices
advertising
t e a c h i n ga n d l e a r n i n g
publishing
t r m em a n a g e m e n t
d a t am a n a g e m e n t
payrollapplications
technicaland customersupport.

D ovnorf qrr<fom<

l monitoring
and measurement
) projectmanagement
) modelling
) marketresearch
) researchapplications
) o n l i n ea p p l i c a t i o n s
) stockcontrol.

t,l Expertsystems It should be rememberedthat expert systemscan

[,xpert
svsterns are computer-basedsystemsthat
make
useof a wide range of human knowledge on
aspecific
topic to solve various problems. They are
different
to other problem-solving software as they
usereasoningto produce the solution. Such a system
data inside the computer, which represents the
:dge,and uses a set of rules, which is a form of
ing. One way of approaching this section is to
of encyclopedias.They contain a huge amount
information,otherwise known as knowledee. This
ledgeis used to solvea problem by the system
a seriesof questions.The answersto these
ionsare usedto producepossiblesolutions.The
thenconsidersthesebeforemakinga decisionon
mostappropriatesolution.
only operate in fields where there are already hr-rman
expertsin exister.rce.
They can only be used in areas
where there are clearlydefined ruies and established
facts. They cannot be used in areaswhere there are gaps
in the availablefacts or where rules are open to different
interpretations.
Expert systemsare not like most problem-solving
programs.Problem-solvingprograms are produced to
solveparticular problems - such a program can only
produce solutionsto that particular problern and the
knowledge required to solve the problem is embedded
within the program instructions.If the knowledge
changesthen the whole program may need to be
re-written. In contrast, expert systemsare used to gather
the knowledge of expertsto form 3 lirrou,lerlgrhasc.

How organisations
use ICT2 77
A rules baseis a setof ruleswhich an inferenceengine
uses,togetherwith the dataor factsin the knowledge
base,to reasonthrough a problem.Consequently, a within the knowledge base.
differentproblemcanbe solvedwith the sameexpert
systemusingthe knowledgethat is appropriate.
In addition,the systemexplainsthe logicalreasoning
that it hasusedto cometo its conclusions.
In order to createan expert
systemit is necessary to employa
knowledgeengineer.The engineer
collectsinformationand knowledge
from the subjectspecialists (experts),
basedon the experts'experiencein
the field concerned,aswell asfinding
out their requirementsfor the system.
Theengineeralsogathersdatafrom
databasesthat may exist for the
topic.This processis often referred
to asdatamining, so calledbecause
it canbe thought ofas extractingrelevantand accurate
information and knowledgewhilst siftingout what can
be thought of asthe impurities,i.e.the irfelevantdata.
The knowledgeengineermust then designthe
knowledgebaseand the rules base.Theseoften come
as two interrelatedparts of the systemrather than as
separateentities.The knowledgebasecan be considered
to be the data relatedto the problem and the rules.
Theserules are usuallyof the form IF... THEN, which
is used in many forms of programming.Another
aspectof the expert systemthat has to be designed
and createdis the inferenceengine,which is the
reasoningpart of the system.A good inferenceengine
is independentof the subject.For example,it may
be specificto a particular aspectof the use of expert
systems,such as diagnosis- of illnessesor engine
faults.
The other important featureof an expertsystemis
the user interface.This is how the computerinteracts
with the user.It displaysquestionsand informationon
a screenand enablesthe userto t)?e in answersto the
questions,therebyenablingthe inferenceengineto find
appropriatesolutionsor evenfurther questions.There
area number of validationchecksimposedwithin the
userinterfacein order to preventthe input ofinvalid
responses to the system.
Here is a schematicview of an expertsystem.As
you can see,many of the componentsare represented
diagrammaticallyas being part of a shell.The shell
78 AppliedICT
often includesknowledgebaseediting softwarethat
enables the knowledge engineer to edit rules and
The inference engine is able to find solutionsby
using a form of reasoning. This reasoning involves
forward chaining, backward chaining or a combinati
of both.
Shell Knowledge
Explanation
system
Knowledgebase
editor
Forwardchainingallowsan expertsystemto add
to its knowledgebase.If we havesomerulessuchas:
I If a studentis 16,they aretaking GCSEs.
