NRC-TR-Z00T-003 Copyright Z006 Nokia

kesearch Center
NRC-TR-Z00T-003






Lmpty Seats TraveIing
Next-generation ridesharing and its potentiaI to mitigate trallic- and emission
probIems in the ZT
st
century

Stephan hartwig, Nokia TP [stephan.hartwig@nokia.com]
Hichael Buchmann, NRC
Nokia Research Center Bochum
http:[[research.nokia.com
February J4
th
Z00T





Abstract:
There are 500+ Hillion privately owned passenger cars worldwide, thereoI Z36 Hillion in the US. These cars travel in
the magnitude oI 5 Trillion km per year. Let's assume Z empty seats per car and a small hypothetical value oI only
5 cent per km and seat, the potential value oI empty traveling seats amounts to 500 billion . This memo explores
how mobile communication services can cross-link supply and demand oI these empty seats. [Executive Summary
at the end oI this paper]


Index Terms:
dynamic ridesharing, instant ridesharing, ad-hoc ridesharing, carpool, peak-oil, Ileet management, C0Z emissions,
climate change
NRC-TR-Z00T-003 Copyright Z006 Nokia

1INJ00uLJI0N
As nenber of Lhe nobile infornaLion socieLy you connonly
sLruqqle wiLh Lwo roblens: !ravelinq and connunicaLion.
!hese Lechnoloqies had and have siqnificanL inacL on each
oLher. Peole's desire Lo connunicaLe while Lravelinq
(esecially drivinq} creaLed Lhe nobile hone business. Since
recenLly, off-board naviqaLion services assisLs Lravel. !here is
also coneLiLion beLween connunicaLion- and LransorL
indusLries, as you nake calls Lo avoid Lravelinq or you Lravel
Lo avoid nakinq calls. 8uL inaqine, you could use your hone
as a neans of LransorL. 0k, your hone does noL have winqs
or wheels, buL lease consider Lwo sinle use cases:
1. call a !axi,
2. call sonebody Lo share a ride LhaL is done anyhow.
8oLh use cases look sinilar, as you use your hone Lo arranqe
a Lri. !he inorLanL difference beLween 1. and 2. is LhaL in
Lhe second exanle, connunicaLion does noL |usL Lriqqer a
service, buL iL creaLes a value in Lerns of a LransorL
oorLuniLy wiLhouL Lhe Lyical exenses for fuel, road usaqe,
car, environnenL, eLc. See iL like Lhis: in 1. iL is Lhe !axi which
qeLs you sonewhere, in 2. iL is connunicaLion. !his is a very
sinlisLic exanle, buL leL's assune, a nobile service would
broker enLy seaLs beLween drivers and cusLoners, you even
nay be LenLed Lo crediL your hone for Lhe LransorL as
oLhers crediL Lheir car. A conany nakinq noney on nobile
connunicaLion should becone inLeresLed in use cases of Lye
2, called ride sharinq.
bsinq a rivaLe car is Lhe nosL convenienL way for door Lo
door LransorL. PrivaLe LransorL was one of Lhe key drivers of
osLwar econonical qrowLh, buL aL Lhe sane Line iL caused
na|or roblens for environnenL, socieLy and, yes, econony.
Sone facLs1:
As of 2006 Lhere were abouL 600+ nillion cars worldwide
(0.074 er caiLa}, of which 28 nillion are locaLed in Lhe
bniLed SLaLes (0.76 er caiLa} j1jj2j. !he bS averaqe yearly
assenqer car nileaqe is 11.260knjyear j4j and in 6ernany
18.00knjyear (1,78io Knjday, 46Mio cars} j86j.
!he aved sLreeL- and hiqhway nileaqe in Lhe bS increased
since 1080 only by 8% while hiqhway Lraffic increased by
48% j8j. !oLal sLreeL Lraffic increase for Lhe lasL Lwo decades
was even reorLed 7% j6j. !he averaqe eriod eole qoL
sLuck in Lraffic |ans in Lhe bS increased fron 11h Lo 8 hours
er year fron 1080 Lo 1000. ln LhaL year, Lhe cunulaLive cosL
due Lo conqesLions was esLinaLed over $78 billion in Lhe
larqesL 8 urban areas j6j. SLaLisLics for 2006 j6j indicaLe
1088$ (er caiLa} averaqe annual cosL for conqesLion in Lhe
very larqe urban bS areas (>8Mio oulaLion}. !hese cosLs
include only qas and Line, buL no environnenLal cosLs. Even
Lhouqh fuel efficiency inroved, Lhe LoLal consunLion
consLanLly increased by abouL 2% each year j7j.
Passenqer cars are by far Lhe biqqesL sinqle consuner of
eLroleun and Lhus roducer of C02. PrivaLe LransorL in Lhe

1
lL is difficulL Lo qeL qlobal fiqures on LransorL sLaLisLics, buL Lhere is a loL
infornaLion available on naLional LransorL nainly fron qovernnenL aqes.
bS consunes abouL 48% (assenqer cars and liqhL Lrucks, like
Sbvs and ickus} and LransorL as a whole consunes 6%
of LoLal bS crude oil consunLion j0j.

