TISSUES

Anatomy study of the structure of an organism Physiology study of the fxns an organism performs Physical Laws and the Environment Constrain Animal Size and Shape - Body plan of an animal results from a pattern of development programmed by the genome Animal form and fxn are correlated at all levels of organization Tissues groups of cells with a common structure and fxn - May be held together by a sticky extracellular matrix that coats the cells or weaves them together in a fabric of fibers 1. EPITHELIAL - Tightly packed cells barrier - Covers outside of body and lines organs and cavities w/in body - Free surface exposed to air/fluid - Fxns:,absorption, protection, excretion, secretion - Glandular epithelia secrete chemical solns o Mucous membrane formed in the lining of lumen of digestive and respiratory tracts Classifications of epithelia: a. No. of cell layers o Simple epithelium 1 layer o Stratified epithelium multiple o ***Pseudostratified feeling stratified because cells vary in length b. Shape of cells on exposed surface o Cuboidal o Columnar o Squamous Stratified columnar epithelium o Lines inner surface of urethra Simple columnar epithelium o Lines the intestines o Secretes digestive juices and absorbs nutrients Pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium o Forms mucus membrane respiratory tract o Cilia move a film of mucus along the surface o Trap dust and sweep them back up to the trachea Cuboidal epithelia o Specialized for secretion o Kidney tubules and many glands, inc. thyroid and salivary glands o Glandular epithelia in thyroid gland Secretes hormone that regulates bodys rate of fuel consumption Simple squamous epithelia o Thin and leaky o Fxn in exchange of matl by diffusion -

Line blood vessels and air sacs, where diffusion of nutrients and gases is critical Stratified squamus epithelia o Regenerate rapidly by cell division near basement membrane o Surfaces subject to abrasion Outer skin and linings of esophagus, anus, vagina o Abrasion affects the oldest cells

Stores fuel as fat molec Swells fat is stored

c. Fibrous connective tissue - Dense (large no. of collagenous fibers) - Fibers: organized into parallel bundles o Maximizes nonelastic strength - Found in tendons and ligaments d. Cartilage - Abundance of collagenous fibers embedded in chondroitin sulfate - Chondrocytes secrete chondroitin sulfate and collagen - Strong yet flexible support matl - Replaced by bone as embryo matures - Retained in some locations - Absorbs physical impact w/o breaking - Types: o Hyaline cartilage clear, glassy appearance Trachea, nose o Elastic cartilage Lobe of the ear, epiglottis o Hydro cartilage knee joints e. Bone - Make up skeleton - Mineralized connective tissue - Osteoblasts bone-forming cells that deposit a matrix of collagen - Osteoclasts removes bone tissue by removing its mineralized matrix - Ca + Mg + P = hydroxyapatite - Collagen + hard mineral = bone is harder than cartilage but its not brittle. - Osteons/haversian systems have concentric layers of mineralized matrix o Contain blood vessels and nerves o Canaliculi distributes nutrients Interconnects lacunae o Lacunae contains osteocytes f. Blood - Plasma liquid in matrix o H2O + salts + proteins - Suspended in plasma: o Erythrocytes (RBC) O2 o Leukocytes (WBC) defense Monocytes differentiate into macrophages Arise from stem cells of bone marrow Polymorphoneuclear/granulocytes High variable shape of nucleus. Circulating phagocytes in blood Eosinophil secretes enzymes and destroys allergens Basophil blue secretes histamine Neutrophil most abundant in humans

o Provide first line of defense in infection o Kill microbes through phagocytosis Lymphocytes develop anti-bodies B-cells secrete antibodies T-cells develop in thymus Platelets (cell fragments) - blood clotting

** Basement membrane dense mat of extracellular matrix where the cells at the base of the epithelial layer are attached. o CT secreted by epithelial and CT cells 2. CONNECTIVE TISSUE - Binds and supports tissues - Sparse population of cells scattered through an extracellular matrix/ground substance - Matrix: web of fibers embedded in a uniform foundation o Secreted by cells of connective tissue - Made of fibers Three kinds: a. Collagenous Fibers - Made of collagen most abundant protein in the animal kingdom - Nonelastic - Dont tear easily when pulled lengthwise b. Elastic Fibers - Long threads made of protein elastin - Provide a rubbery quality that complements the nonelastic strength of collagenous fibers - Restores skins original shape c. Reticular fibers - Very thin and branched - Composed of collagen and continuous with collagenous fibers, they form a tightly woven fabric that joins connective tissue to adjacent tissues. Major types of connective tissue in vertebrates: a. Loose connective tissue - Most widespread in the body - Binds epithelia to underlying tissues and fxns as packaging matl, holding organs in place. - Includes CER - Two cells predominant in LCT: o Fibroblasts secrete protein ingredients of the extracellular fibers o Macrophages amoeboid cells that roam the maze of fibers, engulfing foreign particles and the debris of dead cells by phagocytosis b. Adipose tissue - Specialized form of LCT - Stores fat - Pads and insulates the body

