"Year of National Integration and Appreciation of our Diversity"

The cell membrane or plasma membrane is a biological membrane that separates the interior of all cells from the outside environment. The cell membrane is selectively permeable to ions and organic molecules and controls the movement of substances in and out of cells. It basically protects the cell from outside forces. It consists of the lipid bilayer with embedded proteins. Cell membranes are involved in a variety of cellular processes such as cell adhesion, ion conductivity and cell signaling and serve as the attachment surface for several extracellular structures, including the cell wall, glycocalyx, and intracellular cytoskeleton. Cell membranes can be artificially reassembled.

Cell membrane

Function
The cell membrane surrounds the cytoplasm of a cell and, in animal cells, physically separates the intracellular components from the extracellular environment. Fungi, bacteria and plants also have the cell wall which provides a mechanical support for the cell and precludes the passage of larger molecules. The cell membrane also plays a role in anchoring the cytoskeleton to provide shape to the cell, and in attaching to the extracellular matrix and other cells to help group cells together to form tissues. The membrane is selectively permeable and able to regulate what enters and exits the cell, thus facilitating the transport of materials needed for survival. The movement of substances across the membrane can be either "passive", occurring without the input of cellular energy, or active, requiring the cell to expend energy in transporting it. The membrane also maintains the cell potential. The cell membrane thus works as a selective filter that allows only certain things to come inside or go outside the cell. Cell employs a number of transport mechanisms that involve biological membranes: 1. Passive diffusion and osmosis: Some substances (small molecules, ions) such as carbon dioxide (CO2), oxygen (O2), and water, can move across the plasma membrane by diffusion, which is a passive transport process. Because the membrane acts as a barrier for certain molecules and ions, they can occur in different concentrations on the two sides of the membrane. Such a concentration gradient across a semipermeable membrane sets up an osmotic flow for the water. 2. Transmembrane protein channels and transporters: Nutrients, such as sugars or amino acids, must enter the cell, and certain products of metabolism must leave the cell. Such molecules are pumped across the membrane by transmembrane transporters or diffuse through protein channels. These proteins, also called permeases, are usually quite specific, recognizing and transporting only a limited group of chemical substances, often even only a single substance. 3. Endocytosis: Endocytosis is the process in which cells absorb molecules by engulfing them. The plasma membrane creates a small deformation inward, called an invagination, in which the substance to be transported is captured. The deformation then pinches off from
Created by: Flores Rojas, Csar Jess Rubina Montoya, Amanda Rosa Zavala Lazo, Noelia

"Year of National Integration and Appreciation of our Diversity"

the membrane on the inside of the substance. Endocytosis is a pathway phagocytosis), small molecules and ions Endocytosis requires energy and is thus

cell, creating a vesicle containing the captured for internalizing solid particles (cell eating or (cell drinking or pinocytosis), and macromolecules. a form of active transport.

4. Exocytosis: Just as material can be brought into the cell by invagination and formation of a vesicle, the membrane of a vesicle can be fused with the plasma membrane, extruding its contents to the surrounding medium. This is the process of exocytosis. Exocytosis occurs in various cells to remove undigested residues of substances brought in by endocytosis, to secrete substances such as hormones and enzymes, and to transport a substance completely across a cellular barrier. In the process of exocytosis, the undigested waste-containing food vacuole or the secretory vesicle budded from Golgi apparatus, is first moved by cytoskeleton from the interior of the cell to the surface. The vesicle membrane comes in contact with the plasma membrane. The lipid molecules of the two bilayers rearrange themselves and the two membranes are, thus, fused. A passage is formed in the fused membrane and the vesicles discharge its contents outside the cell.