Fiqure 1. 0il consunLion by secLor in Lhe bS, 1078-2008 j0j
Personal LransorL is exLrenely wasLeful conared Lo alnosL
all oLher LransorL neans. 0ne reason for Lhis is LhaL nosL
cars are occuied by |usL one or Lwo eole. Averaqe car
occuancy in Lhe bK is reorLed Lo be 1.60 ersonsjcar; 1.2
for connuLers and 2.1 for holiday Lris j8j. For 6ernany Lhe
connuLer occuancy is even only 1.06 j88j. !he enLy seaLs
of Lhose cars consLiLuLe a oLenLial value. !hese seaLs do
Lravel and are already aid for.
!here are quiLe nany rofiL and non-rofiL orqanizaLions j84j
which suorL car oolinq, buL wiLhouL any siqnificanL inacL
on overall car occuancy. !he exisLinq services allow
convenienL Lri arranqenenLs over Lhe inLerneL, suorL LrusL
buildinq beLween reqisLered users, and Lhey inlenenL billinq
sysLens Lo charqe assenqers and conensaLe drivers. !here
are a few facLors liniLinq Lhe success of Lhese orqanizaLions.
FirsLly, Lri arranqenenLs are noL really ad-hoc. Peole qoL
used Lo flexible workinq hours and insLanL availabiliLy of
LransorL neans in Lerns of Lheir own car. WiLh exisLinq
ridesharinq services iL is |usL inossible Lo sonLaneously
arranqe Lris Lo head hone fron work or Lo drive shoinq.
Secondly, eole are noL widely encouraqed Lo racLice car
oolinq, e.q. by local qovernnenLs or enloyers.
8oLh roblens can be solved. Makinq Lri arranqenenLs nore
flexible and ad-hoc is "|usL" a connunicaLion roblen. !here
are also qood reasons Lo believe, LhaL Lhe second roblen can
be solved once a Lechnical soluLion for insLanL ridesharinq is
found. ln facL, Lhere are a few isolaLed buL qood exanles
where caroolinq has increased siqnificanLly afLer local
qovernnenLs and larqe enloyers inLroduced connuLer
financial incenLives, Lax laws and Lraffic requlaLions favorinq
carools j16jj1jj17j. JusL Lo nenLion a few
ln San Francisco Lhere are several carool ick-u zones
close Lo LransiL bus sLos, where drivers ick u
assenqers. !his enLiLles Lhen Lo use Lhe Loll free R0v
(Riqh 0ccuancy vehicle} byass lanes. 0rivers save Line
and assenqers save noney. 8000-10.000 eole use Lhis
oorLuniLy on a casual basis. R0v lanes are oular in
nany bS ciLies.
NRC-TR-Z00T-003 Copyright Z006 Nokia
arkinq cash ouL: Enloyees who connuLe by car
Lyically use a free arkinq soL rovided by Lheir
enloyer. Sone Enloyers cash ouL Lhe equivalenL value
of Lhis free arkinq Lo enloyees which do caroolinq or
use ublic LransorL. Sane or sinilar connuLe Lri
reducLion (C!P} roqrans are even nandaLory, for
exanle, in 0reqon and WashinqLon SLaLe for all
conanies wiLh nore Lhan 60 or100 enloyees,
resecLively. Conanies failinq Lo inlenenL C!P nay be
fined.
!he bK conany car Lax reforn of 2002 based Lhe car Lax
on Lhe C02 enissions of Lhe arLicular car Lye. !he
revious Lax law decreased Lax wiLh increasinq nileaqe,
Lhus subsidizinq eole who drive nore.
Sone ciLies inLroduced a ciLy Lax Lo encouraqe eole Lo
use ublic LransorL or share rides (e.q. London,
SLockholn}. Sinilarly, ciLies could decide Lo enforce car
oolinq, as recenLly haened in hY because of sLrike in
ublic LransorL.
!here is a qood reason Lo consider car-oolinq as a qood
conlenenL Lo ublic LransorL:
lnnovaLive LransorL conceLs are worldwide considered a
indicaLor of a counLries econonic develonenL and
roqressiveness. lnsLanL ride sharinq is an innovaLive
LransorL conceL.
SeaLs in ublic LransorL vehicles are nuch nore
exensive and fares have Lo be subsidized by 70% and
nore j8j Lo kee u service. CiLies nusL consLanLly
invesL in nainLenance and renewal of Lheir ublic
LransorL faciliLies, which are arLly in disasLrous
condiLion. bnforLunaLely, nany connuniLies failed Lo
creaLe financial reserves for Lhese exenses Lhis in Lhe
asL years.
Even durinq rush-hour Lraffic, assenqer occuancy is low
in connuLer cars buL hiqh in ublic LransorL.
Finally, Lhere are several enission laws in effecL LhaL nay
finally force qovernnenLs Lo reduce Lraffic. ln 6ernany
and suosedly also oLher counLries, sone sLreeLs have
been enLirely closed Lo fulfill Lhe new Eb requlaLion on
Lhe enission of sooL arLicles. AfLer Lhe raLificaLion of
Pussia, Lhe KyoLo ProLocol is now in effecL since Lhe 1-
feb-2006, buL nosL siqnaLory sLaLes will noL be able Lo
achieve Lhe conniLLed reducLions in C02 enissions unLil
2012. 6overnnenLs are now forced Lo find oLions wiLh
nininal inacL on naLional econony. Pide sharinq is such
an oLion. ln facL, iL nay have a osiLive inacL Lo
econony due Lo Lhe facL LhaL Lhe savinqs are fed back
inLo Lhe econony.
8uL leLs sLick Lo Lhe connunicaLion roblen firsL. !he
followinq chaLer skeLches a user scenario, how a fuLure ride
sharinq exerience nay look like.

