Diagnostic Maintenance and Monitoring of Machines

Diagnostic Maintenance and Monitoring of Machines
Chapter 5: Vibration Analysis
Contents
Vibration simple harmonic motion concept Vibration monitoring equipment System monitors and vibration limit detectors Vibration monitoring examples Critical vibration levels
Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee
Vibration simple harmonic motion concept

Single Degree of Freedom Systems
The single degree-of-freedom system is so interesting to
study because it gives us information on how a systems characteristics are influenced by different quantities.
Fig. shows a mechanical single degree-of-freedom (sdof)
system consisting of a rigid mass m, a spring with spring rate k, and a viscous damper with a damping coefficient dv. The spring and the viscous damper are located between the mass and the foundation, and are considered to be massless.
Cont
Introduces mathematical methods commonly applied to the analysis of vibrations problems. These methods equally apply to acoustics problems also.
1. MECHANICAL POWER
A harmonically-varying dependencies force and velocity have respective time
cos(t ) + F sin(t ) = F cos(t + ) = Re( F e i (t + F ) ) F (t ) = F F 1 2

1 cos( t ) + v 2 sin( t ) = v cos( t + v ) = Re( v e i (t + v ) ) v (t ) = v
(1) (2)
From fundamental mechanics, the instantaneous mechanical power can be calculated from
W (t ) = F (t )v(t ) = Re(F(t )) Re( v (t )) =

=
1 1 (F(t ) + F (t ) * ) ( v(t ) + v (t ) * ) = 2 2
(3)
Cont
= (F(t ) v(t ) + F(t ) * v(t ) * + F(t ) v(t ) * + F(t ) * v(t ))/ 4,
which can be expressed in the form
(3)
W (t ) = (Re( F (t ) v (t )) + Re( F (t ) v (t ) * )) / 2 =
v v e i 2t +i F +i v ) / 2 + Re( F e i F i v ) / 2 = = Re( F
(4)
v (cos(2t + F + v ) + cos( F v ))/ 2 =F

Typically, it is the time average of the power that is of interest, and which corresponds to the power that is fed into a mechanical system. The time average of the first term, above, is zero, so that the timeaveraged power can be expressed as
Cont
1 1 cos( F v ) W = W (t )dt = F v T 2
0 T
(5)
where the over-bar indicates time-averaging. Thus,
W=
1 1 Re(Fv * ) = Re(F * v ) 2 2
(6)
From equation (6), it is evident that maximal power is delivered when force and velocity are in phase, i.e., F = v , whereas no power, at all, is delivered when the phase shift between those quantities is 90. In that latter case, one can speak of the force being 90 ahead of the velocity, F - v = 90, or 90 behind the velocity, v - F = 90.
Cont
2. LINEAR SYSTEMS
Often in Vibrations our interest resides in the calculation of what effect a certain physical quantity, called the input signal, has on another physical quantity, called the output signal.
L in e a r tim e - in v a r ia n t s y s te m
F ( t ) ,v ( t) p ( t ) ,u ( t )
In p u t S ig n a l
F ( t ) ,v ( t ) p ( t) ,u ( t )
O u tp u t S ig n a l
Figure 1 A linear time-invariant system describes the relationship between an input signal and an output signal. For example, the input signal could be a velocity v(t), and the output signal a force F(t), or the input signal an acoustic pressure p(t) and the output signal an acoustic particle velocity u(t).
Cont
From a purely mathematical standpoint, a linear system is defined as one in which the relationship between the input and output signals can be described by a linear differential equation. If the coefficients are, moreover, independent of time, i.e., constant, then the system is also time invariant. A linear system has several important features. The superposition principle implies that if the input signal a(t) gives rise to an output signal b(t), and the input signal c(t) gives rise to an output signal d(t), then the input signal a(t)+c(t) yields the output signal b(t)+ d(t). The homogeneity principle states that if the input signal a(t) is multiplied by a constant a, then the output signal is b(t). A linear system is also frequency-conserving, in the sense that only those frequency components that exist in the input signal can exist in the output signal.
Cont
The figure shows an example in which the forces that excite an automobile are inputs to a number of linear systems, the outputs from which are vibration velocities at various points in the structure. The vibration velocities are then, in turn, inputs to a number of linear systems, the outputs from which are sound pressures at various points in the passenger compartment. By adding up the contributions from all of the significant excitation forces, the total sound pressures at points of interest in the passenger compartment can be found. In this case, the linear system is described in the frequency domain by so-called frequency response function. Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee
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Cont
The engine is fixed to the chassis via vibration isolators. If the force F1 that influences the chassis can be cut in half, then, for a linear system, all vibration velocities v1 vN caused by the force F1 are also halved. In turn, the sound pressures p1 pN, which are brought about by the velocities v1 vN, are halved as well. With the simplifying assumption that all of the forces acting on the car are uncorrelated, and that those forces are the only sound sources acting, it implies that if all of them can be reduced by 5 dB, then both the linear sound pressure level Lp and the A-weighted sound pressure level LA, are reduced by 5 dB Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee
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Fundamentals of Vibrations
ik
Z ji
Here linear oscillations in mechanical systems are considered, implying that the relation between the input signal and the output signal can be described by linear differential equations with constant coefficients.
10
Cont
F (t) x(t) m
dv
Fig. Single Degree-of-Freedom System.
11
Cont
Newtons Second Law gives the equation of motion of the system, in the form
d 2x(t) dt2
dx(t) = Fx (x(t), ,t) dt
Fx contains the spring force, the damper force, and the
external exciting force
12
Cont
dx(t) Fx = x(t) dv + F(t) dt

