INTRODUCTION TO FORESTRY (2 + 0) The Forest - "Forest is defined as an area set aside for the production of timber and other

forest produce, or maintained under woody vegetation for certain indirect benefits which it provides. eg. climatic or protective". This definition lays emphasis on the direct and indirect benefits that the forests provide. Ecologically, a forest is defined as "a plant community predominantly of trees and other woody vegetation, usually with a closed canopy". This definition describes forest as a kind of vegetation in which trees constitute the predominant part, to distinguish it from vegetation in which grasses or shrubs may be predominant. In legal terminology, forest is defined as an area of land proclaimed to be forest under a forest law. This definition is particularly useful in law courts, where cases pertaining to offences committed are tried. The term forest has generally been used in India, to denote trees raised by the practice of silviculture. But, in recent years, an American term stand is also used. A stand can be differentiated from a forest in that stands are usually the management units which make up a forest. A stand can be defined reasonably homogenous unit that can be cleared. Differentiated from sorrounding stands by its age, composition, structure, site quality or geography. Thus, the unit of silviculture is a stand. CLASSIFICATION OF FORESTS Forests can be classified on the basis of: (i) Method of regeneration Forests which are regenerated from seed are called high forests. High forest is a crops or crops of trees, normally with a closed and high canopy and usually of seedling origin syn: seeding forest. Those which are regenerated by some vegetative method such as coppice shoots or roof suckers are called as coppice forests. (ii) Classification based on age Even-aged or regular forest is defined as a forest composed of even-aged woods. The term even-aged used in this definition is applied to a stand consisting of trees of approximately the same age. Differences upto 25% of the rotation age may be allowed in cases where a stand is not harvested for 100 years or more. Uneven-aged or irregular forest is defined as a forest composed of trees of markedly different ages. The term uneven-aged is applied to crops in which individual stems vary usually more than 20 years and in the case of long rotation crops, more than 25% of the rotation. An uneven-aged forest is called selection forest when all or nearly all age gradations or age classes are present. (iii) Classification based on composition On the basis of the number of species present, the forest is classified into pure or mixed forest. Pure forest is defined as a forest composed of almost entirely of one species, usually to the extent of not less than 80%. Mixed forest; on the other hand, is defined as a forest composed of trees of two or more species intermingled in the same canopy, in practice, and by convention, atleast 20% of the canopy must consist of species other than the principal one. The species composing the mixture may be distinguished as principal, accessory and auxiliary. Principal species is defined as the species first in importance in a mixed stand either by frequency, volume or silvicultural value, or the species to which the silviculture of a mixed forest is primarily directed. Accessory species is defined as a useful species of less value than the principal species, which assists in the growth of the latter and influences to a smaller degree the method of treatment. Auxiliary species is defined as a species of inferior quality or size, of relatively little silvicultural value or important, associated with the principal species. It is also referred to as secondary species or subsidiary species. (iv)Classification based on objects of management On the basis of objects of management, forests are classified into production forest, protection forest, farm forest, fuel forest, recreational forest etc. 1.Production forest is a forest managed primarily for its produce. It is also sometimes referred to as national forest, ie, a forest which is maintained and managed to meet the needs of the defence, communications, industry and other general purposes of public importance. 2.Protection forest is defined as an area wholly or partly covered with woody growth, managed primarily to regulate, stream flow, prevent erosion, hold shifting sand or to overt any other beneficial influence. 3.Farm forest is a forest raised on farms and its adjoining area either as individual scattered trees or a collection of trees to meet the requirement of fuel and fodders of the farmers and to have a beneficial influence on agriculture. 4.Fuel forest is a forest raised on village waste land to supply fuel, small timber, fodder etc., to the village communities living far way from the Government forest. 5.Recreational forest is a forest which is managed only to meet the recreational needs of the urban and rural population. (V) Classification based on ownership and legal status On the basis of ownership, forests are classified into state forest, communal forest and panchayat forest. State forest is a forest owned and generally managed by a community such as a village, town, tribal authority or local government, the members of which share in the produce or proceeds.