2h0NLY, Y0u MAY JAkL JhL LA, I
JAkL JhL Ph0NL
!he followinq user narraLive skeLches one norninq in a life of
several connuLers, usinq nodern connunicaLion Lo arranqe
Lris.
"0c ycv to|c t|c cor cr t|c rcbi|c t|is rcrrir", Jcrry co||cJ
Ircr t|c |itc|cr. "||| to|c t|c j|crc, orJ Jcr't Icrct tc Ii||
vj", 1cr rcj|icJ. "W|y Jc ycv o|woys |covc t|c cor Icr rc
w|cr its crjty", Jcrry ccrj|oircJ, bvt 1cr o|rcoJy |cIt. |c
JiJr't Icc| vi|ty, |is j|crc's bottcry o|sc rccJcJ c|orir
Ircr tirc tc tirc. |c wo||cJ o Icw rctcrs orJ rcoc|cJ t|c
roir rcoJ. W|i|c wo||ir, |c sc|cctcJ "trorsjcrt scrviccs /
sc|cct stort orJ Jcstiroticr" Ircr t|c roir rcrv cI t|c riJc-
s|orir Jovo ojj|icoticr. /Itcr ovt|crticoticr, |c sc|cctcJ
stortir jcirt orJ Jcstiroticr Ircr |is oJJrcss bcc|. "| s|cv|J
ct o j|crc wit| 6PS, t|cr | cr|y |ovc tc crtcr Jcstiroticr",
corc irtc |is rirJ, bvt Icr rcw |is c|J, jovo crob|cJ j|crc,
JiJ t|c jcb.
/t t|c vcry sorc rcrcrt |crrorr, cr |is woy tc or
ojjcirtrcrt, |corJ o rctiIicoticr Ircr |is srortj|crc.
"Posscrcr jic|vj, ir twc |vrJrcJ rctcrs . |vrJrcJ rctcrs .
stcj cr t|c ri|t". |crror stcjjcJ orJ 1cr ojjrcoc|cJ t|c
cor. W|cr 1cr wos obcvt 8 rctcrs c|csc, t|c rovi ojj|icoticr
Jisj|oycJ ". ccrrcctir . ovt|crticotc josscrcr." orJ
svbscjvcrt|y j|oycJ o s|crt tvrc tc rctiIy svcccssIv| crtry-
ovt|crizoticr cI t|c josscrcr. 1cr's |orc orJ jictvrc
ojjcorcJ cr t|c Jisj|oy cI |crrorr's j|crc, w|ic| wos
ccrrcctcJ tc o 8|vctcct| 6PS rcvsc stvc| cr t|c Jos|bcorJ
bc|irJ t|c wirJscrccr. |is rcxt j|crc wcv|J |ovc or irbvi|t
6PS, bvt |is c|J srortj|crc sti|| JiJ its jcb.
1cr crtcrcJ t|c cor.
"|cy, | bct, |vc bccr ir t|is cor bcIcrc".
"Wc||, ccv|J bc t|ot ry wiIc Jrcvc ycv |ost tirc, | |cjc ycv orc
rct JisojjcirtcJ". 8ct| |ov|cJ. |r Ioct, t|is riJc s|orir
scrvicc |os bcccrc vcry jcjv|or orJ it jvst rorc|y |ojjcrcJ
t|ot t|c sorc cor stcjjcJ twicc.
"1|is is o vcry ricc crc", 1cr soiJ, orJ irJccJ, |crrorrs cor
sccrcJ tc bc cvcryt|ir bvt ircxjcrsivc. "Wc||, vsvo||y, |
ccv|J rct oIIcrJ svc| o cor", |crrorr rcror|cJ, "bvt rcst cI