Structure
Fluid mosaic model According to the fluid mosaic model of S.J. Singer and G.L. Nicolson (1972), biological membranes can be considered as a two-dimensional liquid in which all lipid and protein molecules diffuse more or less easily. Although the lipid bilayers that form the basis of the membranes do indeed form two-dimensional liquids by themselves, the plasma membrane also contains a large quantity of proteins, which provide more structure. Examples of such structures are protein-protein complexes, pickets and fences formed by the actin-based cytoskeleton, and potentially lipid rafts. Lipid bilayer Lipid bilayers form through the process of self-assembly. The cell membrane consists primarily of a thin layer of amphipathic phospholipids which spontaneously arrange so that the hydrophobic "tail" regions are isolated from the surrounding polar fluid, causing the more hydrophilic "head" regions to associate with the intracellular (cytosolic) and extracellular faces of the resulting bilayer. This forms a continuous, spherical lipid bilayer. Forces such as van der Waals, electrostatic, hydrogen bonds, and noncovalent interactions, are all forces that contribute to the formation of the lipid bilayer. Overall, hydrophobic interactions are the major driving force in the formation of lipid bilayers. Lipid bilayers are generally impermeable to ions and polar molecules. The arrangement of hydrophilic heads and hydrophobic tails of the lipid bilayer prevent polar solutes (e.g. amino acids, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, proteins, and ions) from diffusing across the membrane, but generally allows for the passive diffusion of hydrophobic molecules. This affords the cell the ability to control the movement of these substances via transmembrane protein complexes such as pores, channels and gates. Membranes serve diverse functions in eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells. One important role is to regulate the movement of materials into and out of cells. The phospholipid bilayer structure (fluid mosaic model) with specific membrane proteins accounts for the selective

Created by:

Flores Rojas, Csar Jess Rubina Montoya, Amanda Rosa Zavala Lazo, Noelia

"Year of National Integration and Appreciation of our Diversity"

permeability of the membrane and passive and active transport mechanisms. In addition, membranes in prokaryotes and in the mitochondria and chloroplasts of eukaryotes facilitate the synthesis of ATP through chemiosmosis. Membrane polarity The apical membrane of a polarized cell is the surface of the plasma membrane that faces the lumen. This is particularly evident in epithelial and endothelial cells, but also describes other polarized cells, such as neurons. The basolateral membrane of a polarized cell is the surface of the plasma membrane that forms its basal and lateral surfaces. It faces outwards, towards the interstitium, and away from the lumen. Basolateral membrane is a compound phrase referring to the terms "basal (base) membrane" and "lateral (side) membrane", which, especially in epithelial cells, are identical in composition and activity. Proteins (such as ion channels and pumps) are free to move from the basal to the lateral surface of the cell or vice versa in accordance with the fluid mosaic model. Tight junctions join epithelial cells near their apical surface to prevent the migration of proteins from the basolateral membrane to the apical membrane. The basal and lateral surfaces thus remain roughly equivalent to one another, yet distinct from the apical surface. Membrane structures Cell membrane can form different types of "supramembrane" structures such as caveola, postsynaptic density, podosome, invadopodium, focal adhesion, and different types of cell junctions. These structures are usually responsible for cell adhesion, communication, endocytosis and exocytosis. They can be visualized by electron microscopy or fluorescence microscopy. They are composed of specific proteins, such as integrins and cadherins. Cytoskeleton The cytoskeleton is found underlying the cell membrane in the cytoplasm and provides scaffolding for membrane proteins to anchor to, as well as forming organelles that extend from the cell. Indeed, cytoskeletal elements interact extensively and intimately with the cell membrane. Anchoring proteins restricts them to a particular cell surface for example, the apical surface of epithelial cells that line the vertebrate gut and limits how far they may diffuse within the bilayer. The cytoskeleton is able to form appendage-like organelles, such as cilia, which are microtubule-based extensions covered by the cell membrane, and filopodia, which are actin-based extensions. These extensions are ensheathed in membrane and project from the surface of the cell in order to sense the external environment and/or make contact with the substrate or other cells. The apical surfaces of epithelial cells are dense with actin-based finger-like projections known as microvilli, which increase cell surface area and thereby increase the absorption rate of nutrients. Localized decoupling of the cytoskeleton and cell membrane results in formation of a bleb.