where m is mass of the body, is the spring constant, dv is the viscous damping coefficient, F(t) is the external excitation, x is the displacement of the mass, dx / dt its velocity, d 2x / dt2 its acceleration.
13
Cont
d 2 x(t ) dt 2 dx(t ) 2 + 2 + 0 x(t ) = g(t ) dt
In which the following simplifications have been incorporated:
0 = m
= d v 2m
g(t) = F(t) m
where w0 is the eigen frequency of the system, and is the damping constant.
14
Cont
If there is damping in the system, then the free vibrations
can be assumed to have been damped out after a number of periods, and only the forced vibrations remain. Thus, it is usually only the particular solution that is of interest, i.e., the second term in
x(t) = xh (t) + x p (t)
15
Cont
The phase and magnitude of the complex amplitude can
now be determined to be
p = x
g
2 ( 0 2 ) + i 2
16
Two degree-of-freedom systems
The simple single degree-of-freedom system can be

coupled to another of its kind, producing a mechanical system described by two coupled differential equations
To each mass, there is a corresponding equation of motion

(see Figure). To specify the state of the system at any instant, we need to know time t dependence of both coordinates, x1 and x2, from which follows the designation two degree-offreedom system.
17
Cont
F1(t) m1 dv1 dv2 x2(t) F2(t) m2 dv3
x1(t)
Figure. Two degree--of-freedom system
18
Cont
Newtons second law for each mass gives
m1
d 2 x1 (t ) dt 2
dx1 (t ) dx2 (t ) , ,t = F1x x1 (t ), x2 (t ), dt dt
m2
d 2 x2 (t) dt2
dx1(t) dx2 (t) , ,t = F2x x1(t), x2 (t), dt dt
19
Cont
dx dx 1(t) 1(t) dx 2(t) F d2 +F 1x = 1x1(t) 2(x1(t) x2(t)) d1 1(t) dt dt dt
dx dx 1(t) dx 2(t) 2(t) F +F d3 2x =2(x 1(t) x2(t))3x2(t) +d 2 2(t) dt dt dt
20
Cont
From above equations, give
dx dx 1(t) 1(t) dx 2(t) m +d1 +d2 1 + 1x1 (t ) + 2 ( x1 (t ) x2 (t ) ) = F1 (t ) dt dt 2 dt dt
d2x1(t)
and
m2 d 2 x2 (t) dt2 dx2 (t) dx1(t) dx2 (t) d 2 + d 2 ( x1 (t ) x2 (t )) + 3 x2 (t ) = F2 (t ) 3 dt dt dt
21
Cont
Matrix and vector notation can be incorporated into the
above equations which is useful for generalizing to an arbitrary number of degrees-of-freedom.
The matrix formulation even makes it possible to solve the

system of differential equations using software that performs matrix computations. Above two equations are therefore expressed as
r r r dx [M ] 2 + [D ] + [K ] x = F dt dt
r d 2x
22
System with an arbitrary number of degrees-offreedom