t|c tirc ry j|crc IirJs rc crc cr twc josscrcrs cr ry woy
tc wcr|. 1|ot ccvcrs rcst cI t|c ccsts. /rJ cr t|c corjcc|
|orc, |r cvcr Iostcr". /Itcr 5 rirvtcs - |crrorr orJ 1cr
wcrc obscrbcJ ir o c|ot - t|c rovioticr ojj|icoticr os|cJ tc
jic| vj orct|cr josscrcr orJ oItcr orct|cr 8 rirvtcs it
irstrvctcJ 1cr tc c|orc cors Icr |is Iiro| Jcstiroticr.
1cr woitcJ Icr |css t|or 1 rirvtc orJ orct|cr cor stcjjcJ
orJ tcc| |ir tc wcr|.
W|cr stcjjir cvt cI t|c cor t|c ccst svrrory wos Jisj|oycJ
cr |is j|crc. |is tc|cj|crc rvrbcr wos c|orcJ 2,76 -
irc|vJir scrvicc Icc. 1|is ycor t|c cvcrrrcrt JcciJcJ tc
ro|c riJcs|orir irccrc orJ cxjcrscs tox JcJvctib|c, sircc
t|c sovir ir rcoJ roirtcrorcc, ccrcsticr ccsts, ctc o|rcoJy
NRC-TR-Z00T-003 Copyright Z006 Nokia
|oJ o rcosvrob|c, jcsitivc irjoct cr roticro| cccrcry orJ
crvircrrcrt.
0r |is wcr| tc t|c roir crtrorcc, |is cc||covc 1iro
ojjrcoc|cJ.
"|i 1iro, rcw |oircvt?"
"|c, bvt o ricc ycvr ror ir o ccrvcrtib|c jic|cJ rc vj t|is
rcrrir", 1iro rcror|cJ.
"ricc? |cw ricc?"
"wc||, vcry, vcry ricc", s|c soiJ wit| o si|.
"scvrJs scricvs. |orc, oJJrcss, .?"
"rc, bvt | bcorcJ ry bvsircss corJ tc |is j|crc"
"wc|| Jcrc"
Sone observaLions:
8oLh !on and Rernann are subscribed and connecL Lo a ride-
sharinq nobile service. !hey access Lhe service wiLh Loday's
hones, buL Rernann's naviqaLion sofLware seanlessly
inLeqraLes Lhe clienL for Lhe ride sharinq service. !on even
only has a sinle hone wiLh |ava APl and runs Lhe assenqer
clienL as a |ava alicaLion. 8oLh hones use shorL ranqe
connecLiviLy (e.q. 8lueLooLh} Lo nanaqe enLry-auLhenLicaLion.
Rernan does noL do any deLour when ickinq u assenqers.
!hese assenqers |usL share a fracLion of Rernann's defaulL
rouLe, which earns hin noney. Ris naviqaLion SW is oeraLed
exacLly like a reqular naviqaLion clienL. lL |usL had an oLion
Lo swiLch ride sharinq on or off. !on ays Rernann and Lhe
service rovider. ln Lhis arLicular exanle, !on had Lo
chanqe cars Lo reach his final desLinaLion.
Finally, ride sharinq aears Lo be a osiLive social exerience,
aL leasL Lo !ina.