2 If a studentis 16,they wearschooluniformbut
not weara tie.
3 If a studentis taking GCSEs,they will takeAS
next year.
Supposeyou now tell the systemthat Ahmedis 16.
A forward-chainingsystemwould seethatRules I
and2 areboth obeyedand would add the newfacts:
New fact 1: Ahmed is taking GCSEs.
New fact 2: Ahmed wearsschooluniformbut
doesnot weara tie.
This first new fact causesRule3 to be obeyed
soa
third new fact is added:
New fact 3: Ahmed will takeAS levelsnext
The second new fact does not causeany rule to be
obeyed. This means that no new fact arisesfrom it.
Forwardchainingleadsto new factsbeingadded
the knowledsebaseall the time.
Backwardchainingis different.Referringto the
ruleslistedaboveand usingbackwardchaining,ifwe
input that Ahmed is 16to the system,it will do nothi
all. Il however,we askthe systemif thereis anybody
will be taking AS levelsnext year,the following
Rules and facts are'checkedto see ifanvbodvis
AS levelsnext year.The only rule which helpsis
The systemthen checksbackwardsand seesthat
is linked to Rule3. As it hasbeeninformedthat
 it canmake the correct inference that Ahmed is
GCSEs and thereforewill be taking AS levelsnext
Rule2 is ignored asbeing irrelevant to the question
in addition,no new factsareaddedto the systemas
oftheprocess.
applicationsuse a combination of both these
useof expert systemsto gain facts and generate
fromthe'experts'meansthat when expertsor
ioersleavea company,it still has the benefit of their
. It also means that staff who are not
trained or have not got a great deal of
can make decisions with help fiom the
system.
ingoutlinedthe basicelementsof an expert
we will now consider a number of specific
ions.
prospecting
istheexplorationof geologicalsiteswith a view
ing the likelihood of a particularore being
Thistypeofexpert systemcan gatherinputs
fromsensorssitedin a particularlocationor
datafrom such sensors.Alternatively,the
couldbe input by an expert. The systemis used
atetheprobabilityof mineralsbeingfound
location.This is doneby comparingthe input
withmodelsof similar areas,storedin the form
knowledge basethat representsthe knowledgeand
ingprocesses of geologicalexperts.This type of
isusedby an explorationgeologistinvestigating
drillingsite.
informationrequiredbv the svstemis datasuch
geological make-upof the areaand the ty?es
and minerals present, as well as those which
red.Thesystemcomparesthe inputs with its
baseof storedmodelsof the make-upof sites
thoseparticularore depositsareto be found.The
engineis usedto determinethe similarities
betweenthe modelsand the siteunder
analysis
of major investorsuseexpert systemsfor a
of purposes. Theyareusedto monitor stock
bylookingat how pricesofthe variousstocks
Theycanalsobe usedto sellsharesautomatically
iswhatthe rulesin the knowledgebasesuggest.
Hugeknowledgebasescontainingfactsaboutthe prices
of a multitude of stocksoyer yearsare kept and the
expertsystemcan suggestpossibletrends.Theyare
not foolproof,sincethe human expertscontributingto
their knowledgebasesarenot, but usingsuchsy'tems
in combinationwith human expertscan resultin some
profitabledecisionsbeingmade.
Theyarealsousedby investmentcompaniesto select
the companiesthat their investorsshouldput their
moneyinto. The questionsaskedby the expertsystemare
much the sameasthosethat an expertfinancialadviser
would ask,for example:
I Doesthe investormind investingin risky
companieswith a possiblehigh return or arethey
happy to havea lower return on their investment
but with a'safe'company?
I Hasthe investorgot specificareasthat they want to
investin (e.g.oil, gold or other commodities)?
a Are therespecificcompaniesthe investorwants
'to
avoid (e.g.companiesthat contributeto global
warming)?