Panchayat forest is any forest where management is rested in a village panchayat (ie, a body of men elected by the villagers from among themselves for specific administrative or other purposes pertaining to the village). The state forests are further classified into reserved forest, protected forest and village forest on the basis of their legal status. A reserved forest is an area so constituted under the Indian Forest Act or other forest law. A protected forest is an area subject to limited degree of protection under the provisions of Chapter IV of the Indian Forest Act. A village forest is a state forest assigned to a village community under the provisions of the Indian Forest Act. (vi) Classification on the basis of growing stock Growing stock - The sum (by numbers or volume) of all the trees growing in the forest or a specified part of it. On the basis of growing stock, the forests are classified into normal and abnormal forest. Normal forest is defined as a forest which for a given site and given objects of management, is ideally constituted as regards growing stock, age class, distribution and increment and from which the annual or periodic removal of produce equal to the increment can be continued indefinitely without endangering future yields. Such a forest by reason of its normalcy in these respects serves as a standard of comparison for sustained yield management. Abnormal forest is a forest in which, as compared to an acceptable standard, the quantity of material in the growing stock is in deficit or in excess or in which the relative proportions of the age or size classes are defective. FORESTRY, ITS SCOPE AND CLASSIFICATION Forestry is defined as the theory and practice of all that constitutes the creation, conservation and scientific management of forests and the utilization of their resources. It is an applied science which is concerned with not only the raising or cultivation of forest crops but their protection, perpetuation, mensuration, management, valuation and finance as well as utilizes of the forest products for the service of the nation. When this science is applied to get the maximum return, it is called Intensive Forestry, which is defined as the practice of forestry with the object of obtaining the maximum in volume and quality of products per unit area through the application of the best techniques of silviculture and management. When forestry is practised to achieve more than one purpose, it is called Multiple-Use-Forestry which is defined as the practice of forestry for the simultaneous use of a forest area for two or more purposes, often in some measure conflicting, eg, the production of wood with forest grazing and/or wildlife conservation. Based on the objectives, forestry is classified as under: (A) Protection Forestry Protection forestry is the practice of forestry with the primary object of (1) protecting lands whether those upon which the forest is situated or base at a distance from it, against wind and water erosion; (2) conserving water supplies for human consumption, fish-culture, etc. (3) reducing hazards from flood damage to human life and property (4) amelioration of adverse climatic effects. (B) Commercial - Forestry Commercial forestry is the practice of forestry with the object of producing timber and other forest products as a business enterprise. A specialized aspect of commercial forestry is to meet the requirement of a particular industry and in that case it is called Industrial forestry which is defined as the practice of forestry to sustain a given industrial enterprise, such as a saw mill, pulp mill, chemical plant or a combination of these. (C) Social Forestry: The term "Social Forestry" was used for the first time by Westoby in 1968. He defined it as "forestry which aims at producing flow of protection and recreation benefits for the community". The word "social" underscores the essence of social forestry the primary objective being to serve community needs through the active involvements of the beneficiaries in the design of implementation of the afforestation efforts and the sharing of forest produce. The thrust of social forestry differs from large scale industrial and other form of forestry schemes in three respects. First, it covers the production and use of forest products in the non-monetised sector of the economy. Second, it involves direct participation of the beneficiaries and third, it implies different attitudes and skills on the part of foresters who have to cultivate a more positive attitude towards working with people for growing three.