Fiqure 2. 0uLline of an insLanL ride sharinq service
Please reqard Lhis sLory as an aeLizinq vision LhaL has noL
enerqed fron any sound requirenenL- and usabiliLy sLudy.
You could Lell oLher, equivalenL user narraLives, requirinq a
differenL Lechnical inlenenLaLion. Peqardinq Lhe value
chain, Lhere are also nany equivalenL oLions. 0eraLors
could run boLh Lhe service and billinq laLforn. AlLernaLively,
brokerinq of enLy seaLs could be acconlished by nicro-
aucLions in e8ay while Lhe dynanic naviqaLion laLforn is
run by via-Michelin. 0ne inLeresLinq conclusion fron Lhis
arLicular scenario is LhaL iL adniLLedly consLiLuLes an
enqineerinq challenqe, buL we don'L Lalk abouL rockeL science.
!he sysLen |usL snarLly conbines exisLinq, well undersLood
Lechnoloqies around real-Line connunicaLion and
naviqaLion.
ln order Lo derive neaninqful requirenenLs, iL is an
inLeresLinq exercise Lo idenLify Lhe obsLacles and success
facLors of such kind of services and conare iL Lo Lhe sLaLe of
Lhe arL.

808SJALLLS AN0 SuLLLSS FALJ0S
L0LLLLJL0
!he idea of ride sharinq is noL new and, as already nenLioned,
you find lenLy connercial as non rofiL services. Many
eole have an innediaLe idea of why ride sharinq - also in
Lhe above scenario - will sLay a niche Lye of LransorL. While
sone arqunenLs are hard Lo disrove, sone can be. CollecLinq
Lhese arqunenLs hels Lo idenLify Lhe requirenenLs for a
successful ride sharinq service.
,| Jcrt |i|c strorcrs ir ry cor"
SecuriLy and LrusL are anonq Lhe nosL inorLanL success
facLors for ride sharinq services. Such service should only be
available Lo subscribed cusLoners and Lhere should be a
LrusLworLhy, yeL non-obLrusive sysLen for assenqer and
driver auLhenLicaLion. And, as already connon in lnLerneL
sales, Lhere should be a driver and assenqer raLinq sysLen.
8esides LrusL and securiLy asecLs, nany eole feel
unconforLable Lo sacrifice Lheir rivacy. !his concern is
difficulL Lo address and nay only be overruled by oLher
advanLaqes, as exLra incone, usaqe of carool lanes, eLc.

,| Jcrt |i|c |itc||i|ir. Ycv rcvcr |rcw w|ct|cr scrcbcJy
jic|s ycv vj orJ ycv cort trvst jccj|c. | cor oIIcrJ ry cwr
cor"
!hese arqunenLs are Lhe nosL oular fron assenqer
ersecLive. lL is arLly addressed by Lhe subscriLion and
auLhenLicaLion neans addressed above. !he addiLional
challenqe is Lo qeL rid of Lhe bad hiLchhikinq inaqe, where
oor and younq eole aly for a free ride. A ride sharinq
service will have Lo roclain a business relaLionshi beLween
eers raLher Lhan soliciLaLion. Pide sharinq shall no lonqer be
a quesLion of wheLher or noL you can afford your own car,
buL raLher a cosL-benefiL consideraLion.
Moreover, Lhe sysLen has Lo quaranLee and neasure a qualiLy
of service, which will be difficulL Lo kee aL reasonable levels
across sace and Line wiLhouL conlenenLary LransorL, like
ublic LransorL and Laxis.

/rrorir s|orcJ riJcs is tcc ccrj|icotcJ. | |ovc I|cxib|c wcr|
|cvrs, | rcvcr |rcw w|cr | |covc |crc cr wcr|.
WiLh exisLinq ride sharinq services, Lris usually have Lo be
arranqed aL leasL one day in advance and are Lhus noL suiLed
for connuLers. Secial naLchfindinq services for connunLers
LreaL Lri arranqenenLs as fixed, recurrenL aoinLnenLs noL
NRC-TR-Z00T-003 Copyright Z006 Nokia
Lakinq inLo accounL flexible workinq hours. !his is whaL
insLanL ride sharinq can and nusL overcone.

,Pccj|c Jcr't c|orc t|cir |obits Icr t|c bcrcIit cI t|c
crvircrrcrt"
lnLeresLinqly, Lhis sLaLenenL was heard nany Lines, buL is
raLher irrelevanL, because if Lhe service is a business case, Lhe
benefiL for Lhe environnenL cones a side effecL and noL as a
service enabler. lf ride sharinq is no business case,
environnenLal benefiLs will noL hel eiLher. SnarLly
connunicaLinq Lhe environnenLal benefiLs nay noL hurL,
Lhouqh.
lL is a differenL sLory when ublic adninisLraLion enforces
resLricLions on Lraffic, like Lhe inLroducLion of car ool lanes,
or drivinq bans enforced by law due Lo enission laws or Lo
avoid conqesLions. Fron an environnenLal viewoinL, ride
sharinq will raLher arise fron ublic incenLives and
requlaLions, Lhan by eoles will Lo chanqe Lheir lifesLyle for
a beLLer world. As nenLioned before: where such requlaLions
are in effecL, ride sharinq is already connonly racLiced.
Finally, innovaLive LransorL conceLs are worldwide
considered an indicaLor of a counLries econonic
develonenL and roqressiveness and conLribuLe Lo a osiLive
idenLificaLion of eole wiLh Lheir reqion. 0ynanic ride
sharinq service is an innovaLive nobiliLy conceL, sane as
subways and sky Lrains.

,Rco| scor|css, irstort riJc s|orir is o tric|y, JiIIicv|t
tcc|rc|cy"
bnLil we don'L rove Lhe oosiLe, Lhere is no evidence LhaL
such real-Line neLwork service would be overly conlex,
since nosL of iLs cononenLs, like naviqaLion, Lrackinq,
billinq, auLhenLicaLion, eLc. exisL in oLher franeworks and
"only" need Lo be conbined. Surely, iL is an enqineerinq
challenqe, buL Lhe conlexiLy is in Lhe sofLware Lo be
develoed and noL in Lhe end user hardware.
Moreover, Lhere are less conlex yeL useful insLanL ride
sharinq iloL ro|ecLs already rolled ouL Loday j84j. More
abouL Lhis laLer.