Composition
Cell membranes contain a variety of biological molecules, notably lipids and proteins. Material is incorporated into the membrane, or deleted from it, by a variety of mechanisms:

Created by:

Flores Rojas, Csar Jess Rubina Montoya, Amanda Rosa Zavala Lazo, Noelia

"Year of National Integration and Appreciation of our Diversity"

Fusion of intracellular vesicles with the membrane (exocytosis) not only excretes the contents of the vesicle but also incorporates the vesicle membrane's components into the cell membrane. The membrane may form blebs around extracellular material that pinch off to become vesicles (endocytosis). If a membrane is continuous with a tubular structure made of membrane material, then material from the tube can be drawn into the membrane continuously. Although the concentration of membrane components in the aqueous phase is low (stable membrane components have low solubility in water), there is an exchange of molecules between the lipid and aqueous phases.

Lipids The cell membrane consists of three classes of amphipathic lipids: phospholipids, glycolipids, and cholesterols. The amount of each depends upon the type of cell, but in the majority of cases phospholipids are the most abundant. In RBC studies, 30% of the plasma membrane is lipid. The fatty chains in phospholipids and glycolipids usually contain an even number of carbon atoms, typically between 16 and 20. The 16- and 18-carbon fatty acids are the most common. Fatty acids may be saturated or unsaturated, with the configuration of the double bonds nearly always "cis". The length and the degree of unsaturation of fatty acid chains have a profound effect on membrane fluidity[9] as unsaturated lipids create a kink, preventing the fatty acids from packing together as tightly, thus decreasing the melting temperature (increasing the fluidity) of the membrane. The ability of some organisms to regulate the fluidity of their cell membranes by altering lipid composition is called homeoviscous adaptation. In animal cells cholesterol is normally found dispersed in varying degrees throughout cell membranes, in the irregular spaces between the hydrophobic tails of the membrane lipids, where it confers stiffening and strengthening effect on the membrane. Phospholipids forming lipid vesicles Lipid vesicles or liposomes are circular pockets that are enclosed by a lipid bilayer. These structures are used in laboratories to study the effects of chemicals in cells by delivering these chemicals directly to the cell, as well as getting more insight into cell membrane permeability. Lipid vesicles and liposomes are formed by first suspending a lipid in an aqueous solution then agitating the mixture through sonication, resulting in a vesicle. By measuring the rate of efflux from that of the inside of the vesicle to the ambient solution, allows researcher to better understand membrane permeability. Vesicles can be formed with molecules and ions inside the vesicle by forming the vesicle with the desired molecule or ion present in the solution. Proteins can also be embedded into the membrane through solubilizing the desired proteins in the presence of detergents and attaching them to the phospholipids in which the liposome is formed. These provide researchers with a tool to examine various membrane protein functions.

Created by:

Flores Rojas, Csar Jess Rubina Montoya, Amanda Rosa Zavala Lazo, Noelia

"Year of National Integration and Appreciation of our Diversity"

HERMILIO VALDIZAN PUBLIC UNIVERSITY MEDICAL SCIENCES FACULTY ACADEMIC PROFESSIONAL SCHOOL HUMAN MEDICINE HUANUCO-PERU SUBJECT: Advanced English I SPECIALTY: Human Medicine PROFESSOR: Lic. Jess Enrique Sosa Cori

La membrana celular o membrana plasmtica es una membrana biolgica que separa el interior de todas las clulas del ambiente exterior. La membrana celular es selectivamente permeable a los iones y molculas orgnicas y controla el movimiento de sustancias dentro y fuera de las clulas. Bsicamente, protege a la clula de fuerzas externas. Consiste en la bicapa lipdica con protenas incrustadas. Las membranas celulares estn implicadas en una variedad de procesos celulares tales como la adhesin celular, la conductividad de iones y la sealizacin celular y sirven como la superficie de fijacin para varias estructuras extracelulares, incluyendo la pared celular, glicocalix e citoesqueleto intracelular. Las membranas celulares se pueden volver a montar artificialmente