(D) Farm Forestry or Private Forestry In india, cultivators' holdings are small. Large scale block plantations by farmers on farm lands are not common except in certain coastal areas. With the over increasing price of wood, farmers with larger holdings are now raising block plantations of tree species like teak, casuarina, poplar shishun on short rotation primarily for producing pole and small timber for commercial or industrial use. The former with

small holdings can considerably argument his income by planting suitable species of trees on his land along field bunds and boundaries, and irrigation channels, without adversely affecting agriculture Extension or Public Forestry Community woodlots and the various components of common property resources (CPRS), viz., degraded forest land outside the reserve forest, strip plantations along roads, railway lines and canals are being dealt with together in this section as the vast majority of these plantations are wholly departmental efforts in design, implementation and management and differ little in the technology of methods applied within similar ecological areas. Common Property Resources (CPRS) (as against private resources in the form of cultivators' fields and house plots) located in lands owned by the village-community play a strategic role in survival strategies of people in rural areas. They draw upon CPR's for SF's timber etc., free of cost. While most households depend for part of their livelihood on CPR', they are absolutely essential for the poor who own little or no land. Hence NCA has recommend in 1976, that public forestry be undertaken only in areas where the incidence of waste land in village or a group of villages is sufficiently high, so that a part of it can always be available for satisfying the needs of villagers. Mangroves, a general account The mangroves are coastal tropical formations found along the border of the sea and the lagoons reaching upto the edge of the rivers to the point where the water is saline, grainy in swampy soils and covered by sea during high tide. According to Beazley (1981), down where the tropical forests meet the river estuaries and the sea coast, there exists a strange world half way between land and water. Behind the protective coral reefs, battalions of trees advance to the sea, dedicated to regain some of the land that is eroded each year. These complex but well-ordered warrior forests of salt tolerant trees are better known as mangrove swamps, according to him. Mangroves are facultative halophytes, are able to develop in fresh water but can also tolerate salinities as high as 2.5 times that of sea water. However, occasional flushing with fresh water is considered necessary for their continued survival. Saenger (1982) has grouped mangroves into colonising (Rhizophora, Avicennia), seral (Griops, Aegiceras) and climax (Lumnitzera, Aegiatitis, Osbornia) species.Mangroves are associated with the sitting process and are effective land reclamation agents. Distribution of Mangrove swamps A. World Mangrove forests cover aboril one quarter of the world's tropical coast line from 20N to 20S latitudes, according to Walsh, (1974). Mangroves are more extensive along the Indo-Pacific shores and the most extensive mangroves of the world use associated with the river deltas entering the Bay of Bengal, straits of Malacca in southern Borneo, New Guinea, Thailand and adjoining territories of the east. Mangroves are essentially characteristic of semi-humid and tropical and sub-tropical areas. They usually grow along the sheltered and accreting shores of the gulfs, estuaries and lagoons in this region. B. India According to the mangrove Status Report (1987), we have app. 7000 sq km of mangroves which is approximately 7% of the world's mangroves. The state wise distribution is as follows: The Ganga-Brahmaputra delta in India and Bangladesh supports one of the largest mangrove areas, while the Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna deltas also have good mangrove forests in addition to Sunderban, Andaman and Nicobar islands, Mattupet and Chatram. Out of the total mangroves in India, Sunderbans and Andaman and Nicobar islands account for about 75%. Along the West-Coast, relatively good growth of mangrove is observed in Gujarat, Maharashtra and Karnataka. The swamps of Sunderbans are the biggest-tracts of estuarins forests in the world, covering about 10,000 ha. Mangrove forests of Andaman and Nicobar Islands have been classified by Champion and Seth as type 4B/TS2 and it covers an area of about 777 km2 out of the total geographic area of 8,293 km2. C. Kerala The mangroves of Kerala accounts for only 0.5% of the India mangroves and the area works out to 35 km2. Kerala, which has 41 rivers draining into the Arabian sea must have had a luxuriant mangrove vegetation along West Coast. But during the past 300 years, conversion of mangroves to coconut groves has wiped out this unique ecosystem in toto. At present mangroves only in patches. The most important factors controlling the mangrove distribution are degree of flooding, soil nature and salinity. Floristics Mangrove flora is a very specialised one have about 20 natural order, belong to 70 species including some halophytic herbs and allied sand dume species. According to Patil (1962) half of total number of mangrove species found in the world occur in India. According to Thothathri (1981) in India there are about 55 species of mangroves distributed under 35 genera and 25 families, the more i mportant over being. Acanthaceae, Avicenniaceae, Meliakal and Rhizophoraceae. Thothathri has also made a check list of mangrove flora of east and west coast of Peninsular India and Andamans and Nicobar Islands. Zonation in mangroves