,Ycv|| rcvcr ro|c it, bccovsc t|c irIrostrvctvrc orJ svIIicicrt
Jcvicc jcjv|oticr |os tc bc ir j|occ Ircr t|c bcirrir"
!haL's a serious arqunenL, since Lhere is a nininal subscriber
oulaLion necessary Lo nake Lhis service haen. !haL's why
above user narraLive can hardly be a bluerinL for a ride
sharinq service beinq creaLed fron scraLch, even Lhouqh
feasible fron Lechnoloqy oinL of view. Such sysLen will
raLher evolve fron a Lhread of backwards conaLible services
LhaL increnenLally qrow fron exisLinq inlenenLaLions Lo
nore conlex and seanless soluLions. !he inLeqraLion of
ublic LransorL and Laxis nay lay an inorLanL role, sane
as subsidies of suiLable snarL hones for ride-sharinq
subscribers.
!he nosL inorLanL success facLor here is LhaL Lhe service
shall noL nandaLe new devices on Lhe consuner end. lL shall
raLher be builL on widely deloyed nobile conuLinq
laLforns. !oday's snarLhones already run off-board
naviqaLion clienLs. !hese sofLware alicaLions could be
nodified Lo conLain a ride sharinq oLion. For assenqers,
Java enabled low-end hones will do.

"6os is jvst tcc c|coj"
!his nay have been Lrue 8 years aqo. Ever since, Lhe oil rice
wenL u fron abouL 20$jbarrel Lo a eak of 70$jbarrel in
2006. !here is no reason Lo believe LhaL Lhe rice will sLay aL
Lhis level or decrease. lnsLead, larqe invesLnenL houses like
6oldnan and Sachs redicL rices around 106$ wiLhin a few
years j12j. !here are nore and nore sLudies ublished
indicaLinq LhaL world roducLion of crude oil is likely Lo eak
wiLhin Lhe nexL Lwo decades j0jj11j, Lhus oeninq a qa
beLween redicLed 2-8% consunLion yearly increase and a
2% yearly decrease in osL-eak roducLion
2
. !his will cause
a ernanenL enerqy crisis wiLh exlodinq rices for
eLroleun, since suly will no lonqer neeL denand. Since
Lhe early 80s, less new oil reserves are discovered Lhan oil is
consuned (fiqure 8}. PrivaLe LransorL consunes abouL 40%
of LoLal oil roducLion, so iL even could haen LhaL ride
sharinq is one of few oLions Lo kee u rivaLe LransorL
unLil a LransiLion Lo alLernaLive fuels could be acconlished.
Please noLe, LhaL a shorL Lern LransiLion Lo new, non-
conaLible fuels is difficulL and ainful noL only because of
Lechnical reasons. CurrenLly, Lhe 60% relacenenL eriod of
cars is beLween 10-16 years and Lhe corresondinq
derecaLion value only for Lhe bS anounLs Lo 1,8!rillion$.
ShorLeninq Lhe derecaLion eriod neans larqe-scale
desLrucLion of naLional roerLy j0j. And don'L execL
alLernaLive and conaLible fuels Lo be cheaer Lhan qas. lf
Lhis would be Lhe case, nore cars would already run on Lhose.

Fgurc 8. heL difference beLween annual world oil reserves
addiLions and annual consunLionj0j

"jvb|ic trorsjcrt, cor rorvIoctvrcrs orJ t|cir svjj|icrs, wi||
svIIcr Ircr t|is, orJ t|cy orc tcc jcwcrIv| tc |ct t|is sccroric
|ojjcr"