3. MUSCLE TISSUE - dont actively lengthen - originates from mesoderm - composed of long cells called muscle fibers that are capable of contracting when stimulated by nerve signals - Myofibrils contracting units arranged in parallel within the cytoplasm of MF o Myofilaments: Actin thin Actin molecule Troponin located at intervals along actin o Globular subunits attached to tropomyosin Tropmyosin - lie near grooves between actin strands Myosin thick 2 polypeptide chains wound in supercoil head o A-band broad region that corresponds to the length of the thick filaments o I-band region where there are only thin filaments o Z-line hold together the actin filaments Borders of the sarcomere o H-zone center of the A-band that contains only thick filaments Disappears when sarcomere contracts o Sarcomere from one z-line to another Fxnl unit of the myofibril - Most abundant in animals - Fascicule more complex - Sarcoplasmic reticulum stores calcium ions - Muscle contraction: accts for much of the Econsuming cellular work in an active animal Three types of muscle tissue: a. Skeletal muscle - Attached to the bones by tendons - Syncitium has several nuclei - For voluntary movets - Arrangement of sarcomere (contractile units) gives cells a striated appearance. b. Cardiac muscle - Single nucleus - For pumping blood - Striated but involuntary

Muscle fibers branch and interconnect via intercalated disks o Rely signals from cell to cell and help synchronize heartbeat

c. Smooth muscle - Lacks striations - Found in walls of visceral organs o Blood vessel walls and walls of digestive tract - Spindle-shaped cells - Contract more slowly than skeletal but can remain contracted longer - Controlled by diff kinds of nerves - Involuntary - For movet of substances in lumens of body

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Cellular Aggregation of cells functionally differentiated Division of labor is evident Most cells for nourishment Some cells for reproduction

3. Cell-tissue - Aggregation of similar tissues into definite patterns of layers thus becoming a tissue Ex. Hydra 4. Tissue-organ - Aggregation of tissues into organs - Eyespots, reproductive organs 5. Organ System - Organs work together to perform some fxns - Systems are associated with basic body fxns Ex. Nemerteam worm, ribbon worm (excretory separate from digestive) ORGAN SYSTEMS - Carry out major body fxns - There must be coordination between systems for animal to survive Symmetry - Balanced proportion - Correspondence in size and shape of parts on opposite sides of the median plane - Spherical any plane passing through the center divides a body into equivalent, or mirrored, halves o Unicellular forms and rare in animals o Best suited for rolling and floating - Radial forms that can be divided into similar halves by more than two planes passing through the longitudinal axis o Tubular, vase or bowl shapes o Biradial only two planes passing through the longitudinal axis produce mirrored halves. Ex. Comb jellies o Usually sessile, freely floating, or weakly swimming - Bilateral divided along a sagittal plane into right and left halves. o Strongly associated with cephalization (differentiation of the head) o Directional (forward movet) o Terms: Anterior head Posterior tail Dorsal back Ventral belly Medial midline Lateral sides Distal farther from the middle of the body Proximal nearer from the middle of the body

Frontal plane/coronal plane dorsal/ventral Sagittal plane right/left Transverse/xs anterior/posterior Segmentation metamerism o Metamere/somite segment o Serial repetition of similar body segments along longitudinal axis of body

Seta Tegumental gland Tanning

INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM
Fxns: - Protection from mechanical and chemical injury and invasion of microorganisms - Regulation of body temperature - Excretion of waste materials - Conversion of sunlight to vit. D - Reception of environmental stimuli such as pain, temperature, pressure - Locomotion - Movet of nutrients and gases - Behavioral interaxn between individuals - Colorful display to attract mates

The Arthropod cuticle may be hardened by: a. Calcification deposition of calcium carbonate in the outer layers of procuticle For crustaceans b. Sclerotization protein molecules bond together with stabilizing cross-linkages within and between adjacent lamellae of the procuticle o Form of highly resistant and insoluble protein, sclerotin o For insects Molting of Arthropods - Epidermal cells are divided by mitosis - Epidermis secretes enzyme to digest procuticle - Absorption of digested materials - New epicuticle and procuticle formed beneath the old - New cuticle is thicker and calcified on sclerotized

4. NERVOUS TISSUE - Senses stimuli and transmits signals in the form of nerve impulses - Neuron consists of a cell body and two or more extensions or processes o Dendrites neuron tip rest of neuron o Axons toward another neuron or effector o Cell body o Nucleus o Axon hillock o Myelin sheath o Synaptic terminal o Terminal branches - Neuron can be: o Multipolar - several dendrites o Bipolar 1 dendrite and 1 axon - Neuroglia supporting cell; insulates neuron membranes o Help in the nourishment of neurons a. Microglia can be mobile Fxn: protection phagocytosis b. Astrocyte lies bet nerve cells and capillary Fxn: nourishment of neurons c. Oligodendrocyte secretes cells for myelin sheath Muscle fibers muscle cell Nerve fiber neuron Fibers in connective tissues proteins

II.