Membrana Celular

Funcin
La membrana celular rodea el citoplasma de una clula y, en clulas animales, separa fsicamente los componentes intracelulares del medio ambiente extracelular. Hongos, bacterias y plantas tambin tienen la pared celular que proporciona un soporte mecnico para la clula y se opone al paso de molculas ms grandes. La membrana celular tambin juega un papel en el anclaje del citoesqueleto para proporcionar la forma de la clula, y en la fijacin de la matriz extracelular y otras clulas para ayudar a que se agrupan para formar tejidos . La membrana es selectivamente permeable y capaz de regular lo que entra y sale de la clula, lo que facilita el transporte de los materiales necesarios para la supervivencia. El movimiento de sustancias a travs de la membrana puede ser "pasiva", que se produce sin que la aportacin de la energa celular, o activo, que requiere gastar energa en el transporte de la misma. La membrana tambin mantiene el potencial elctrico. La membrana de la clula por lo tanto funciona como un filtro selectivo que permite que cosas determinadas puedan entrar o salir de la clula. La clula emplea una serie de mecanismos de transporte que involucran a las membranas biolgicas:

1. Difusin pasiva y smosis: Algunas sustancias (molculas pequeas, iones) como el dixido de carbono (CO 2), oxgeno (O 2), y agua, pueden moverse a travs de la membrana plasmtica por difusin, que es un proceso de transporte pasivo. Debido a que
Created by: Flores Rojas, Csar Jess Rubina Montoya, Amanda Rosa Zavala Lazo, Noelia

"Year of National Integration and Appreciation of our Diversity"

la membrana acta como una barrera para ciertas molculas e iones, pueden producirse en diferentes concentraciones en las dos caras de la membrana. Un gradiente de concentracin a travs de una membrana semipermeable establece un flujo osmtico para el agua. 2. Canales de protena transmembrana y transportistas: Los nutrientes, tales como azcares o aminocidos, deben entrar en la clula, y determinados productos del metabolismo tienen que salir de la clula. Dichas molculas son bombeadas a travs de la membrana por los transportadores transmembrana o difundidas a travs de canales de protenas. Estas protenas, tambin llamadas permeasas, suelen ser muy especficas, el reconocimiento y el transporte de un grupo limitado de sustancias qumicas, muchas veces incluso de slo una sola sustancia. 3. Endocitosis: La endocitosis es el proceso en el cual las clulas absorben molculas. La membrana plasmtica crea una pequea deformacin hacia el interior, llamado invaginacin, en la cual se captura la sustancia que se transporta. La deformacin luego aprieta fuera de la membrana en el interior de la clula, creando una vescula que contiene la sustancia capturada. La endocitosis es un camino para la internalizacin de las partculas slidas (clula que ingiere o fagocitosis), pequeas molculas e iones (pinocitosis) y macromolculas. La endocitosis requiere de energa y por lo tanto es una forma de transporte activo. 4 Exocitosis: Tal como el material puede ser llevado a la clula por invaginacin para la formacin de una vescula, la membrana de una vescula se pueden fusionar con la membrana plasmtica, extrusin de su contenido al medio circundante. Este es el proceso de exocitosis. La exocitosis se produce en varias clulas para eliminar los restos no digeridos de sustancias introducidas por endocitosis, para secretar sustancias como hormonas y enzimas, y para el transporte de una sustancia a travs de una barrera celular. En el proceso de exocitosis, primero se mueve por el citoesqueleto desde el interior de la clula a la superficie.

Estructura
El modelo de mosaico fluido De acuerdo con el modelo de mosaico fluido de SJ Singer y GL Nicolson (1972), las membranas biolgicas pueden ser consideradas como lquidos de dos dimensiones en el que todos los lpidos y las molculas de protena se difunden ms o menos fcilmente. La bicapa lipdica que forma la base de las membranas, forman lquidos por s mismos, la membrana plasmtica tambin contiene una gran cantidad de protenas, que proporcionan ms estructura. Ejemplos de este tipo de estructuras son complejos protena-protena y, potencialmente, los cmulos lipdicos. Bicapa lipdica La bicapa lipdica se forma a travs del proceso de auto-ensamblaje. La membrana celular se compone principalmente de una capa delgada de fosfolpidos anfipticos que de manera espontnea organizan que la cola" hidrfoba est aislada del fluido que rodea, provocando que la cabeza" hidrfila puedan asociarse con las cara intracelular (citoslica) y extracelular de la bicapa resultante. Esto forma un bicapa lipdica continua y
Created by: Flores Rojas, Csar Jess Rubina Montoya, Amanda Rosa Zavala Lazo, Noelia