Theexpertsystemusesthe answersto previousquestions
to decideon the next questionto be asked.In orderto
cometo a conclusionaboutthe stocksto be recommended
to the investor,the expertsystemusesits extremelylarge
storeoffacts.Severalpossiblescenariosarecreatedby the
systemand the investor,with the guidanceof a financial
adviser,choosesoneofthe options.
planning
Financipl
Expertsystemsareusedby individualsfor their own
personalsituationor by companieson a largescale.They
canbe usedto assess what actionsto takein a given
situationor to setout a financialplan for an individual.
Sucha plan would includesuggestions asto how
someonecan managetheir debts,reducethe amountof
incometax they pay and organiseinvestments,aswell as
suggesting the amountof insurancethey shouldhaveand
how to plan for their retirement.In addition,short-term
personalsavingplanscould be recommended.
Theuserentersthe individual'spersonaland financial
informationand the expertsystemthen devisdspersonal
financialplans.
Credit analysis
Banksoften useexpertsystemsto help them decide
on the creditworthiness
of potentialcustomers,both
How organisationsuse ICT2 79
 companiesand individuals.The speedwith which the
bank can respondto requestsis much fasterif it usesan
expertsystem,ratherthan relyingon human advisers
to makethe necessary calculationsand judgements. It
hasalsoled to a markedreductionin the number of bad
debtswhich havehad to be written off.
Expertsarepresentedwith requestsfrom companies
for loans.Thefactsthey requestand the rulesthat they
applyin decidingon suchrequestsareaddedto the
expertsystem's knowledgebase.In addition,the balance life insurance but the same approach is used in
sheets(the recordsof incomeand expenditure)of all
the companieswho haverequestedloansin the pastare
added.
For companies,usershaveto respondto questions
askingaboutthe sectorthe companyworksin and
detailedbalancesheetinformation,aswell asthe more
technicaldetailsof how they managetheir accounts.
Requestsfor loansor creditcardsfrom individualsare a personlivesthe more profitableit is for the insurance
dealtwith by an expertsystemaskingquestionsrelating
to how much the individual earns,what their outgoings
areand other loansand creditcardsthey might have
already.
As with all expertsystems,only recommendations
made.Theydo not takeoverthe decisionprocess.That
is left to the user,taking into accountthe expertsystems' manypoliciesit will not. This will help it to workout
suggestions.
Tax systems
Expert systemsarequite frequentlyusedin connection
with tax calculations.Many countriesrequiretheir
citizensto completetheir own tax form, which
determineshow much incometax they haveto pay.The
systemasksquestionsabout:
o their income
I the number of childrenthey have(somecountries
allow tax relief for children)
I savingsthey have(most countriesmakepeoplepay
tax on any interestthey earn)
I pensioncontributionsthey make(somecountries
allow tax reliefon these)
o how old they are (peopleof a certainagepay lesstax
in somecountries)
I whetherthey area resident(somecountriesallow
non-residentsto pay a differentleveloftax).
It then calculatesthe tax payable.As with any expert
system,the way a questionis framed (worded) will
dependon the responses to the previousquestion.
80 AppliedICT
Systemsdealingwith other forms of tax, suchas
tax (VAT,calledGST in a number of countriesand
in France) are available, as well as company tax systems,
Insurance planning
Theseengines,quite often basedon the worldwideweb,
takecertaindetailsfrom a userand searchthroughthe
database to find the bestdealfor that userfor, say,car
life insurance.This subsectiondiscusses the exampleof
generally.
No parent would knowingly leavetheir children
debtsto pay shouldthe parentdie. To safeguard agai
this, many parents take out life insurance. They pay
insurance company a certain amount of money every
month and shouldthey die the insurancecompany
the dependentsan agreedamount of money.The
companyasthey can investthe money the individuali
payingthem. Somepoliciesareonly for a fixed
of yearsand so if the individual diesafterthistimethe
insurancecompanydoesnot haveto pay out.
are The insurancecompanymust work out howmany
policiesit may haveto pay out on comparedwithhow
likely profitability of approving a particular life i
policy.
Insuranceadvisersareableto decidewhetheran
individual shouldbe offereda policy and,if so,how
much they shouldpay eachmonth. By interviewing
expertsa setofrules canbe setup, providinggui
on whetherindividual applicationsshouldbe
ln addition, if all the existing policies of an insurance
company are examined, a mqch broader rangeof
and rules can emerge.