VERTEBRATE INTEGUMENT

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1. -

INVERTEBRATE INTEGUMENT
Plasma membrane Unicellular protozoa Gas exchange and waste removal by simple diffusion Uptake of dissolved nutrients Pellicle o Thick protein coat found in protozoa o Further environmental protection o Semi-rigid structure transmits force of cilia of flagella to entire body as the animal moves Epidermis Most multi-cellular invertebrates Single layer of columnar epithelial cells Some invertebrates have cuticle over their epidermis Delicate and soft in mollusks and contain mucous glands, some of which secrete CaCO2 of the shell

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Skin and Derivatives: - Chromatophores pigment cells - 2 layers: o Dermis o Epidermis - Other structures o Arrector pili muscle found at the end of the root hair for goosebumps o hair o hair follicle o sebaceous gland o nerve endings o hypodermis subcutaneous layer o sweat glands Epidermis - stratified squamous epithelium - no blood vessels - cells of basal part undergo frog mitosis - as outer layer of cells are displaced upward by new generations of cells beneath, keratinization takes place o Keratin fibrous protein that accumulates in the interior - Cornified cells highly resistant to abrasions, H2O diffusion, comprise outermost stratum corneum o Result of keratinization (ex. Calluses) Epidermal derivatives - Feathers, Nails, Hair, Scales of snake, Pelage, Hoof, Plumage Dermis - Dense connective tissue layer

LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION IN ORGANISMAL COMPLEXITY

1. Protoplasmic Organization in Organismal Complexity Found in unicellular organisms o Life fxns confined within the boundaries of a single cell Protoplasm differentiated into organelles

Mantle - Pair of folds formed by the dorsal body wall - Outer surface secretes shell - Molluscs: more complex integument consisting of cuticle, simple epithelial, layer of connective tissue, layer of reflecting cells (iridiocytes), and thicker layer of CT - Arthropods have the most complex of invertebrate integuments o For protection and skeletal support Procuticle inner Composed of protein and chitin Epicuticle outer Nonchitous complex of protein and lipids

With blood vessels, collagenous fibers, nerves, pigment cells, fat cells, and fibroblasts Support ,cushion and nourish epidermis Macrophages and lymphocytes provide the first line of defense

Dermal derivatives - Scales of fish, antlers, horn, caracase of turtle, armadelum - Antlers of the deer shed velvet during the breeding system o Velvet covering of highly vascular soft skin Similarity of structure of integumentary derivatives - Claw, horn, beak - All are built of similar combinations of epidermal (keratinized) and dermal components Hairs - Epidermal growth that fxn in protection - Shaft, root, follicle - Sebaceous glands, arrector pili muscle, and hair root plexus (touch) Nails - Plates of highly packed, keratinized cells - Protection, scratching, and manipulation - Formed by cells in the nail bed called the matrix (in area of lunula) o White because of the concentration of cells - 1 mm/wk - Eponychium cuticle Skin glands - Sebaceous (oil) glands - Usually connected to the hair follicles - Fats, cholesterol, proteins, salts, and cell debris - Moistens hair and skin and waterproofs skin - Blackheads are oxidized sebum Sweat (sudoriferous glands) 1. Eccrine sweat glands o H2O, salt, wastes o Hairless regions, scattered over body o Fxn: to cool the body 2. Apocrine sweat glands o Larger o Associated with hair follicles o More viscous fatty acids and proteins o Restricted to axillae, breasts, prepuce, scrotum, external auditory canals o Odor occurs when broken down by bacteria Propionic acid

ANIMAL COLORATION - Vivid and dramatic when serving as important recognition marks or warning coloration - Subdued or cryptic when used for camouflage - Aposematic coloration o Poisonous o Warning coloration to advertize noxious qualities 1. Structural color o Produced by the physical structure of the surface tissue; tissue reflects certain light wavelengths and eliminates others o Phase interference effects of the microscopic structure of feathers o Different response depending on the direction or directionality illuminating o Ex. Butterflies and some fishes Color due to pigments o Biochromes (pigments) o Reflect light rays o Chromatophores/pigment cells Melanophores/melanocytes Melanin black Xantophores Caroteniod red/yellow Iridiophores Crystals of purine silvery/metallic