"Year of National Integration and Appreciation of our Diversity"

esfrica. Fuerzas como van der Waals, electrostticas, enlaces de hidrgeno, y las interacciones no covalentes, son todas las fuerzas que contribuyen a la formacin de la bicapa lipdica. En general, las interacciones hidrofbicas son la principal fuerza impulsora en la formacin de bicapas lipdicas. La bicapa lipdica es generalmente impermeable a los iones y molculas polares. La disposicin de cabezas hidrfilas y colas hidrfobas de la bicapa lipdica prevenir el paso de solutos polares (por ejemplo, aminocidos, cidos nucleicos, carbohidratos, protenas, e iones) de difusin a travs de la membrana, pero generalmente permite la difusin pasiva de molculas hidrfobas. Esto permite a la clula la capacidad de controlar el movimiento de estas sustancias a travs de la protena, complejos transmembrana tales como poros, canales y compuertas. Las membranas cumplen funciones diversas en clulas. Eucariotas y Procariotas. Una funcin importante es la de regular el movimiento de materiales dentro y fuera de las clulas. La estructura de la bicapa de fosfolpidos (modelo de mosaico fluido) con protenas de membrana especficos representa la permeabilidad selectiva de la membrana y los mecanismos de transporte pasivo y activo. Adems, las membranas en procariotas y en las mitocondrias y cloroplastos de los eucariotas facilitan la sntesis de ATP a travs quimiosmosis. Polaridad de la membrana La membrana apical de una clula polarizada es la superficie de la membrana plasmtica que se enfrenta a la luz. Esto es particularmente evidente en clulas epiteliales y endoteliales, pero tambin se describe en otras clulas polarizadas, tales como las neuronas. La membrana basolateral de una clula polarizada es la superficie de la membrana plasmtica que forma las superficies basales y laterales. Se enfrenta hacia afuera, hacia el intersticio, y lejos de la luz. Membrana basolateral es una frase compuesta en referencia a los trminos "basal (base) de la membrana" y "lateral (lado) de la membrana", que, especialmente en las clulas epiteliales, son idnticos en su composicin y actividad. Las protenas (tales como los canales inicos y bombas) son libres de moverse desde la base hasta la superficie lateral de la celda o viceversa, en conformidad con el modelo de mosaico fluido. Uniones estrechas permite unir clulas epiteliales cerca de su superficie apical para evitar la migracin de las protenas a partir de la membrana basolateral a la membrana apical. Estructuras de membrana La membrana de la clula puede formar diferentes tipos de "estructuras" como caveolas, la densidad postsinptica, adhesin focal y diferentes tipos de uniones de las clulas. Estas estructuras son generalmente responsables de la adhesin celular, la comunicacin, la endocitosis y la exocitosis. Ellos pueden ser visualizados por microscopa electrnica o microscopa de fluorescencia. Estn compuestos por protenas especficas, tales como las integrinas y cadherinas. Citoesqueleto El citoesqueleto se encuentra debajo de la membrana celular en el citoplasma y proporciona un andamiaje para las protenas de membrana, as como la formacin
Created by: Flores Rojas, Csar Jess Rubina Montoya, Amanda Rosa Zavala Lazo, Noelia

"Year of National Integration and Appreciation of our Diversity"

de orgnulos que se extienden desde la clula. En efecto, los elementos del citoesqueleto interactan extensamente e ntimamente con la membrana celular. Protenas de anclaje restringen a una superficie de la clula en particular - por ejemplo, la superficie apical de las clulas epiteliales que recubren intestino - y los lmites de hasta qu punto se puede difundir dentro del bicapa. El citoesqueleto es capaz de formar orgnulos, tales como los cilios, que son los microtbulos basados en extensiones cubiertas por la membrana celular, y filopodios, que son actina basados en extensiones. Estas extensiones se encuentran envainados en la membrana y se proyectan desde la superficie de la clula con el fin de detectar el ambiente externo y / o hacer contacto con el sustrato u otras clulas. Las superficies apicales de las clulas epiteliales son densas con actina-basados en proyecciones similares a dedos conocidos como microvellosidades, que aumentan la superficie celular y por lo tanto aumentar la velocidad de absorcin de nutrientes.