The results from the two degree-of-freedom system can be generalized to a system with an arbitrary number of masses cascaded, i.e., coupled in series, as in Figure 5-5.
F1 (t) m1 d v1 d v2 x 1 (t) x 2 (t) F 2 (t ) m2 Fn (t) mn d vn+ 1 x n (t)
n+ 1
System with n cascaded masses
23
Cont
The equations of motion become
m1
d 2 x1 ( t ) dt 2
+ d 1
dx 1 ( t ) dx 1 ( t ) dx 2 ( t ) + d 2 dt dt + dt
+ 1 x1 (t ) + 2 ( x1 (t ) x 2 (t ) ) = F1 (t )
m2
d 2 x 2 (t ) dt 2
dx2 (t ) dx3 (t ) dx1 (t ) dx2 (t ) d 2 + d dt 3 dt dt dt
2 ( x1 (t ) x2 (t )) + 3 ( x2 (t ) x3 (t )) = F2 (t ),
mn1 d 2 xn1(t) dt2 dxn2 (t) dxn1(t) dxn1(t) dxn (t) dn1 + d dt n dt dt dt
n1(xn2 (t) xn1(t)) + n (xn1(t) xn (t)) = Fn1(t),
24
Cont
mn d
2
x n (t )
2
dt
+ d n +1
dx n ( t ) dx n ( t ) dx n 1 ( t ) + d n dt + dt dt
+ n +1 x n (t ) + n ( x n (t ) x n1 (t ) ) = Fn (t ).
The mass matrix, damping matrix, and stiffness matrix, respectively, become
m1 0 [M ] = M 0 0 m2 0 L L 0 O 0 0 M 0 mn
25
Cont
d 1 + d 2 d 2 0 [D] =
1 + 2 2 0 [K ] =
d 2
d 2 + d 3 d 3 d 3 0
dn1 dn1 + dn dn 0
0 n 1 0
dn dn + dn+1
n n + n +1
0 3 0
2 +3 3