In mangrove swamps, there is a district zonation of three types, each genus taking up its position according to its tolerance to submersion by sea. Pioneer sp. like Avicenvia and Sonneratia push up roots just below the low water level and behind them colonise sp. of Rhizophora in newly formed method. Further inland, taller Bruguiera comes followed by smaller Ceriops that grow in thickest often along weak banks. the landward fringe commonly contains many different species including Xylocarpus, Bruguiera and Rhizophora. Country's forests The overall forest area as per the latest estimate stands at 63.07 m ha or 19.26% of the country's geographical area (328 m ha). History of Indian forests Scientific forestry is over a hundred years old in India. Over the bulk of the period the history of Indian forestry would refer to the forests of subcontinent of India and Burma. As the forests of the country vary a great deal according to the different climatic and edaphic conditions, it is but natural that the application of forestry in the different parts of India should show much variety in detail, especially when account is also taken of the variations in the extent, degree and progress of exploitation in the different regions. It is however fortunate that there is a common general pattern of scientific forestry over the entire country,thanks mainly to a common organisation devoted to the cause of forestry, viz, the Indian Forest Act, 1927 implemented by the Indian Forest Service. It will be found, however, that the main trends in the progress of forestry over the entire country were more or less on a set pattern. The following nine stages are discernible in areas that now have established forestry tradition. (i) The primeval or undisturbed forest (ii) Shifting cultivation and clearing of forests. (iii) Increase of population resulting in excessive demands for forest produce as well as clearing of forests for cultivation, habitation and other needs. (iv) Selective removal of valuable timbers like teak, sal, deodar and sandal wood; and imposition of local tax or levy by local rulers on produce removed but without any regulation of working. (v) Advent of the British rule and continued demands for timber, especially of teak and over exploitation of accessible forests. (vi) Recognition of the needs for conservation and areation of forest department in the provinces governed by the British, followed by similar measures in the more progressive princely states. (vii) Survey, demarcation and consolidation of forests, commencement of regeneration activities and drawing up of working plans. (viii) Excessive working of all the forests during the two world wars, including exploitation of less accessible areas and utilization of new species. (ix) Political independence and the integration of princely states with areas under British rule, followed by State's reorganisation, Reorientation of the forest administration. (x) Launching of development and rehabilitation works on a large scale under the Five Year Plans. Deforestation and its causes Deforestation is defined as removal of tree crop from a piece of land without intention of reforesting. I. Defective forest policy and its improper and incomplete implementation As has already been discussed, with the advent of the British, the pace of deforestation got accelerated, the Government of India became anxious for the conservation of the remaining forest. It therefore established a forest department under the control of an Inspector General of Forests who took steps to recruit trained personnel for managing the forests scientifically and to get separate forest legislation enacted. When the foundations of scientific management were being laid, the Government of India invited Dr. J.V. Voelcker, Chemist to examine conditions of Indian agriculture and suggest measures to improve it. Dr. Voelcker submitted his report on "Improvement of Indian agriculture in 1893. In Chapter VIII of this monumental report he dismissed at length the condition of forests and stressed the need of formulating a forest policy with a definite bias for serving agricultural interests more directly. On the basis of his recommendations, the Government of India declared its Forest Policy in 1894. This policy envisaged the classification of government owned forests into following four classes. (i) Forests the preservation of which is essential on climatic or physical grounds. (ii) Forests which afford a supply of valuable timbers for commercial purposes; (iii) Minor forests and (iv) Pasture lands As the main object of the forest policy was to serve agricultural interest, while dealing with the second class of forests it laid down in para 6 that forest land should be given freely for agricultural purposes.

The conditions, under which the valuable forest land was to be given, were: (i) Honey combing of a valuable forest by patches of cultivation should not be allowed. (ii) Cultivation must be permanent. (iii) The cultivation must not be merely nominal and an excuse for the creation of pastoral or semi-pastoral villages and (iv) Cultivation must not be allowed so as to encroach upon the minimum area of forest, which is needed in order to supply the general forest needs of the country or the reasonable forest requirements, present or prospective, of the neighbourhood in which it is situated. In spite of these conditions which were seldom invoked due to the overwhelming consideration of serving the needs of agriculture, the forest policy of 1894 opened the flood gates for large scale deforestation of forest land for agriculture with the result that the forests were confined to those parts of hilly regions and plains, where agriculture was not possible. The process of deforestation continued unchecked for about 58 years when a new forest policy was formulated in 1952. The decade succeeding the independence saw the restructuring of various developmental projects in all spheres of development. 