Composicin
Las membranas celulares contienen una variedad de molculas biolgicas, en particular los lpidos y las protenas. El material se incorpora a la membrana, o se elimina de ella, por una variedad de mecanismos:

Fusin de vesculas intracelulares con la membrana (exocitosis), no slo excreta el contenido de la vescula, tambin incorpora los componentes de la membrana de la vescula en la membrana celular. En la membrana se pueden formar ampollas alrededor de material extracelular para convertirse en vesculas (endocitosis). Si una membrana es continua con una estructura tubular hecha de material de la membrana, a continuacin, el material del tubo se puede extraer en la membrana de forma continua. Aunque la concentracin de componentes de la membrana en la fase acuosa es baja (componentes estables de la membrana tienen una baja solubilidad en agua), hay un intercambio de molculas entre el lpido y fases acuosas.

Los lpidos La membrana de la clula se compone de tres clases anfipticas de lpidos: fosfolpidos, glucolpidos y colesterol. La cantidad de cada uno depende del tipo de clula, pero en la mayora de los casos los fosfolpidos son los ms abundantes. En RBC estudios, 30% de la membrana plasmtica es lpido. Las cadenas grasas en fosfolpidos y glicolpidos contienen generalmente un nmero par de tomos de carbono, tpicamente entre 16 y 20. La 16 - y 18-carbono cidos grasos son los ms comunes. Los cidos grasos pueden ser saturados o insaturados, con la configuracin de los dobles enlaces casi siempre "cis". La longitud y el grado de insaturacin de las cadenas de cidos grasos tienen un efecto profundo en la fluidez de membrana como lpidos insaturados que pueden crear una torcedura, evitando que los cidos grasos de embalaje permanezcan juntos fuertemente, lo que disminuye la temperatura de fusin (aumento de la fluidez) de la membrana.

Created by:

Flores Rojas, Csar Jess Rubina Montoya, Amanda Rosa Zavala Lazo, Noelia

"Year of National Integration and Appreciation of our Diversity"

La membrana se mantiene unida por medio de interacciones no-covalentes de colas hidrofbicas, sin embargo, la estructura es bastante fluida y no fijada rgidamente en su lugar. Bajo condiciones fisiolgicas, las molculas de fosfolpidos de la membrana celular estn en estado cristalino lquido. Esto significa que las molculas de lpidos son libres para difundir y exhibir una rpida difusin lateral a lo largo de la capa en la que estn presentes. Sin embargo, el intercambio de molculas de fosfolpidos a nivel intracelular y extracelular de la bicapa es un proceso muy lento. En los animales, el colesterol normalmente se encuentra dispersa en diversos grados a lo largo de las membranas celulares, en los espacios irregulares entre las colas hidrfobas de los lpidos de membrana, donde se confiere una rigidez y refuerzo efecto sobre la membrana. Los fosfolpidos que forman vesculas de lpidos Vesculas lipdicas o liposomas son focos circulares que estn envueltos por una bicapa lipdica. Estas estructuras se utilizan en los laboratorios para estudiar los efectos de los productos qumicos en las clulas mediante la entrega de estos productos qumicos directamente a la clula, as como conseguir ms penetracin en la permeabilidad de la membrana celular. Vesculas lipdicas y liposomas se forman por suspensin de un lpido en una solucin acuosa; a continuacin, agitando la mezcla a travs desubicacin, resultando en una vescula. Mediante la medicin de la tasa de flujo del interior de la vescula a la solucin, permite al investigador comprender mejor la permeabilidad de la membrana. Las vesculas se pueden formar con las molculas y los iones dentro de la vescula mediante la formacin de la vescula con la molcula deseada o iones presentes en la solucin. Las protenas tambin pueden ser embebidas en la membrana a travs de solubilizar las protenas deseadas en presencia de detergentes y unindolos a los fosfolpidos en los cuales se forma el liposoma. stos proporcionan a los investigadores una herramienta para examinar las distintas funciones de las protenas de membrana.