n 1 + n n
26
Cont
where non-zero elements not shown in the equations are marked with a , and zero-valued elements are marked with a . One can even allow masses to be coupled in parallel, as in Figure 6.
2 1
F 1( t) dv2 F 2( t) m2 m1 dv1
4
F 4( t) x 2(t) dv4 m4 dv6 x 4( t) x 3( t) dv5
F 3( t) m3
x 1(t) dv3
System with parallel coupling
27
Cont
The equations of motion become
d 2 x1 (t ) dx 1 ( t ) dx 1 ( t ) dx 2 ( t ) m1 + d 1 + d 2 dt dt dt dt 2 +
dx 1 ( t ) dx 3 ( t ) + d 3 dt dt + 1 x1 (t ) + 2 (x1 ( t ) x 2 (t ) ) +
+ 3 ( x1 (t ) x 3 (t ) ) = F1 (t ),
m2
d 2 x 2 (t ) dt 2
dx1 (t ) dx 2 (t ) dx 2 (t ) dx 4 (t ) d 2 d + 4 dt dt dt dt
2 ( x1 (t ) x 2 (t )) + 4 ( x 2 (t ) x 4 (t )) = F2 (t ),
28
m3 d 2 x 3 (t ) dt 2 dx 1 ( t ) dx 3 ( t ) dx 3 ( t ) dx 4 ( t ) d 3 d + 5 dt dt dt dt
3 ( x1 (t ) x 3 (t )) + 5 ( x 3 (t ) x 4 (t )) = F3 (t ),
d 2 x 4 (t ) dx 4 ( t ) dx 2 ( t ) dx 4 ( t ) + d 6 + d 4 m4 dt dt dt dt 2
dx 4 (t ) dx 3 (t ) + d 5 dt dt + 6 x 5 (t ) + 4 ( x 4 (t ) x 2 ( t ) ) +
+ 5 ( x 4 (t ) x 3 (t ) ) = F4 (t ).
29
The mass matrix, damping matrix and stiffness matrix, respectively, become
m1 0 [M ] = 0 0 0 m2 0 0 0 0 m3 0 m4 0 0 0
0 d 2 d 3 d1 + d 2 + d 3 0 d 2 + d 4 d 2 d 4 [D] = 0 d 3 + d 5 d 3 d 5 0 d 4 + d 5 + d 6 d 4 d 5
1 + 2 + 3 2 [K ] = 3 0
3 0 3 +5 5
2 + 4
0 4
4 5 4 +5 + 6 0
30
The general principle for generating these matrices, for systems in which the directions of forces and velocities are defined as in figures 5 and 6, can be summarized in the following way: (i) the mass matrix is diagonal. (ii) a diagonal element in the stiffness or damping matrix is the sum of the spring rates or damping coefficients, respectively, of all springs / dampers connected to the mass indicated by the row number of the element. (iii) an off-diagonal element at a specific row and column position in the stiffness or damping matrix has the opposite (negative) of the value of the spring rate or damping coefficient, respectively, for the connection between the mass indicated by the row number and that indicated by the column number.
31
Frequency response functions
A frequency response function is defined as the relation between an output signal Y() from a linear system, expressed as a function of the circular frequency w, and the corresponding input signal X(),
H ( ) = Y( ) X( )
In other words, it can be interpreted as the proportionality constant in the linear relation between the complex input and output amplitudes. It is one of the most important quantities used in the analysis of sound and vibration problems. If the input signal is a force on a structure, knowledge of the frequency response function permits the computation of the resulting vibration at different points in the structure; if the input signal is a pressure at a point in a ventilation duct, it permits the calculation of the sound pressure at the outlet.
32
Table 1 Frequency response functions commonly used in vibrations and acoustics.
Quantity Dynamic flexibility or Receptance H() Mobility or mechanical admittance Y() Accelerance A() Input quantities Displacement x() Force F() Velocity v() Force F() Acceleration a() Force F() Displacement x() Force F() Velocity v() Force F() Acoustic volume flow rate Q() Acoustic pressure p() Acoustic particle velocity u() Acoustic pressure p() Relation
H( ) = x( ) F( )
Y ( ) = v ( ) F( )
A( ) = a( ) F ( )
( ) = F( ) x( )
Z( ) = F ( ) v ( ) Z( ) = p( ) Q( )
Dynamic stiffness () Mechanical impedance Z() Acoustic impedance Z() Specific impedance Z()
Z( ) = p ( ) u ( )
33
The dynamic flexibility Eq. (57), i.e., the relation between the displacement x() and the force F(), for the single degree-of-freedom -system can, as in Eq. (15), be described by
1 x() 1 H() = = = 2 2 F() m + i2m + 1 ( 0 ) 2 + i2 ( 0 )

The frequency response functions can be presented graphically in a number of different ways. One possibility is to divide them up into real and imaginary parts
H ( ) = Re( H ( )) + i Im( H ( ))
34
For the single degree-of-freedom system considered,
Re( H ( )) =
(1 ( 0 ) 2 )
2 2 (1 ( 0 ) 2 ) 2 + ( 2 0 )
Im( H ( )) =
2 2 ( 0 ) 2 2 (1 ( 0 ) 2 ) 2 + ( 2 0 )
Figure 7 shows graphs of the real and imaginary parts of H(), norm-alized by 1/ and with as a parameter. For = 0, the system is critically damped, for < 0, it is weakly, or sub-critically damped, and for > 0 it is strongly, or super critically, damped.
35
kRe(H(w))
4 3 2 1 0 -1 -2 -3 -4 0 1 2 3
a)
/o
36
kIm(H(w))
0 -1
-2
-3
-4
-5
b)
/o
Dynamic flexibility of a single degree-of-freedom system divided into real and imaginary parts.
37
Another possible representation of the frequency response function is in terms of its amplitude and phase angle
H ( ) =
1
2 2 (1 ( 0 ) 2 ) 2 + ( 2 0 )
( ) = arctan
2 (
0
)2 1
38
A figure in which the amplitude and phase curves are plotted is usually called a Bode diagram
H( )
5 4
= 0 = 0,10 = 0,30 = 0,70 = 0 = 20