When somebodyappliesfor a life insurance
the expertsystemasksthe individual questions about
their age,whetherthey smoke,abouttheir health
recordand so on. Basedon the responses, it will
recommendations asto whetherthe policyshould be
issued,for what lengthand at what cost.
Carenginefault diagnosis
Most car drivers are not very knowledgeable whenit
comesto understandinghow their carswork.When
somethinggoeswrong with a car an experienced
mechanicis neededto identify what is wrong.As
experienced or expert mechanics are not aswi
 wouldlike, expert systemshavebeen created.
necessary
rulesand datahavebeencollectedfrom
icsand knowledge baseshave been developed.
Iherearetwo forms of such a system.One is the usual postalservicedelivery
-and-answer session,wherethe systemasksthe
ic questionsabout what is wrong with the car
thensuggests possiblecauses.Themechaniccan
decide which of the suggestions aremost likely.This
icecanbe fed into the expert systemso that it has
rulesandfactson which to basefuture diasnoses.
Thesecondsystemis an expertfault diagnosissystem
typefittedto many modern carsand connected
enginemanagementsystem.When the car owner
aparticularsymbollight up on the dashboardthis
warning that thereis a possiblefault with the engine. yariouslocationsto be
caris then driven to the garagewhere a mechanic
a connectorfrom the portableexpertsysteminto
ialsocket.This enablesthe portablecomputer
to interrogate the engine management system.
thisthe systemis able to suggestprobablefaults.
experienced mechanicis ableto selectthe most likely
andsuggest correctivetreatment.
diagnosis
typeot expertsystemis usedby doctors.Some
allowthe patient to type in their symptomsand
generate possibleillnesses.However,most requirea
to input the symptomsfor a particularpatientand
system outputsthe possibleillnessesthat the patient
besufferingfrom. The doctor then considersthe
ivesand, using their own expert knowledgeand
, makesa diagnosis.Many peoplethink that
expertsystemreplacesthe doctor but this is not the
Rather,it actsin a consultativeand supporting role.
A medicaldiagnosisexpert systemis probably the
of all expert systems.Thereis an incredible
offactsor dataand the rulesarevariedand
intricate.It hasto takeinto accountthat simple
ms like stomach ache can have a large number of
ial causes.Therefore, it is important that in such a
which framessuccessivequestionson previous
, that responses
areenteredaccuratelyand
ously.
scheduling
for deliveryvehicles
typeot expert systemcalculatesthe most efficient
for delivery vehicles.The towns or areasto be
tedareinput to the systemand it then outputsthe
shortestroutefor the vehicleto enableit to visit all the
deliverypoints.This enablesthe deliverycompanyro
make the deliveriesin the cheapestway. Typicalusersare
vehicles,couriercompaniesand
travellingsalespeople.
Theinputsrequiredaredetailsabout:
I the number of drop-offpoints
I the distancebetweeneachpoint
o the type and speedof the vehiclebeingused
I the total availabletime
o the layoutof the areabeingdeliveredto, for example
whetherit is mountainousor flat.
Somesystemsalso allow for the price of fuel at the
entered,so that the most
economicalroutecan be produced.
Themanagerof the transportsystemwill be ableto
take suggestionsfrom the expert systemand decideon
the number of vehiclesand driyersneededand the total
time to be taken.
Plantandanimalidentification
The useris askedquestionsabout thefeaturesof the
speciesof the plant or animal.From the responsesto
the questions,the expertsystemcan suggestthe likely
plant or animal.For example,the systemmight askthe
followingquestionsaboutan animal:
I Doesit eatmeat?
a Doesit havea long neck?
I Doesit havefour long legs?
If the answerto the first questionis 'no,and the answers
to the other two questionsareboth'yesl then the system
might suggestgiraffe.Alternatively,if the answerwas .no'
to the lastquestion,it might suggestostrich.
Both thesesystemsuseforwardchainingasthey
arerequiredto expandthe extentof their knowledge.
Theyarecreatedby usingreferencebooksaboutplants
and animalsaswell asby gatheringdatafrom expertsin
the field.