Created by:

Flores Rojas, Csar Jess Rubina Montoya, Amanda Rosa Zavala Lazo, Noelia

"Year of National Integration and Appreciation of our Diversity"

Vocabulary
1. Endocytosis: it is the process in which cells absorb molecules by engulfing them. 2. Cytosol: it is a gel, with a network of fibers dispersed in water. 3. Organelles: they are structures inside the cell that have specific functions.

4. Lumen: it is the inside space of a cellular component, such as the endoplasmic

reticulum. 5. Cilia: they are slender protuberances that project from the cell body. 6. Vesicle: it is a small bubble enclosed by lipid bilayer. 7. Cholesterol: it is an organic chemical substance classified as a waxy steroid of fat. 8. Phospholipids: they are the main components of biological membranes. 9. Actin: it is the monomeric subunit of two types of filaments: microfilaments and thin filaments. 10. Glycocalyx: it is a general term referring to extracellular polymeric material

produced by some cells. 11. Van der Waals force: it is the sum of the attractive or repulsive forces between molecules. 12. Microtubules: they are long, hollow cylinders made up of polymerized - and tubulin dimers. 13. Tissue: it is an ensemble of cells that together carry out a specific function. 14. Macromolecule: it is a very large molecule created by polymerization of smaller subunits. 15. Interstitial fluid: it is a solution that surrounds the cells of multicellular animals.

Created by:

Flores Rojas, Csar Jess Rubina Montoya, Amanda Rosa Zavala Lazo, Noelia

"Year of National Integration and Appreciation of our Diversity"

Questions
1. What is the meaning of concentration gradient? Concentration gradient is the difference of concentration of a substance between two regions. 2. What is the difference between osmosis and diffusion? Osmosis is the movement of water and diffusion is the movement of solutes.

3.

What is osmotic pressure? Osmotic pressure is the pressure created in an aqueous solution.

4. How are solutions classified according to their comparative tonicity?

A solution can be hypotonic, isotonic or hypertonic.

5. What are the basic constituents of the cell membrane? The cell membrane is formed of lipids, proteins and carbohydrates.

6. What are differentiations of the cell membrane? The main differentiations are the microvilli and the structures for the union between cells.

7. What are the three main types of passive transport? The three main types of passive transport are simple diffusion, osmosis and facilitated diffusion.

8. What is the energy source used in active transport through biological membranes? The active transportation uses chemical energy from ATP.

Created by:

Flores Rojas, Csar Jess Rubina Montoya, Amanda Rosa Zavala Lazo, Noelia

"Year of National Integration and Appreciation of our Diversity"

9. What are the two main types of endocytosis? Endocytosis can be classified as pinocytosis or phagocytosis.

10. What are some examples of biological activities in which osmosis plays an important role? Hemolysis by entrance of water and the hydric regulation in plants are all examples of osmosis.

11. What do facilitated diffusion and active transport have in common? Facilitated diffusion can be confused with active transport because in both processes there is a participation of membrane proteins.

12. What is the main function of phospholipids? Membrane phospholipids have a structural function; they form the bilipid membrane.

13. What type of membrane is the cell membrane? The cell membrane is a selectively permeable membrane.

14. What is the meaning of diffusion? Diffusion is the spreading of substance molecules from a region to another region.

15. How is the function of the sodium-potassium pump? The sodium-potassium pump maintains the concentration gradient of ions between the intra and the extracellular spaces.

Created by:

Flores Rojas, Csar Jess Rubina Montoya, Amanda Rosa Zavala Lazo, Noelia