0 2 3
1 0
/o
39
j [rad]
0
= 0 = 0,10 = 0,30
= 0,70
= 0
= 2 0
0 1
/o
Figure 8 Bode diagram of the dynamic flexi-bility of a single degree-of-freedom system, with separate plots of the amplitude and the phase angle.
40
Damping
For a single degree-of-freedom system, we have thus far only used the viscous damping coefficient dv or the damping constant to describe the losses. For structures, it is more common to use the so-called loss factor to describe the influence of different types of damping. In order to demonstrate how the loss factor is defined, it will be useful to first introduce energy quantities for a single degree-of-freedom system. Considering a sinusoidal displacement x = x sin( t + ) , the kinetic and potential energies can be expressed, respectively, as
m dx m 2 2 cos2 (t + ) Ekin = = x 2 dt 2
E
pot
2 sin x
( t + )
41
The energy dissipated (i.e., spent or lost) in one period, can be expressed as
Edis = Fd dx= dv
dx dx 2 (t +)dt = dx= dv dt =dv x cos dt dt 0 0
T 2 2
2 2 T 2 = d v x 2, = dv x
in which we have used the relation T = 2. The lost factor is defined as the dissipated energy per radian, divided by the maximum potential energy,
Edis 2 dv = = =2 E pot ) max( 0 2
42
For the case of the harmonic excitation of a single degree-of-freedom system,
e it x p (t ) = x
substitution into Eq.(9) yields
e i t F (t ) = F
=F ( 2 m + i d v + ) x
Then, from Eq.(73),
=F ( 2 m + (1 + i )) x
As such, losses can be incorporated by defining a complex spring constant
= (1 + i)
43
Analogue mechanical - electrical circuits
similarities to the equations used to describe electrical circuits can be observed. Those similarities are used to define so-called analogue mechanical-electrical circuits. Assume that electric potential, or voltage, U and current I in an electrical circuit have a harmonic time-dependence.
e i t , U(t ) = U
I ( t ) = Ie i t +
An ideal voltage source delivers a constant voltage, regardless of the circuit to which it is connected, and an ideal current source delivers a constant current, regardless of the circuit to which it is connected.
44
I
I
Figure 10 An ideal voltage source and an ideal current source. The complex ratio of the voltage to the current is called the impedance
U Z = = R + iX I
where R is the resistance and X is the reactance.
45
I Z U
General passive circuit element impedance Z.
Impedance
The most common passive circuit elements are resistors, R, inductors, L, and capacitors, C.
I
I
I
a) Resistance
b) Capacitance
c) Inductance
Three common passive circuit elements are the resistor, the capacitor and the inductor. Characteristic for passive circuit elements is that they do not supply energy to the system.
46
For the resistor,
U (t ) = RI (t ) U = RI
For the capacitor,
U (t ) =
For the inductor,
1 1 I (t )dt U = I C iC
U (t ) = L
dI ( t ) U = i L I dt
That approach to writing the relation between circuit elements, in complex form, gives simple computational formulas for the determination of the voltage and current in circuits. It is usually called the i - method.
47
Im
I
U = i L I U = RI
90
Re
U=
I i C
Relation between current and voltage for a resistor, capacitor and inductor, presented in the complex plane.
48
For the resistor, the voltage and current are in phase. For the capacitor, the voltage lags the current by 90. For the inductor, the voltage is 90 ahead of the current. In the case of a single degree-of-freedom system with a harmonically-varying velocity
i v = ve
the acceleration and displacement are also harmonic
dv e i t = i v a= = i v dt
x = vdt =
1 i
eit = v
1 i
49
For a mass, Newtons second law states
F (t ) = m
dv ( t ) dt
F = i m v
By comparison to Eq.(82), it is clear that if the force corresponds to voltage, and the velocity to current, then the mass corresponds to inductance (m L). A spring obeys
F (t ) = v (t ) dt
F =
v i
Comparing that to Eq.(81) shows that the spring rate is analogous to the reciprocal of an electrical capacitance (k 1 / C). A viscous damper, by definition, follows the law
F (t ) = d v v(t )
F = dvv
50
Comparison to Eq.(80) reveals that the viscous damping coefficient is analogous to an electrical resistance (dv R).
Table Summary of mechanical-electrical circuit equivalents, for passive circuit elements
Component
Equation
Equivalence
Mass
F = i m v
F = v / i
F = dvv
m L
1 C
dv R
Spring
Viscous damper
51
Vibration Monitoring Equipment
In principle, only a vibration signal is required for machine monitoring. It has been found, however, that tachometer signals, synchronized with various axle speeds of interest, give valuable information for the vibration signal processing. Since machine monitoring requires high quality vibration signals, it is recommended to spend some time on selecting suitable sensors and sensor locations. In general, the sensors should be placed as close to the monitored element as possible. Also, the sensor should be oriented in a direction where the vibration from the monitored element is most significant.
52
Cont
The speed of all shafts engaged in the monitored element

should be measured using tachometers. A tachometer giving several synchronized pulses each shaft rotation is preferred since it provides a more accurate shaft speed determination.
A typical remote controlled on-line monitoring system is

designed as shown in Fig. The sensor signals are acquired and processed by a digital signal processor (DSP) placed close to the machine. Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee
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schematic picture showing a remote controlled on-line monitoring system