Advantages
anddisadvantages
Advantages
of the useof expertsystems:
I It reducesthe time takento solvea problem (e.g.
for a technicianto find a fault.ora doctor to makea
diagnosis).
r As it is basedon the knowledgeof many experts,it
is more accuratethan a singleexpert.
How organisations
use ICT2 8l
 a It improvescustomer/patient serviceand the
standingof the expert(e.g.technicianor doctor).
a It can predictfuture problemsaswell ascurrent
ones.
I It savescompaniesmoneydue to fasterservicetime.
a In someareassuchascar fault diagnosis,it can
meanthat a lessskilledwork forceis required,
thereforeresultingin a lower wagebill.
Disadvantages
of the useof expertsystems:
o Expertsystemscosta lot to setup.
r The users(mechanics/patients/doctors) will need
training in how to useit, which takestime and
money.
r It will needcontinuallyupdating,which cantakeit
temporarilyout of use.
r In a companyor doctors'practice,therewill needto
be one in everygarage/branch/surgery.
5.2 Monitoring
andmeasurement
This involves the use of a computer ormicroprocessor-
based device to monitor or measure physical variables
over a period of time. For this course you will need
to know which sensors would be appropriate in a
given scenario to measure physical variables such as
temperature, pressure,humidity, moisture, light, sound,
blood pressureand pH (acidity).
In Chapter I, we saw that a sensor is a device that
is used to input data about physical changesin an
environment that is being monitored. For example, a
temperature sensor could be used to feed data back
to the computer about the temperature in a weather
station. Monitoring and measuring systems are not like
control systems,which use the data to take actions
that modify the environment, such as in a central
heating system. They only record data for the purpose
of enabling users to identify trends in the patterns of
changing data.
The computer is continually monitoring the sensors.
Sensorssend data continually, not just when a certain
event happens, such as a sudden increasein temperature.
The data sent to the computer or microprocessor is in an
analogue form. As the computer can only processdigital
data the analogue data must be converted to digital using
an analogue-to-digital converter, which can be built into
an interface box that the sensor plugs into and is itself is
plugged into a computer.
82 AppliedICT
Dependingon the output from the system,the resu
will be shownon a monitor, printed on a printer or eve
output through speakersifthe output is sound.
Thesoftwareusedin suchsystemsto recordthe
resultsand interpretthem is genericallytermed
measuringsoftwareor dataloggingsoftware.These
systemsarethereforeoften referredto asdata logging
systems.Theyareusedin a variety of applications,som
of which we will look at now.
Medical applications
Patientmonitoring systemsareusedin intensivecare
units in hospitals.Sensorsareconnectedto the patient
and then the computer.Many variablesarefed backto th
computer,includingpulserate,rateof breathing,blood
pressure, body temperatureand the amountof oxygenir
the blood.For eachpatientthereis a computermonitor
networkedto a centraldisplayfor the nursesto observe
Thesepatientmonitoring systemsarefitted with
alarms.The computeris constantlycomparingthe
physicalvariablesto a rangeofpre-setvalues.This
Aboveor belowthes
rangeis the limit of acceptability.
valuessignifiesthat the patientis in danger.The alarm
soundswhen any of the patient'sreadingsfall outsidetl
acceptable range.
This tlpe of systemis not to be confusedwith a
control system,which would actuallytake actionto
restorethe statusquo.
Weather monitoring
Sensorsareusedin weatherstations,wherethe main
function of the computeris to collectdata.Thevariabk
quite commonlymeasuredare:
r wind speed,usingthe rotation of a rotor to gener
pulsesthat areproportionalto the wind speed
r wind direction,usingan anglesensor
a temperature,usinga temperaturesensor
I barometricpressure,usinga form of pressuresen
I rainfall,usinga tipping mechanism- when a
certaindepth is reached(typically0.025cm) it
closesa normally open circuit, generatinga pulst
a counterwhich is recorded
o humidity,using a humidity sensor
I sunshine,usihga light sensor.
Thedatais collectedand input to a databaseor
Weatherstatisticscanbe collectedover1<
spreadsheet.