Muscular Hydrostats - Like hydrostatic skeletons, these work because they are comprised of incompressible tissues that remain at constant volume - Muscles arranged in complex patterns - No body fluid, only muscles - Ex. Tentacles, elephants trunk 2. Rigid skeletons o Consists of rigid elements o Usually jointed o Muscle attachment o Two principal types Exoskeleton Endoskeleton

areas deposit of Ca salts around strandlike remnants of the cartilatge o Intramembranous bone Develop directly from sheets of embryonic cells Dermal bone type of intramem. bone Cranial, facial, clavicle Accdng to density: o Cancellous or spongy bone Have irregular spaces Can still provide strength o Compact bone - dense Medullary Cavity filled with yellow bone marrow (fat storage) Spongy filled with red bone marrow

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A. Exoskeleton external skeleton - Molluscs composed of calcium carbonate - Arthropods composed of chitin, a polysaccharide similar to cellulose - Protection and locomotion B. Endoskeleton internal - Echinoderm and vertebrates - Mineralized bone and cartilage - Support, protection, and reservoir of calcium and phosphorus - Grows as the animal grows o Does not limit space for internal organs o Supports greater weight Notochord - Semi-rigid supportive axial rod of protochordates and all vertebrate larvae and embryos - Composed of large vacuolated cells surrounded by elastic and fibrous sheaths - Stiffening device; preserves body shape during locomotion - Exept in jawless vertebrates, surrounded or replaced by the backbone during embryonic development Cartilage - Major skeletal element of some vertebrates - Soft pliable tissue that resists compression - Jawless vertebrates and elasmobranchs have purely cartilaginous skeletons - No blood vessels Bone - Living tissue having significant deposits of calcium salts in the extracellular matrix - Highly vascular - Accdng to origin: o Endochondrial or replacement bone Originally found in cartilage Endochondral ossification Replacement of cartilage by bone Embryonic cartilage eroded osteoblasts invade honeycombed

BONE GROWTH AND RENEWAL - Cartilage structure in early development act as models for future bones - Calcium salts deposited in the matrix by cartilage cells and later by osteoblasts o Endochondral ossification Osteoclasts - Break down bone - Remove worn cells - Deposit Ca in the blood - Work with osteoblasts to heal broken bones Hormones involved: - Parathyroid hormone stimulate bone resorption o Osteoclasts o From parathyroid gland - Calcitonin inhibits bone resorption o Osteoblasts o From thyroid gland - 1.25 dihydroxyvitamin D3 maintains Ca level in the blood o Vitamin D3 Plan of the vertebrate skeleton - 2 main divisions: o Axial skeleton Skull, vertebral column, septum, ribs o Appendicular skeleton Limbs, fins, wings, pectoral and pelvic girdles Human Skeletal System - Fxns: o Supports and protects the body o Permits movement o Provides resistive foundation for muscles to act against - Bones store Ca and P ions - Certain bones produce RBC (ex. Sternum) AXIAL SKELETON Vertebral Column - Supports the head and trunk

SKELETAL SYSTEM
Fxns: - Provide rigidity to the body - Surfaces for muscle attachment - Protection for vulnerable body organs 1. Hydrostatic Skeleton Fxns: o Supports body form o Provides resistance for the contraction of muscles to act against Source: o Some organisms use their fluid-filled gastrovascular cavity o Others use their fluid-filled coelom Main type of skeleton in most cnidarians & flatworms.

Ceruminous glands - Modified sudoriferuos glands - Secrete cerumen (ear wax) Mammary glands secrete milk

Earthworms: - Setae needlelike chitinous structure of integument - Septa wall between two coelomic cavities - Longitudinal muscle - Circular muscle - The alternate contraction of the CM and LM allow the earthworm to move - They use muscles to change the shape of fluid filled compartment

Protects the spinal cord and roots of spinal nerves

Segments (from superior to interior) - Cervical neck - Thoracic chest - Lumbar small of back - Sacral sacrum/pelvic - Coccyx tailbone - Invertebral disks of fibrocartilage act as padding 33 in a young child 5 vertebrate fuse to become the sacrum 4 fuse to become the coccyx 7 cervical vertebrates 12 thoracic vertebrate 5 lumbar vertebrate