Accelerometer Tachometer
Signal conditioner Speed A/D converter
DSP
Resampler
Sampling frequency for synchronised sampling
Synchronised averaging
Envelop detector FFT
Band pass filter
Operator
Cepstrum
Indicator(Alarm levels)
GSM
Remote monitor
54
Data acquisition
The most important signal acquisition system parameters

are the frequency resolution, the bandwidth and the dynamic range.
A successful monitoring often requires high frequency

bands measured with very high resolution in order to resolve and identify the vibration signature components. Also the high frequency components are often weak as compared to the low frequency components.
Accurate results in these cases require a data acquisition

system with sufficiently high dynamic range. Both these problems are particularly severe for low speed bearings Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee
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Accelerometers
Piezoelectric accelerometers are the most commonly used

vibration transducers. In some measurement situations, however, other types may be preferred, such as optical and inductive transducers or strain gauges. The construction of a piezoelectric accelerometer of the compression type can be seen in figure.
56
Diagnostic Maintenance and Monitoring of Machines Fundamental construction of a piezoelectric accelerometer of the compression variety. The active elements are the piezoelectric discs, on which a mass is resting. The mass is preloaded by a spring and the entire arrangement is enclosed in a metal capsule on a stable mounting plate.
Frspnd fjder
Rrlig massa + Elektrisk utsignal _ Piezoelektriska elemen Bas/monteringsplatta Vibrerande objekt Fstskruv
57
Cont
When the accelerometer, which is firmly mounted to the measurement object, is subjected to vibrations along its axis of symmetry, the mass gives rise to a force that varies as the acceleration varies. That force deforms the piezoelectric discs, which then produce, because of their piezoelectric properties, a charge on the surfaces of the discs proportional to the force, and thereby to the acceleration as well. Piezoelectric accelerometers are connected to preamplifiers, the primary purpose of which is to match the high output impedance of the accelerometer to the low input impedance of the measurement system.
58
Cont
The main equipment used to measure and analyze

vibrations includes a vibration level meter, level recorder, audio recorder and frequency analyzer. A frequency that qualifies as vibration pollution is a 1/3 octave band center frequency in the 1 ~ 80 Hz range, therefore a data recorder capable of recording from low (DC) frequencies is preferable as the audio recorder.
59
Cont
60
Cont
pickup that senses the vibrations comes in piezoelectric and electrodynamic types, but the piezoelectric type is normally used for vibration pollution measurements. A piezoelectric pickup uses a piezoelectric material (normally ceramic) that flexes and subsequently generates a charge when force is applied to it. An electrodynamic pickup uses a coil that moves within a magnetic field to create an exciting force proportional to the velocity of the movement.
The output terminals of the vibration level meter are found The
in the three locations of X, Y and Z, which are based on the directions of vibration. Each can output vibrations in the respective direction. Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee
61
Cont
It is also possible to select between sensation-weighted VL
and un-weighted VAL. Z is the vertical direction to the XY plane. Only vibrations in the Z direction are treated as vibration pollution. In selecting X and Y axes, one approach is to use the measurement point as the origin, while another is to use the direction of movement of the vibration source as the origin. With this former, the direction from the surveyor to the vibration source is taken as the X axis, but, if the vibration is obviously unidirectional, that direction of vibration may be taken as the X axis.
The vibration level meter has input terminals for input from
the pickup and for external input. Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee
62
Cont
When measurement point is used as origin
When direction of movement of vibration source is used as origin
63
Cont
[1]
[2] Signals for VAL are recorded and VL weighting is done later. [3]
[1] and [2] below show different combinations of equipment used to measure vibrations. That in [3] is for reproducing and recording already recorded vibration data. [1] [2] [3] Signals for VAL are recorded and VL weighting is done later. Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee
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Chapter 5: Vibration Analysis

Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee