ENTROPY

The Second Law by its connotations has showed that processes could be
reversible or irreversible.
A reversible process although not possible in nature , is the ideal process
possible between two states.
An irreversible process between the same two states would be less than ideal.
This has also been pointed out by the efficiency and COP of Carnot devices
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
th th
Carnot Heat Engine IRR Heat Engine and
COP Carnot COP IRR Device
>
>
Now we need to determine the amount or degree of irreversibility of
processes, and to do that we define a new property called as ENTROPY
This is a developed property , and is a result of the
CLAUSIUS INEQUALITY which is 0
dQ
T

For a Carnot Cycle we have

2 2 2 1
1 1 2 1
1 1
0
H L L L H L L L
th
H H H H H H
Q Q Q T T T Q T
so
Q Q T T Q T
Q T Q Q
so for our cycle above or
Q T T T

Now if this cycle was an irreversible cycle then
2 2 2 2 2 1 1 2
1 1 1 1 2 1 1 2
1 1
Q T Q T Q Q Q Q
or or or ve
Q T Q T T T T T
< > >
so 0 Re 0
Q Q
for v Cycle and for IRR Cycle
T T

<

which indicates to us that 0
REV
Q
T

or
REV
Q
is a property called as Entropy
T

This is because the change of a property in a cycle is ZERO

and also
IRR REV
Q Q
T T

<

This is valid for all reversible and irreversible cycles
We will now test the validity of Clausis Inequality
T
1
T
2
Q
2
Q
1
For this Carnot Cycle Q
1
is
heat input at High Temp T
1

and Q
2
is heat rejection at
Low temp T
2
Lets take a reversible cyclic device taking Heat from a Thermal Reservoir. The
rejected heat is given to a system which produces work
( )
( . )
R C C
C R System
C
R R
R
C C
For the combined system Q W dE F Law where
W Net work of combined system W W
and dE change of energy of Combined system
Q T
Since the Device A is rev and cyclic so
Q T
T
so then W Q dE
T

Now let us allow the combined arrangement to complete a cycle , with the
Rev. Device undergoing several cycles.Then for combined system dE
C
=0
C R
Q
or W T net work by combined system in a cycle
T

This violates the Second Law as there is no Heat Rejection.

So W
c
is not +ve but can be zero or negative. T
R
is positive
So the only possibility is that 0
Q
T

This is valid for all Thermodynamic cycles both reversible or irreversible.

0
Q
T

for internally reversible cycle and

Device
A


R
W
HIGH TEMPERATURE RESERVOIR at T
R
System at T
(due to a process)
Dotted Line encloses the
combined system.
0
Q
T

<

for internally IRR cycle.

Let us now see what is the meaning of 0
REV
Q
T

In a cycle Q and W are not zero. Thus

REV
Q
T

is a property which is zero

when evaluated over a cycle. And we can say that
Rev
Q
dS change of entropy
T

_


,
and
Re
0
v
Q
dS
T

S=Total Entropy in J/
o
K , s = S/mass = Specific Entropy in J/ kg -
o
K
2
2 1
1
REV
Q
s s s
T

_


,

.
We are generally more interested in change of entropy as it tells us if a
process is reversible or irreversible
We can also find the ABSOLUTE VALUES OF ENTROPY by using the Third
Law of Thermodynamics.
For this we take a reference point and take the entropy of a substance as Zero
at that reference point. We take the difference of entropy from this point , so
A
Ref
Q
T
A
REV
S ds

_


,

To do the integration we need to know the

relationship between Q and T during the reversible process.
How do we evaluate the entropy change during an Irreversible Process?
P
V
IRR
2
REV
1
Dotted line is the irreversible process from 1 to 2
TO evaluate S we generate a reversible process
between state 1 to 2.
2
2 1
1
2
1
int
REV
IRR
Q
On the reversible path we egrate s s
T
Q
REMEMBER IS NOT ENTROPY CHANGE
T

_


,
_

,

INTERNALLY REVERSIBLE ISOTHERMAL HEAT TRANSFER PROCESS

If we have an internally Reversible Isothermal Process then we can have
2 2
1 1
1
REV o o
Q Q
S Q
T T T

_


,

only for Int. Rev. Iso.process
For such processes heat transfer can be negative or positive depending upon
the direction of heat flow from or to the system. Then
if Q is +ve it will mean that S is positive
if Q is ve it will mean that S is negative
We now look at Example 6-1
PRINCIPLE OF INCREASE OF ENTROPY
Let us look at a cycle which is made up of two processes
1.2 Maybe be Reversible or Irreversible Process
2-1 Reversible Process
( )
( )
( )
( )
2 1 2
1 2
1 2 1
2
2 1
1
2
2 1
1
2
2 1
1
0
0 0
1 2
1 2
REV
IRR
Q
From Clausius Inequality we have or
T
Q Q Q
or S S or
T T T
Q
S S
T
Q
Now if is reversible then S S
T
Q
so if is irreversible then S S
T

_
+ +

,


_


,

So we say
THE ENTROPY CHANGE OF A CLOSED SYSTEM DURING AN
IRREVERSIBLE IS GREATER THAN
2
1 IRR
Q
T

_

,

FOR THE PROCESS

IF THE PROCESS IS REVERSIBLE THEN
2
1 REV
Q
T

_

,

IS THE ENTROPY
CHANGE
P
V
2
REV
1
Dotted line is the process from 1 to 2
Now if we have an irreversible process then we can find S
2
- S
1
by generating
a reversible process between the two states and evaluating
2
1
Q
T

_

,

Now we have
( )
2 2
2 1
1 1
2
1
IRR IRR
IRR
Q Q
S S or dS
T T
Q
We call the term as ENTROPY TRANSFER
T

_ _
>

, ,
_

,

Thus in an irreversible process , the entropy change is greater than the

entropy transfer during the process of the system.
We thus write this as
( )
2
2 1
1
Generated
IRR
Q
S S S
T

_
+

,

ENTROPY IS GENERATED DUE TO IRREVERSIBILITIES

S
GENERATED
IS ALWAYS +VE OR Zero. It cannot be negative.
S
GENERATED
IS NOT A PROPERTY. IT DEPENDS UPON THE PROCESS AND
IS A PATH FUN CTION.
The more the irreversibilities the more will be the generation of entropy
If in a process there is no
2
1
Q
T

_

,

then S = S
Gen
Now
( )
( )
2
2 1
1
2 1
0 0
IRR
ISOLATED
Q
S S so if we have an isolated system
T
then Q or S S

_


,

So it is zero if the processes in the isolated system are reversible

It is positive if processes in the isolated system are irreversible
ENTROPY OF AN ISOLATED SYSTEM NEVER DECREASES. IT CAN
EITHER REMAIN THE SAME OR INCREASE
This is known as the Increase of Entropy Principle.
So lets say we have several sub systems operating in an isolated envoirnment
0
Z
Total n
n A
S S if processes are irreversible

>

As the sub systems interact with each other , the sum of there entropy
changes is never less than Zero if they have irreversible processes.
Also in the absence of Heat Transfer the change of entropy will be due to
other irreversibilities.
If we have a system and its surroundings then it can be represented as
A C B
ISOLATED
0
Gen Total Sys Surrounding
S S S S +
Entropy Change Entropy Change
of System of surrounding
If we take the UNIVERSE as an isolated system , then because of
Irreversibilities S
Universe
is always increasing
S
Universe
means an increase of disorder in the universe. So the disorder is
increasing day by day .
In fact there will be a collapse of the universe when its Entropy reaches a
maximum.
So lets remember some facts
S
Gen
for IRR process is always positive
S
Gen
for REV process is always ZERO
S
Gen
< Zero is not possible
The Entropy change(S
2
- S
1
) on the other hand can be negative , positive or
zero.
System
Surrounding
Isolated
We can assume the system and
surroundings as two sub systems
interacting with each other
0
Gen Sys Surrounding
S S S +
Sys
Surrounding
S may be positive or negative and
S may be positive or negative
But there sum may either Zero or positive

REMARKS ON ENTROPY
A. Processes can occur only in a certain direction .
It must obey 0
Gen
S
B. Entropy is non conserved
0 , 0
Isolated Isolated
For REV S For IRR S >
Entropy of Universe is constantly increasing
C. Increase of Entropy means presence of Irreversibilities. Thus a process
is good if
Isolated
S is as close to Zero . Higher values of
Isolated
S
means irreversibilities are more.
ENTROPY CHANGE OF A PURE SYSTEM.
Entropy is a property , so it is used to define the state of a system.
By utilizing the two property rule Entropy will be useful to define the state of a
system.
We can also find CHANGE OF ENTROPY with the help of other properties.
Entropy is generally calculated against a REFERENCE STATE.
For Steam S
f
( Entropy of Saturated Liquid at 0.01
o
C) is taken as zero. So at
-5
o
C the entropy will be negative
For Ref-134 S
f
(Entropy of Saturated Liquid at 40
o
C) is taken as Zero. So at
-45
o
C the entropy will be negative.
( )
( )
@ @
2 1
SAT
f g f
T and P f T
For Liquid Vapor region s s x s s
For Compressed Liquid s s
also S m s s
+

Entropy is also used for property diagram
ISENTROPIC PROCESS
Constant Pressure Lines
Pressure Increases
Constant
specific
volume Lines
Specific volume Increases
P
s
2 1
2 1
0 Isentropic Process
This means 0 0
Or process is Adiabatic and Reversible = Isentropic
The other possibility is that 0 (
REV
REV
REV
Q
By defination S S
T
Now if S S Then we call it
Q
so either Q
T
Q
T

_


,

_


,
_

)
so not only Adiabatic Reversible is Isentropic but other processes
can be Isentropic as well if 0
REV
Due to Integration
Q
T
_

Ex 6-5
Process is Reversible and Adiabatic hence Isentropic KE = PE = 0
Find W
x
( )
( )
* * *
2 1
*
2 1 1 1
1 2 2 2
*
3316.2 / 6.8186 /
2966.6 / 1.4
3316.2 2966.6 349.6 /
x
o
x
x
Q W m h h KE PE or
w h h h kJ kg s kJ kg K
Now s s so at s we get h kJ kg at P MPa
w kJ kg
_
1 + +

]
,
1
]


PHYSICAL CONCEPT OF ENTROPY
P
1
= 5Mpa
T
1
= 450
o
C
P
2
= 1.4 Mpa
s
1
2
T
We have developed Entropy from
REV
dQ
T