1952 Policy (Resoln. No. 13/52/F, dated 12th May by Ministry of Food and Agriculture) Though the forest policy 1952 envisaged a ban on relinquishment of land for agricultural purposes, it did not mention anything about giving land for other developmental works. Therefore, even after declaration of that policy, while forest land continued to be given for agriculture from protected and other forests not under the control of the forest departments, deforestation continued in the name of developmental works from forests under the control of the forest department. Some of the factors for which deforestation or excision of forest area takes place are listed below: (i) River valley projects and their reservoirs (ii) Rehabilitation of people displaced by the river valley projects (iii) Extension of motor roads, particularly in the hills (iv) Construction of electric transmission lines (v) Establishment of fruit helots in hills (vi) Other developmental works such as construction of school or college, establishment of agricultural research centre, supply of land for the landless as well as housing projects for scheduled caste people. Implementation of forest policy While the defects in forest policy were responsible for large scale deforestation, its improper and incomplete implementation or even non-implementation resulted in greater damage. Till lately, the forests were a state subject i.e., their administration and control was the charge of state legislatures. The Government of India only formulated the forest policy. It did not have powers to implant it. The result was that the forest policy remained a pious declaration on paper. For instance, in the forest policy of 1952, though there was been on deforestation for agricultural purposes, state governments did not obey it and deforestation continued to take place not only for agriculture but for a variety of so-called developmental works. Similarly , the forest policy of 1952 had prescribed that India should aim at maintaining 1/3rd of its total area under forests and as an insurance against soil erosion, it should be so distributed that in Himalayas, the Deccan and other mountainous tracts 60% of the geographical area and in the plains 20% under forest. No state governments made any serious effort to achieve the desired optimum of 33% or 60% and 20%. The forest policy 1952 had also stated that area under trees may be increased by raising plantations, on Defence, Railway and land and individual trees on agriculture lands. But except some work on road side avenue of canal bank plantation little was done in other places. While reserved forests were under the control of forest departments, the protected and unclassed forests were placed under the control of the revenue departments who had neither the time nor technical know-how for managing such a sensitive estate as forest. By the constitution (42nd Amendment) Act 1976 (w.e.f. 3.1.77) the G.O.I. brought forest under concurrent list, i.e, the GOI has also power to make laws in respect of forests. This step enabled the enactment of an important legislation at the national level. The Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980. Under the provisions of this act dereservation of reserved forests or putting any forest land to non-forestry use cannot now be done by the State Government without permission of central government. This is a heartening change and will go a long way in checking unrestricted deforestation by states. The 1988 Policy In resolution No. 13/52/F, dated 12th May 1952, the GOI, in the erstwhile ministry of food and agriculture enunciated a fores t policy to be followed in the management of state forests in the country. However, over the years, forests in the country have suffered

serious depletion. this is attributable to relentless pressures arising from ever increasing demand for fuel wood, fodder and timbers; inadequacy of protection measures; diversion of forest lands to non-forest uses without ensuring compensatory afforestation and essential environmental safe guards; and the tendency to look upon forests as revenue earning resource. The need to review the situation and evolve a new strategy of (The NCA, 1976 had also made significant recommendation regarding the country's forests and was a major factor responsible for revision of forest policy) forest conservation became imperative. Conservation includes preservation, maintenance, sustainable utilization, restoration and enhancement of the natural environment. 1988, National Forest Policy (No.3-1/86-FPO, dated 7th December 1988 of Ministry of Environment and Forests. The principal aim of forest policy must be to ensure environmental stability and maintenance of ecological balance including atmospheric equilibrium which are vital for sustenance of all life forms, human animal and plant. The derivation of direct economic benefit must be subordinated to this principal aim. (Basic objectives of the policy and essentials of forest management, strategy etc. refer draft paper). Other causes of deforestation 2. Shifting cultivation (about 26 lakh tribals in 16 states on 100 lakhs hectares) 3.Mining 4.Encroachment World forestry Day - March 21st World Environment Day - June 5th Vanmahotsava Vanmahotsava, the annual festival of trees was inaugurated in 1950 with the hope that it would create tree consciousness and generate enthusiasm among the people to undertake organized tree planting, with the following objectives: (i) to provide fuel and thus release cow dung for use as manure. (ii) to increase fruit production. (iii) help to conserve soil and stop decline of soil fertility. (iv) help to create shelter belts around agricultural fields. (v) provide leaf fodder for cattle. (vi) provide shade and ornamental trees for landscape. (vii) provide small poles and timber for agricultural implements. (viii) to inculcate tree consciousness and low of trees amongst people. (ix) popularize planting of trees in farms, villages, municipal and public lands for their aesthetic, economic and protective value. It was Shri. K.M. Munshi the then Minister of Agriculture for the first time in the country sought to recognize the inter-relationship between agriculture and forestry. Central Board of Forestry (1960) CBF was set up for over-seeing and providing guidelines for the policies to be adopted in regard to the management and development of forests in the country. CBF made recommendations for undertaking fuel wood and fodder plantations on road, canal and rail sides and in waste lands, panchayat lands and degraded forests.