2
!his Loic is very conLroversial because reliable daLa is nissinq. !he ElA
(Enerqy lnfornaLion AdninisLraLion} of Lhe bS dearLnenL of enerqy clains
LhaL Peakoil is nore likely Lo occur aL Lhe end of Lhe 21
sL
cenLury j10j, while
oLher recenL sLudies (one neLa-sLudy funded by Lhe sane dearLnenL }
execL eakoil Lo haen beLween 2008 and 2026 j0jj11j
NRC-TR-Z00T-003 Copyright Z006 Nokia
0isruLive Lechnoloqies always creaLe winners and losers. AL
firsL qlance, car nanufacLurers could be affecLed by fewer car
sales, buL Lhe savinqs could insLead be invesLed in nore
exensive cars which drive fewer niles. Moreover, an enerqy
crisis nay be Lhe worsL disruLion for car nakers and Lhis is
niLiqaLed by any Lechnoloqy LhaL reduces eLroleun denand,
like ride sharinq does.
ln facL, ride sharinq services could endanqer Lhe exisLence of
ublic LransorL aqencies. !hese are Lyically owned (aL leasL
arLly} by connuniLy- or sLaLe qovernnenLs. 6overnnenLs
could inose severe liniLaLions on insLanL ride sharinq, since
ickinq u and droinq off assenqers aL arbiLrary laces
could require adaLaLions in road Lraffic requlaLions and even
sLrucLural neasures. Moreover, assenqer LransorL nay be
considered a Lrade and Lhus require secial ernissions. 0n
Lhe oLher hand, qovernnenLs could acLively suorL Lhe
inLroducLion of such sysLen Lhrouqh LaxaLion, enission
conLrol, car oolinq requlaLions, eLc. ln facL, Lhey do suorL
car-oolinq already Loday (see exanles lisLed in chaLer 1}.
0bviously, connuniLies are enablers, loosers and winners aL
sane Line. A ride-sharinq business will clearly benefiL fron
Lheir suorL. 8uL Lhey have Lo be confidenL LhaL Lhis is a biq
oorLuniLy for econony, environnenL, welfare and connon
idenLiLy, and LhaL Lhese benefiLs ouLweiqh disadvanLaqes for
ublic LransorL rofiLabiliLy.
LeL's draw sone conclusions:
Any ride-sharinq service nusL avoid Lhe biased inaqe of
hiLchhikinq and Lake securiLy concerns serious. lL nay be a
Lricky Lechnoloqy, buL Lhe challenqe is noL in Lhe Lechnical
inlenenLaLion, buL nore in Lhe definiLion of a aLh leadinq
fron exisLinq ride sharinq services Lo a fully auLonaLed
sysLens as Lhe one skeLched in Lhe user narraLive. Finally,
connuniLies and qovernnenLs should be involved in lanninq
and inlenenLaLion fron Lhe beqinninq.

4JhL INSJANJ I0L ShAIN0 I0L-
ShAIN0 8uSINLSS LASL
SoneLines iL is useful Lo nake a sinle nodel calculaLion,
|usL layinq wiLh assunLions and araneLers of such fuLure
service. Even if Lhis is noL based on any solid daLa, one can aL
leasL Lry Lo skeLch besL and worsL case scenarios.
LeL's say Lhe service shall be inLroduced in a larqe urban area
wiLh rouqhly 20Mio Peole, like Los Anqeles or hew York.
Moreover iL is assuned LhaL only 2% of all cars share every
6Lh ride and charqe Lhe assenqer 0.16$ er kn. !he service
roviders Lurnover would anounL 1,8 Mio$jyear. 0nce Lhe
service qeLs nore oular and finally every 6Lh car is usinq
Lhis service, Lhe service Lurnover would qrow roorLional.
Rowever, Lhe shared nileaqe nay ossible decrease as fewer
drivers find assenqers. Likewise, if eole share rides Lhey
drive less, reducinq Lhe yearly nileaqe. lf we assune LhaL
every 10Lh ride will be shared, we sLill qeL a service Lurnover
of 186 Mio$. We can safely assune LhaL Lhere is an econony
of scale in Lhis Lye of services and LhaL revenues increase
beLLer Lhan roorLional wiLh Lhe nunber of arranqed Lris.

Synbol Scenario 1 Scenario 2
Mio Peole livinq
in service area
20 20
Mio Cars (0.76 er
caiLa}
C 16 16
yearly nileaqe
driver
Y 11260 0000
Subscribers S 0.01 0.20
shared Mileaqe
er subscriber
M 0.20 0.10
Averaqe
assenqer fee j
kn
P 0.26 0.26
Service fee in %
assenqer fee
F 0.20 0.20
LoLal yearly
Lurnover j Mio $
CYSM
P
84,876 76
Service rovider's
Lurnover j Mio $
CYSM
PF
1,876 186
Yearly Lurnover
er subscriberj$
118 46
!able 1: araneLers affecLinq Lhe ridesharinq business case