. Lets now look at its physical

significance
The value of entropy is a means of judging MOLECULAR DISORDER or
MOLECULAR RANDOMNESS
When entropy increases , we go towards a state where more disorder is
present. Thus in
SOLIDS: we have low value of entropy, since the molecules have positional
stability , even though they vibrate.
LIQUIDS: have more entropy, because the positional stability is less stable
than solids. The disorder is higher.
GASES: have high value of entropy because the molecules move in a random
manner , collide with each other and we cannot predict their position. There is
great degree of CHAOS
HIGH MOLECULAR CHAOS = HIGH ENTROPY
Lets look at a few examples
If we put a paddle wheel into a gas container
If we have a shaft with a weight attached with frictionless bearing
We find that although the molecules have
high KE , they cannot rotate the paddle
wheel , because they move in random
directions and do not push in an ordered
way
As the weight drops the shaft rotates in
one direction, hence the molecules of the
shaft are moving in an organized manner.
There is no disorder. If we raise the weight
then the shaft will rotate in the opposite
direction.
W
Work is generally free of disorder and in the absence of friction does not
increase entropy.
Thus work in most cases in nearly reversible.
Here energy conversion is efficient.
But what if we have a rotating shaft in a gas container.
Heat is a form of disorganized energy and thus it causes disorganization.
THE VALUE OF ENTROPY IS DEFINED BY THE THIRD LAW OF
THERMODYNAMICS
ENTROPY OF A PURE CRYSTALLINE SUBSTANCE AT ABSOLUTE ZERO
IS ZERO.
This provides the absolute reference and it is important that the substance be
in crystalline form.
As the shaft rotates , the paddle wheel
rotates and work is converted into heat ,
because the gas is also rotated and
churned. The temperature will rise and
molecular disorder is increased. This
allows the entropy to increase and the
process is highly irreversible.
GAS
W
HOT BODY
COLD BODY
Q
HIGH ENTROPY
HIGHLY DISORDERED
AS A RESULT OF
HEAT TRANSFER THE
ENTROPY
DECREASES
LOW ENTROPY
BEING CONVERTED
INTO HIGH ENTROPY
AS A RESULT OF
HEAT TRANSFER THE
ENTROPY
INCREASES
PROPERTY DIAGRAMS
Since entropy is a property , it can be used as a co0ordinate in property
diagram. Two major ones are often used namely
a. Temperature Entropy diagram (T- s)
b. Enthalpy Entropy diagram (H- s)
This will have no meaning if the process is IRREVERSIBLE
For an Isothermal Reversible Process
2
1
.
REV
REV
REV
Q T ds T s So if
Q is positive s is ve
Q is negative s is ve

+

ISENTROPIC PROCESS
We can also represent a CARNOT cycle on a T-s diagram
T
s
2
1
Reversible
Process
Q
1-2
is equal to the area under the T-s
curve if the process is reversible
T
s
2
1
Reversible
Process
Here Q
REV
is zero and process is
reversible adiabatic.
H-S diagrams
For water the Mollier diagram looks like this
The temperature lines are nearly horizontal because superheated steam
behaves like ideal gas at Low pressures
Tds Relations
T
s
2 1 All processes are reversible.
s
2
= s
3
and s
1
= s
4
4 3
Q
H
Q
L
H
s
2
1
Such a diagram is useful for processes
involving steady flow devices.
H-S diagrams are also called Mollier
Diagrams
P=900 kPa
P=150 kPa
T= 220
o
C
T= 80
o
C
x = 0.9
x = 0.96
x = 1.0
H
s
If we have a reversible process of a closed system then from first Law
( )
REV REV REV
REV
Q W dU where Q TdS and
W PdV if there is no shaft work
so TdS dU PdV REVERSIBLE PROCESS
If we divide by mass Tds du Pdv
h u Pv so dh du Pdv vdP
or dh Tds vdP or Tds dh vdP

+
+
+ + +
+
Both Equations were generated by Reversible Processes but
T,S,H,U,P and V are properties , so the change of property is
independent of path.
BOTH EQUATIONS ARE VALID FOR IRREVERSIBLE PROCESS
ALSO.
These equations are also written as
du Pdv dh vdP
ds and ds
T T T T
+
Relations are for simple systems and can be applied to open and closed
systems.
ENTROPY CHANGE OF SOLIDS AND LIQUIDS
Solids and liquids are incompressible dv is nearly 0. Thus
2 2
2
2 1
1 1 1
2
2 1 2 1
1
ln
Pr
0 ln
P v
du Pdv du CdT
ds
T T T T
C C C For Solids and Liquids
T du CdT
or s s C
T T T
And for Isentropic ocess of these
T
s s C so T T
T
+




Isentropic Process of Liquids and Solids are ISOTHERMAL
Example 6-7
ENTROPY CHANGE OF IDEAL GASES
2 2
2 1
1 1
2 2
2 1
1 1
.
ln ln
v
v
v
v
v
C dT du Pdv R
ds dv
T T T v
P R
Since u C dT and
T v
C dT R
so s s dv If C Const
T v
T v
s s C R
T v
+ +

+
+

2 2
2 1
1 1
2 2
2 1
1 1
ln ln
P
P
P
P
P
Also for an ideal gas dh C dT
C dT dh vdP R
so ds dP
T T T P
C dT R
so s s dP If C Const
T P
T P
then s s C R
T P