3 primary types: - Amoeboid - Ciliary and flagellar - Muscular Ameboid movement - Amebas and other unicellular forms - WBC - Embryonic mesenchyme cells - Other mobile cells Ameba: - Movement depends on actin and other regulatory proteins - Ectoplasm located in periphery o More rigid; gel-like - Endoplasm found in central areas of cytoplasm o Contains nucleus o More fluid - Pseudopod false foot - Hyaline cap - Endoplasmic stream AMEBOID MOVEMENT Consensus model to explain extension and withdrawal of pseudopodia and ameboid crawling: - Ectoplasm and endoplasm - Hyaline cap appears o Part of ectoplasm o Transparent and hardened - Endoplasm flows toward hyaline cap - Actin subunits attached to regulatory ABPs o ABPs prevent actin from polymerizing into actin microfilaments o Regulatory protein attached to actin - Endoplasm fountains out to periphery - Actin subunits released and polymerized o Bec. Of interaxn with phospholipids - Microfilaments cross linked - Ca2+ activate actin-secreting protein - Myosin associate with and pull on microfilaments o Forces endoplasm to flow towards hyaline cap CILIARY AND FLAGELLAR MOVEMENT Cilia - Minute, hairlike, motile processes - Occur in large numbers - Ciliate protistans - Found in all major groups of animals - Move organisms through aquatic movement - Propel fluids and materials across surfaces - Nasa windpipes natin Flagella - Whiplike longer - Present singly or in small nos - Occur in unicellular eukaryotes - Animal spermatozoa - Sponges o Choanocyte with flagellum

To produce water currents Both cilia and flagella have the same ultrastructure o A core of microtubules sheathed by the plasma membrane o 9 + 2 pattern 9 doublets o Flexible wheels of proteins connect outer doublets to each other and to the core Microtubule associated proteins (MAPs) o Outer doublets are connected by motor proteins o Anchored in the cell by a basal body/kinetosome o o o Axoneme 9 + 2 tube of microtubules in a flagellum/cilium Dynein arm connect doublets Operate to produce a sliding force between microtubules Radial spoke made of proteins Connect outer doublets

Kaya ayaw mag-open

Insect flight muscles (fibrillar muscle) - Wings of small flies operate at 1000 beats/sec - Limited extensibly, shorten only slightly - Direct muscles connected to wings o Not present in flies and midgets, but present in locusts and dragonflies o Contraction of this causes the downstroke movement - Indirect muscles connected to thorax o Cause wing movement by altering the shape of the thorax - Prothorax - Mesothorax Structure of Striated Model *** he talked about the parts of the muscles here. Please refer to the muscle tissue shit on p. 1 ***

Rib Cage - Protects the heart and lungs and assists breathing - Support by thoracic vertebrae - 12 pairs of ribs o True ribs Connect directly to sternum 7 pairs o False ribs Do not connect directly to sternum 5 pairs

APPENDICULAR SKELETON
Consists of: o The bones within the pectoral and pelvic girdles o The attached limbs Pectoral girdle bones of the shoulder o Anterior o Supports the arms and hands Pelvic girdle bones of the pelvis o Posterior o Supports the legs and feet

The bending of cilia and flagella is driven by the arms of a motor protein, dynein o Addition to dynein of a phosphate group from ATP and its removal causes conformation changes in the protein o Dynein arms alternately grab, move and release outer microtubules o Protein cross linked limit is sliding and force is expressed as bending

Mechanism of ciliary movement: - Dynein arms link to adjacent microtubules swivel and release in repeated cycles MT on concave side to slide outward past MT on convex side curvature of cilium increases recovery stroke: MT on opposite side slide outward Difference bet. C & F - beating patterns: - A flagellum has an undulatory movement o Force is generated parallel to the flagellums axis - Cilia move more like oars with alternating power and recovery strokes o Generate force perpendicular to cilias axis INVERTEBRATE MUSCLE Bivalve molluscan muscles - 2 kinds of fibers o Fast muscle fibers Striated, can contract rapidly Enables bivalves to snap shut its valves when disturbed Ex. Scallops o Smooth muscle Capable of slow, long-lasting contractions Adductor muscle yung naiiwan sa shell ng clam

Sliding Filament Model - Actin filaments at both ends of sarcomere o One end of each filament is attached to a Zplate at one end of the sarcomere o Other suspended in sarcoplasm - Myosin filaments in between Z-plates o Myosin filaments contain cross-bridges which pull the actin filament inward o Causes Z plates to move toward each one o Shortens sarcomere o Sarcomeres stacked together in series cause myofibers to shorten - Working muscles require ATP o Myosin breaks down ATP o Sustained exercise Requires cellular respiration Regenerates ATP Muscle innervations - Neuromuscular junction o Synaptic contact between a nerve fiber and a muscle fiber o Nerve impulses bring about the release of a neurotransmitter that crosses the synaptic cleft o Signals the muscle fiber to contract Axon: - Axon terminal - Axon branch - Synaptic vessels stores acetylcholine - Synaptic cleft thinly separates a nerve fiber and muscle fiber - Acetylcholine released when a nerve impulse or action potential reaches a synapse o Diffuses across the synaptic cleft and acts on the scarcolemma to generate an electrical depolarization. - Synapse special chemical bridge that couples together the electrical act. Of nerve & muscle fibers