+
+


BOTH RELATIONS ARE VALID FOR REVERSIBLE AND IRREVERSIBLE
PROCESSES
If C
P
and C
v
are not constant then we use
( )
2 2
2 1
1 1
ln ln
v
Avg
T v
s s C R
T v
+
( )
2 2
2 1
1 1
ln ln
P
Avg
T P
s s C R
T P

If we want to find per Molar Mass then divide the equations by M.
If the values of C
P
and C
v
are variable and cannot be averaged then we use
other technique. For this we have to the reference values.
We calculate the entropy change with reference to Absolute Zero and define
( )
1
1
0
T
o
P
dT
S C as function T
T

This is calculated at various temperatures and tabulated

Now if we look at the original equation
( )
( )
( )
1
2
2
2
2 1
1 1
1
0
2
0
2
2 1
1
2
2 1 2 1
1
2
2 1
2 1
1
ln
ln
ln
P
T
o
P
T
o
P
o o
P
o o
o
o o
u
o
P
s s C dT R and if
P
dT
S C as function T and
T
dT
S C as function T
T
Then C dT S S
P kJ
s s S S R
P kg K
On a molar basis
P kJ
s s S S R
P kmol K

We now look at example 6-9

ISENTROPIC PROCESSES OF IDEAL GASES
Constant Specific Heats; For an ideal gas we have
2 2
2 1
1 1
2 2 2 2
2 1
1 1 1 1
1
2 2 2 2 2
1 1 1 1 1
ln ln
ln ln ln ln
1
1 1
1
1
ln ln ln (1)
P
P
P
P v
p
v
P P v
P
k
k
P
T P
s s C R
T P
T P T P R
if s s then C R or
T P T C P
We have R C C for ideal gas thus
C
C R
now we define k or
C C C
R k
then
C k k
T P P T P R k
so or
T C P k P T P
Now al

,
2 2
2 1
1 1
2 2
2 1
1 1
2 2
1 1
1 1
2 2 1
1 1 2
1
1
2 1
1 2
2 1
1 2
ln ln
ln ln
ln ln 1
(2)
1 2
v
v
P v
v v v
k k
k
k
k
k
k
T v
sos s C R
T v
T v
if s s then C R or
T v
T v C C R R
but k
T C v C C
T v v
so
T v v
P v
if we equate and we get
P v
P v
or or Pv co
P v

_ _


, ,
_ _

, ,
_


,
1
1
tan
tan tan
k
k
k
ns t
also Tv cons t and TP cons t

Isentropic Process with Variable Specific Heats
( )
( )
2
2 1
1
2
2 1 2 1
1
2
2 1
1
2
2 1
1
2 2
2 1
1 1
ln
Pr
0 ln
ln . Pr
.
ln
o
S
o o
R
o
S
R
o o
o
o o
o
o o
S S
o o
R
P kJ
Now s s S S R
P kg K
so if we have an Isentropic ocess
P kJ
S S R or
P kg K
P
S S R Now if we do not know the essure Ratio
P
then we have a problem
P P e
Now S S R or e
P P
e
Th

+

2
2 2
1 1
2
1 1 2 2 2 2 1 2 1 2
1
1 2 1 1 2 1 2
1
2
1
Pr Pr
Pr
Pr
Pr Pr
Pr
Pr
Pr
o
S
R
r
r
r
Isentropic
is term e is called relative essure
P
so
P
T
Pv Pv v T P T
Now or
T
T T v T P T
T
is a function of temperature only and is called
v
v
relative volume v so
v v

_ _


, ,
_

,
1
We now look at example 6-10
REVERSIBLE STEADY FLOW WORK
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
2
1
0
rev rev
rev
rev
rev
rev
rev
rev
For a steady flow device we can say that
q w dh d ke d pe
but q Tds when Tds dh vdP
so q dh vdP and
w dh d ke d pe dh vdP
w d ke d pe vdP which on Integration
W ke pe vdP
If ke pe then W vd

+ +


+ + +
+ +
+ +

( ) ( ) ( )
2
1
2 1
tan
rev
P
If subs ce is incompressible then
W ke pe v P P + +

IRREVERSIBLE WORK AND HEAT OF STEADY FLOW DEVICES.

( ) ( )
0
irr irr rev rev
irr irr rev rev
rev irr rev irr rev
rev irr irr
rev irr irr irr
If we carry out the above process irreversibly then
q w dh d ke d pe q w
so q w q w
w w q q but q Tds so
w w Tds q
w w q q
or ds but ds
T T T
so





+ +

>
0
rev irr
rev irr
w w
or w w
T

> >
Thus work producing devices like Turbines produce more work if operated
reversibly and work consuming devices such as pumps and compressors
require less work when operated reversibly.
We look at examples 6-10 and 6-12
ISENTROPIC EFFICIENCIES OF STEADY FLOW DEVICES
Irreversibilities occur in most processes and their effect is to degrade the
performance of the devices which carry out the process.
For Heat engines we compare the Ideal Carnot Cycle with real cycles, by
looking at
th
. Carnot cycle has the best efficiency
Similarly for Heat Pump and Refrigerators we know that COP
Reversed Carnot
is the
best.
So how can we compare the efficiencies of Devices which do not operate in a
cycle. There are several types of devices , but we will limit ourselves to Steady
Flow Devices like Turbines , Compressors and Nozzles.
All these steady flow devices operate in Adiabatic Condition. So it will be
necessary that we compare them as
Adiabatic Irreversible Process vs Adiabatic Reversible Process (Isentropic)
So we need to look at these devices as they operate actually and compare it
with their operation Isentropically.
We call this comparison as ISENTROPIC OR ADIABATIC EFFICIENCY
If a device has an Isentropic Efficiency of 1.00 then it behaves ideally, so
.
ISEN
ISEN
Actual Performance
Isentropic Performance
is defined seperately for each device

W e will now look at these cases individually

ISENTROPIC EFFICIENCY OF TURBINE
In a turbine a steady flow device produces external work .
Here the inlet and outlet pressure is the same for actual and Isen process
( ) ( ) ( )
( )
* * *
2 2
2 1 2 1 2 1
* *
1 2
1
2
actual
actual
actual
ISEN
Isentropic
x
a
x
a
W Actual Performance
Isentropic Performance W
For a turbine
Q W m h h V V g z z
Now ke pe o for a turbine then
W m h h
If the process is done isentropically t

1
+ +
1
]

1
]
( )
* *
1 2
1 2
1 2
Isen
Turbine
a
x
s ISEN
s
hen
h h
W m h h so
h h

1
]

At the exit, state will be different for Ideal and Actual cases. P
2
will remain
same.
The exit entropy drop is more for the actual process.
2 1 2 2 a Gen a s
s s s and s s > For most turbines
Isentropic Efficiency is between 70 to 90 %. Lets see example 6-16
ISENTROPIC EFFICIENCY OF COMPRESSORS AND PUMPS
Inlet
State 1
Outlet
State 2
W
x
1
2
s
2
a
P
2
P
1
W
s
W
a
T
s
P
1
Here a steady flow device receives external work .
Here the inlet and outlet pressure is the same for actual and Isen process
( ) ( ) ( )
( )
* * *
2 2
2 1 2 1 2 1
* *
2 1
1
2
/
actual
actual
Isentropic
ISEN
actual
x
a
x
a
W
Isentropic Performance
Actual Performance W
For such devices
Q W m h h V V g z z
Now ke pe o for Comp Pump then
W m h h
If the process is done isen

1 _
+ +

1
, ]

1
]
( )
/
* *
2 1
2 1
2 1
Isen
Comp Pump
s
x
s ISEN
a
tropically then
h h
W m h h so
h h

1
]

At the exit, state will be different for Ideal and Actual cases. P
2
will remain
same.
The exit entropy increase is more for the actual process.
2 1 2 2 a Gen a s
s s s and s s > For most compressors
Isentropic Efficiency is between 75 to 85 %.
A pump is mostly used for liquids so for a pump
Inlet
State 1
Outlet
State 2
W
x
2
s
2
a
P
1
P
1
W
s
W
a
s 1
P
2
( )
2 1
2 1
Pump
a
v P P
h h

Most compressors get heated , as the gas gets to a high temperature due to
high pressure. Thus Compressors are required to be cooled.
SO COMPRESSORS ARE NOT ADIABATIC
So for cooled compressors , we compare the actual process with a
REVERSIBLE ISOTHERMAL PROCESS. And so
Re
Cooled Comp
Isothermal versible Work
Actual Work

We now look at example 6-17
ISENTROPIC EFFICIENCY OF NOZZLE
A nozzle is used to accelerate a fluid from high pressure to low pressure. So
Nozzle
Actual Kinetic Energy at Nozzle Exit
Isentropic Kinetic Energy at Nozzle Exit

( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
* * *
2 2
2 1 2 1 2 1
* *
2 2
2 1 2 1 2 1
2 2
1 2 2 1 2 1
2 2
1 2 2 1 2 2
1 2
1 2
1
2
1
0 ,
2
1
2
1 1
2 2
. 6 18
x
x
a a s s
a
Nozzle
s
Q W m h h V V g z z
Q W z z so h h V V
or h h V V Generally V V
so h h V and h h V
h h
Lets see example
h h

1
+ +
1
]

>>

ENTROPY BALANCE
T
s
2a
2s
Suppose we have any system then we can say
Total
System
S Total EntropyTransfer Total Entropy Generated +
Now if the entropy enters and leaves the system then the balance is given by
Total
System
S Entropy In Entropy out Total Entropy Generated +
This is known as Entropy Balance
The entropy change of a system during a process is equal to the net entropy
transfer through the system boundary , and the entropy generated within the
system due to Irreversibilities.
We will discuss the various terms in the above relation.
Entropy Change of system.
Total
System
S Entropy at end of process Entropy at start of process
Thus if we have an open steady system , like Nozzles, Compressors ,
Turbines then for such devices
0
int
Total
System
System
S during steady flow operation
and if properties are not uniform then
S s m s dV egrated over entire volume
where V volume and density

Entropy Transfer
Entropy can be transferred by either
a. Heat b. Mass Flow
When Heat is given to a system its entropy increases, and when heat is
removed then entropy decreases.
2
1
k
tan
tan
Heat Transfer through the boundary at temp T at location k
Heat
k
Heat
k
k
Q
Entropy Transfer by Heat S when T cons t
T
This ratio is called Entropy Transfer due to Heat
Q Q
When T Cons t then S
T T
Q

When two systems are in contact with each other and share heat , then
500 500
1.25 1.25
400 400
Hot Body Cold Body
Outside Inside
Heat Heat
Heat Heat
S S so at boundary
S and S

THERE IS NO ENTROPY GENERATION AT THE BOUNDARY
WORK on the other hand is entropy free.
Also WORK does not transfer entropy. So S
Work
= 0
So energy interaction with entropy transfer is HEAT
Energy interaction without entropy transfer is WORK.
This definition differentiates HEAT and WORK.
System
Q
k
= 500J
T
k
= 400
o
K
1.25
k
k
Heat
k
Q
S
T

Now work can be transferred across a system , but it does not transfer entropy
, but how work is utilized in the system , may generate Entropy
Entropy Transfer by mass flow
Mass contains Energy as well as Entropy , so it also transfers entropy. Both
energy and entropy are proportional to mass or S
mass
= m(s).
In a closed system entropy cannot be transferred by mass as no mass flows
In open system flow of mass in brings entropy and the flow of mass out
removes entropy.
The rate of entropy transfer by mass depends upon mass flow rate.
So for steady flow it will depend upon the value of s of mass at inlet and exit,
even though mass flow is constant.
So if the properties of the mass changes then we do the following:
( )
*
/ sec
int
mass
n c c
n c
mass
S s V dA where A c tional area of Flow
V normal velocity at A
and S s m egrated during a time period