Classification of Joints - Fibrous joints o Immovable o Between cranial bones - Cartilaginous joints o Slightly movable o Between vertebrae - Synovial joints o Freely movable o Bones separated by a cavity - Ligaments bind bones together at a joint

MOVEMENT
Contractile proteins change their form to relax or contract o Actomyosin system

How does a muscle contract? 1. Action potential sarcolemma sarcoplasmic reticulum (thru t-tubules) 2. Ca ions released bind to troponin torponin and tropomyosin move away from the active site myosin x-bridges bind to exposed active sites 3. Myosin head swings toward the center of the sarcomere (ATP) ADP and phosphate group are released 4. Myosin heads bind to another ATP molecule myosin head is freed from the active site 5. Myosin head splits ATP energy released is retained Human muscular system - Skeletal muscles o Attached to the skeleton by cable-like fibrous CT called tendons o Arranged in antagonistic (opposite) pairs Can only contract; cannot push When 1 muscle contracts, it stretches its antagonistic partner - A muscle at rest exhibits tone (minimal contraction) - A muscle in tetany is a maximum sustained contraction Muscle performance - Slow oxidative fibers (red muscles) o For slow, sustained contractions without fatigue o Contain extensive blood supply o High density of mitochondria o Abundant stored myoglobin o Important in maintaining posture in terrestrial vertebrate - 2 kinds of fast fibers: o Fast glycolytic fiber (white) Lacks efficient blood supply Pale in color Fxn anaerobically Fatigue rapily Ex. Weightlifters, white meat o Fast oxicdative fiber Extensive blood supply High density of mitochondria and myoglobin Fxn aerobatically For rapid, sustained activities Ex. Runners Energy for contraction - ATP, immediate source of E - Glucose broken down during aerobic metabolism - Glycogen stores can supply glucose - Muscles have creatine phosphates, an E reserve - Slow and fast oxidative fibers rely heavily on glucose and O2 - Fast glycolitic fibers rely on anaerobic glycolisis - Muscles incur O2 debt during anaerobic glycolysis

Creatine P + ADP ATP + creatine Importance of tendons in E storage - KE is stored from step to step as extra elastin strain energy in tendons - Bounces along on its tendons - Uses far less E than would be required if every step relied on alternate muscle contraction and relaxation

Maxillae hold food and pass it toward the mouth Birds lack teeth Bills are often provided with serrated edges Upper bill is hooked for seizing and tearing prey Four types of teeth found in mammals: o Incisors for biting, cutting, and stripping o Canines for seizing, piercing, and tearing o Premolars for grinding and crushing o Molars for grinding an crushing An elephants tusk is a modified upper incisor Used for defense, attack and rooting A male wild boar has modified canines that are used as weapons

espohagous: peristaltic contaxn of esophageal muscles stomach 2. 3. Conduction: Esophagous Storage and Early Digestion: stomach (vertebrates); crop (insects, birds) Stomach provides initial digestion as well as storage and mixing of food with digestive juices Cardiac sphincter opens reflexively when food arrives at the stomach to allow food to enter. o Closes to prevent regurgitation back into the esophagous Churning most vigorous at the intestinal end where food is steadily released into the duodenum (1st region of small intestine) Gastric juice secreted by deep tubular glands in the stomach wall o 3 types of cells that line these glands: Goblet cells secrete mucus Chief cells secrete pepsinogen Pepsinogen precursor of pepsin, a protease (protein-splitting enzyme) that is produced from pepsinogen only in an acid medium Parietal/oxyntic cells secrete HCl Rennin milk-curdling enzyme found in the stomachs of ruminant animals o Slows movet of milk through stomach by clotting and precipitating milk proteins