As fan rotates , the friction

converts work energy into heat
energy . This energy
conversion to Heat causes
Entropy Generation
ENTROPY GENERATION
Entropy generation is due to the result of IRREVERSIBILITIES
For a reversible process the
Re
0
0
( )
v
GEN
GEN
IRR
IRR
IRR
Q
S for reversible process
T
Q
But our defination of S S for all processes
T
Q
where Entropy Transfer
T
Q
If a process is Adiabatic and Irreversible then
T
Entropy Transfer for such a process is zero
Als

0
exp
mass
System in out Gen
in out
o S ms for closed system
So we ress the entropy change of any system as
S S S S
whereS S Net Entropy Transfer by Heat and Mass

+

If we take in terms of rate then it is
* * * *
*
* * *
System in out Gen
Heat Mass
in out gen system
S S S S
Q
where S and S ms
T
if the mass flow is steady then
s s s s
+

+
The above equations account only for S
Gen
within the system. It is taking place
inside the boundary. It does not cater for the S
Gen
in the surroundings.
Entropy Transfer
Due to Mass
going in
Entropy Transfer
Due to Heat
going in
Entropy Transfer
Due to Heat
going out
Entropy Transfer
Due to Mass
going out
S
in
S
out
S
GEN
* * * *
* *
0 int
System
Surrounding
Surrounding System
Gen
Net System Surrounding
in out Gen
Gen Gen
Now if S Then the process is ernally reversible
If we cater for system and surroundings then
S S S
S S S S
If S and S are both zero then the p

+
+
rocess
is totally reversible
Let us apply this on a closed system. Since there is no mass transfer then
Entropy transfer is by Heat Transfer. So we can say that
2 1
,
0 0
( )
Gen System
Gen Adiabatic
System
Gen System Surr
Isolated System
Q
S S
T
And if process is adiabatic then S S
If we combine system and surroundings
as an Isolated System then for such an
isolated system Q and W and
S S S
Q
m s s
+

+
+

. .
*
* * * *
. .
*
. .
*
* * *
. .
0
Surr
Surr
in in out out Gen C V
k
in out Gen C V
in out
C V
k
out in Gen
out in
T
If we have an open system or CV then we have
Q
m s m s S S
T
Q
or m s m s S S
T
For Steady flow devices S
Q
S m s m s
T
+ +
+ +





If flow is having one stream and is steady but irreversible then
*
* * *
k
out in Gen
out in
Q
S m s m s
T

If flow is having one stream , is adiabatic and is steady but irreversible then
* * *
out in Gen
out in
S m s m s
If flow is reversible then
* * *
0 out in Gen
out in
S so m s m s
And if flow is reversible and steady with adiabatic conditions
out in
so s s
We now look at Example 6-19
2 2
2 1
1 1
2 2
2 1
1 1
2 2
2 1
1 1
2
2 1
1
.
ln ln
ln
v
v
v
v
v
P
P
P
P
P
C dT du Pdv R
ds dv
T T T v
P R
Since u C dT and
T v
C dT R
so s s dv If C Const
T v
T v
s s C R
T v
Also for an ideal gas dh C dT
C dT dh vdP R
so ds dP
T T T P
C dT R
so s s dP If C Const
T P
T
then s s C R
T
+ +

+
+

+
+



2
1
ln
P
P
2 2
2 1
1 1
2 2
2 1
1 1
2 2
2 1
1 1
2
2 1
1
.
ln ln
ln
v
v
v
v
v
P
P
P
P
P
C dT du Pdv R
ds dv
T T T v
P R
Since u C dT and
T v
C dT R
so s s dv If C Const
T v
T v
s s C R
T v
Also for an ideal gas dh C dT
C dT dh vdP R
so ds dP
T T T P
C dT R
so s s dP If C Const
T P
T
then s s C R
T
+ +

+
+

+
+



2
1
ln
P
P