DIGESTION
Dietary categories: 1. Herbivores 2. Carnivores 3. Omnivores 4. Saprophagous decaying organic matter Ex. Woodlice, deer fly, hermit beetle, red ant Feeding Adaptations - Suspension feeder sits through food particles in the water o Coprophagy consume food pellets Rabbits, hares o Bivalve molluscs use their gills as feeding devices as well as for respiration. Water currents created by cilia on the gills carry food particles into the incurrent siphon and between slits in the gills where they are entangled in a mucous sheet covering the gill surface. Ciliated food grooves then transport the particles to the mouth. o Herring and other suspension-feeding fishes use gill rakers that project forward from the gill arches into the pharyngeal cavity to strain plankton. Herring swim almost constantly, forcing water and suspended food into their mouth; food is strained by their gill rakers and water passes through the gill openings - Deposit feeder eats its way through dirt or sediments and extract partially decayed organic material consumed along with the soil or sediments o Ex. earthworm - Substrate feeder lives in or on its food source, eating its way through the food o Ex. Leaf miners - Fluid feeder sucks nutrient rich fluids from a living host and is considered a parasite. o Ex. Mosquito - Bulk feeder - eats relatively large pieces of food o Ex. Python Cephalopod molluscs have beak-like jaws which serve as tearing devices Chewing mouthparts adapted for seizing and crushing food Mandibles are strong, toothed plates whose edges can bite or tear

Types of Digestive System 1. Incomplete there is only one opening; no anus 2. Complete there is a mouth opening and an anus Four main stages of food processing 1. Ingestion the act of eating 2. Digestion breaking down food into molecules small enough for the body to absorb 3. Absorption small molecules are taken in by the animals cells 4. Elimination undigested material passes out of the digestive compartment Digestion is entirely intracellular in protozoa and sponges Radiates, tubellarian flatworms, and ribbon worms practice both intracellular and extracellular digestion In extracellular digestion, certain cells lining the lumen of alimentary canals form digestive secretions, other cells fxn in absorption For arthropods and vertebrates digestion is almost entirely extracellular

4. Grinding: gizzard (birds), proventiculus (insects) - Gizzard assisted by stones and grit swallowed along w/ food 5. Terminal digestion and absorption: small intestine (vertebrates), midgut (insects) Increase absorptive surface of gut increase length Villi minute fingerlink projections o give the inner surface of fresh intestinal tissue the appearance of velvelt o birds and mammals Microvilli lines each cell in the intestinal cavity Pyloric sphincter - regulates flow of food into the intestine (duodenum) and prevents regurgitation into the stomach o Relaxes at intervals to allow entry of acidic stomach contents Two secretions in this region: o Pancreatic juice o Bile Collects in the gallbladder Releases bile when stimulated by the presence of fatty food in the duodenum Water, bile salts, pigments, no enzymes Bile salts essential for digestion of fats Reduce surface tension of fat globules intestine breaks fat into tiny droplets

Gut movement - Alternate constriction of rings of smooth muscle of the intestine - Constantly divide and squeeze contents back and forth - For mixing of food Waves of contraxn of circular muscle behind the gut and relaxation in front of bolus Sweeps food down the gut

1. Reception: mouth parts; salivary glands - Amylase beings hydrolysis of plant and animal starches o Found only in certain herbivorous moluscs, some insects, and in primate animals o Breaks into two-glucose fragments (maltose) - Tongue pushes moistened food toward the pharynx nasal cavity closes reflexively by raising the soft alate as food slides into pharynx, epiglottis tips down over the trachea, nearly closing it

Bile pigments produce the yellow-green color Also give feces its characteristic color Liver produces bile Both have high bicarbonate content, which effectively neutralizes gastric acid Raises pH of liquefied food mass (chyme)

6.

Water absorption, concentration of solids: large intestine (vertebrates); hindgut (insects)

Escherichia coli - one of the most common inhabitants of the human colon o Many coon bacteria generate gases, including methane and hydrogen sulfide o Some bacteria produce vitamins, including biotin, folic acid, vitamin K, and several B vitamins, which supplement our dietary intake of vitamins ** helicobacter pylori secretes toxins causing inflammation of the stomachs lining The terminal portion of the colon is called the rectum, where feces are stored until they can be eliminated o Between the rectum and the anus are two sphincters; one involuntary and one voluntary o Once or more each day, strong contractions of the colon create an urge to defecate

Leptin (adipose tissue) o Suppresses appetite PYY (small intestine) o After meals o Appetite suppressant; counters ghrelin Insulin (pancreas) o a rise in blood sugar level after a meal o suppresses appetite by acting on the brain animals require 20 amino acids to make proteins Essential amino acids must be obtained from food in prefabricated form o Adult humans: Phenylalanine Lysine Isoleucine Leucine Valine Methionine Tryptophan Threonine o Histidine and arginine essential for normal growth of children Protein deficiency from a vegetarian diet can be avoided by eating a combination of plant foods that complement each other to supply all essential amino acids Vitamins are organic molecules required in the diet in small quantities 13 vitamins essential to humans have been identified Water-soluble vitamins generally fxn as co-enzymes Minerals are simple inorganic nutrients, usually reqd in small amts o Humans and other vertebrates require large quantities of Ca and P for the construction and maintenance of bone o Iron component of the cytochromes and of hemoglobin o Na, K, Cl major influence on the osmotic balance bet cells and the interstitial fluids, but excess consumption of salt (NaCl) is harmful

Respiratory Organs - Cutaneous respiration (direct diffusion) - Tracheal systems (branching system of tubes) - Gills or branchia (external/internal) How a fish ventilates its gills Conutercurrent flow/exchange Respiratory Organs - Lungs (invaginations) o Positive pressure breathing Frog o Negative pressure breathing Mammals The volume of air an animal inhales and exhales with each breath is called tidal volume o It averages about 500 mL in resting humans The max tidal volume during forced breathing is the vital capacity, wc is about 3.4 L and 4.8 L for college-age F and M, respectively Most animals transport most of the O2 bound to special proteins called respiratory pigments o Hemocyanin o Hemoglobin When the control center registers a slight drop in pH, it increases the depth and rate of breathing, and the excess CO2 is eliminated in exhaled air

** malphigian tubules excretory organs ** cecum

Region Salivary glands Stomach Secretion Saliva Gastric juice pH 6.5 1.5 Composition Amylase Bicarbonate Pepsinogen HCl Rennin in ruminant mammals Bile salts and pigments Cholesterol Trypsin, chymotrypsin, carboxypeptidase, lipase, amylase, nucleases, bicarbonate Aminopeptidase Maltase Lactase Sucrose Alkaline phosphatase

Liver and gallbladder Pancreas

Bile Pancreatic juice

7-8 7-8

Regulation of digestion - The length of the vertebrate digestive system is also correlated with diet - The most elaborate adaptations for a herbivorous diet have evolved in the ruminants, which include deer, cattle, and sheep - The human body regulates the use and storage of glucose, a major cellular fuel Nutritional Requirements - A nutritionally adequate diet satisfies three needs: o Fuel (chemical energy) for all the cellular work of the body o Organic raw materials animals use in biosynthesis (carbon skeletons to make many of their own molecules) o Essential nutrients - If the diet of a person, or other animal is chronically deficient in calories, undernourishment results - An animal whose diet is missing one or more essential nutrients is said to be malnourished - Marasmus, general undernourishment froma diet low in both calories and protein - Kwashiorkor, a protein malnourishment from a diet adequate in calories but deficient in protein - Overnourishment or obesity results from excessive food intake In mammals, a hormone called leptin, produced by adipose cells, is a key player in a complex feedback mechanism regulating fat and storage use. o High leptin level cues the brain to depress appetite and to inc energy-consuming muscular activity and body-heat production o Loss of body fat decreases leptin levels in the blood, signaling the brain to increase appetite and weight gain.

Small intestine

Membrane enzymes

7-8

Trypsin, chymotrypsin, and carboxypeptidase are secreted in inactive form by the pancreas o The intestinal enzyme, enteropeptidase converts inactive trypsinogen into active trypsin o Active trypsin then activates the other two Disaccharidases split 12-carbon sugar molecules into 6-carbon units o Maltase, sucrose, lactase Chylomicrons fatty acids + protein + cholesterol lacteal The colon recovers water that has entered the alimentary canal as the solvent to various digestive juices o 7 L of fluid are secreted into the lumen of the digestive tract each day o 90% of water is reabsorbed mostly in the small intestine, the rest in the colon o The feces become more solid as they are moved along the colon by peristalsis o It takes 12 to 24 hours for material to travel the length of the colon o Diarrhea results if insufficient water is absorbed and constipation if too much water is absorbed The large intestine harbors a rich flora of mostly harmless bacteria

3 types of neurons: 1. Motor/efferent 2. Sensory/afferent 3. Interneuron O2 diffuses into pulmonary capillaries Most O2 combines w/ hemoglobin in RBC to form oxyhemoglobin Co2 diffuses out of pulmonary capillaries Most CO2 is transported in the form of bicarbonate ion Some CO2 combines with hemoglobin to form carbaminohemoglobin Cooperative O2 binding and release is evident in the dissociation curve for hemoglobin A drop in pH lowers the affinity of hemoglobin for O2, an effect called the Bohr shift

GAS EXCHANGE Cellular respiration oxidative processes within cells External respiration exchange of O2 and CO2 between the organism and its env

Appetite-regulating hormones - Ghrelin (stomach wall) o Triggers feelings of hunger as mealtimes approach

Gas Exchange Surfaces - For diffusion to be effective, gas-exchange regions must be: o Moist o Thin o Relatively large - Effectiveness of diffusion is enhanced by vascularization