5SJAJL 0F JhL AJ
As Lhe conceL of ride sharinq is raLher old, you find nany
connercial and non-rofiL services on Lhe inLerneL and Lhere
is a loL lPP. Finally, Lhere are sysLens unrelaLed Lo ride
sharinq buL inlenenLinq key Lechnoloqies needed in such
ride sharinq alicaLion.
5.1Puh|caIons
ln an old aLenL fron 1082 j18j we already find nany key
asecLs of Lhe insLanL ride sharinq user narraLive above. !he
nain difference beLween Lhis aLenL and Lhe above user
narraLive is LhaL Lhe invenLor had fixed rivaLe and ublic
Lerninals in nind while !on and Rernan are usinq nobile
hones. Moreover, inLeqraLinq assenqer ick-u and dro-
off wiLh Lhe naviqaLion bl has noL been nenLioned.
!he ublicaLion which closesL anLiciaLes !ons and Rernan's
sLory is found in a aLenL alicaLion, 2001 j14j, where Lhe
idea of naviqaLion assisLed, nulLi-ho assenqer Lris is
disclosed. ln beLween Lhose Lwo nany nore or less relaLed
aLenLs and aLenL alicaLions are found. !he earliesL
ublicaLion l found nenLioninq insLanL ridesharinq usinq
nobile hones is found in a conference aer fron 1006 j20j.
bsinq 6PS for Lrackinq and disaLchinq in conLexL of fleeL
nanaqenenL is disclosed in Lhis bS aLenL filed 100 j27j.
More oLenLially relevanL aLenLs are found here j16j-j82j.
Makinq a conrehensive lisL of relevanL ublicaLions and
inlenenLaLions is a research ro|ecL of iLs own and ouLside
NRC-TR-Z00T-003 Copyright Z006 Nokia
Lhe scoe of Lhis sLudy. lnsLanL ride-sharinq looks like an lPP
ninefield on firsL qlance, buL Lhe qood news is LhaL sone
relevanL aLenLs are already raLher old, sone even older Lhan
20 years.
5.2LxsIng rdcsharng mp|cmcnIaIons
Connercial ride sharinq services exisL aL leasL since Lhe 70s,
where you nade aoinLnenLs Lhrouqh a hunan oeraLor.
!oday, you find nany inLerneL assisLed services on Lhe
webj84j includinq insLanL ride sharinq sysLens.
An inLeresLinq ro|ecL on insLanL ride sharinq is a Lrial on Lhe
FrankfurL AirorL in 6ernany, lanned by ehoLions j88j end
of 200. !he service works like Lhis (see fiqure 4}:
When siqninq u for Lhis service on Lhe web, assenqers
and drivers secify Lheir ersonal infornaLion, qeneral
references and u Lo 8 locaLions, where nosL of Lheir
Lris beqin or end. !hese locaLions are idenLified by Lhe
nunbers 1,2,..,8. Every air of Lwo nunbers will secify
one Lri and u Lo 6 differenL Lris can be coded Lhis
way.
When sLarLinq a Lri, users call a service nunber, enLer
Lhe Lwo diqiLs of Lhe envisaqed Lri and hanq u aqain.
!here are Lwo differenL service nunbers Lo disLinquish
drivers and assenqers.
An oeraLor service will innediaLely naLch suiLable Lris
and auLonaLically esLablish a voice call beLween
naLchinq assenqers and drivers. !hese aqree on a ick-
u locaLion.
bsers confirn Lhe conleLion of Lhe Lri. 0rivers will be
conensaLed wiLh 0.076jkn, assenqers will be charqed
wiLh 0.1jkn.

!he beauLy of Lhis service is in iLs sinliciLy and robusLness.
Surely, iL is noL oLinal since iL does noL enloy locaLion
Lrackinq and nulLi-ho Lri assiqnnenLs. 8uL iL looks like a
very qood oLion Lo sLarL wiLh. ehoLions inLends Lo license
Lhis sysLen Lo ride sharinq clubs afLer successful conleLion
of Lhe FrankfurL Lrial.
A sinilar sysLen is run by Ecolane, a finnish conany residinq
in Lhe Relsinki area. lnsLead of usinq voice calls, Lhe
aoinLnenLs are arranqed by Java alicaLions, connecLinq
Lo Lhe ridenaLchinq server over cellular daLa connecLions
j87j.
Ecolane, a Finnish conany, also inlenenLed a dynanic
caroolinq sysLen j87j which was used in Lhe Easy-Pider
service in Lhe heLherlands. !his service sLarLed off in 2004 in
Lhe Schihol AirorL reqion !he service was disconLinued
afLer a while, because of low acceLance. 0ne reason was Lhe
lack ublic "incenLives" like, for exanle, carool lanes.
Ecolane also inlenenLed a denand resonsive LransiL
service (0P!S} in Lhe Relsinki area j88j. bnlike ublic
LransorL wiLh fixed schedules and bus sLos, 0P! sysLens
dynanically nanaqe fleeLs of nini busses Lo ick-u and dro
of assenqers aL any Line aL any lace. Sinilar Lo insLanL ride
sharinq, Lhese nini-busses are dynanically scheduled
accordinqly Lo (voice- or web based} assenqer requesLs wiLh
Lhe ain Lo efficienLly conbine as nany rides as ossible.
MosL connercial 0P!S services are nanaqed by hunan
oeraLors. Ecolane, however, inlenenLed a fully auLonaLed
neLwork service for Lhis urose. ln a firsL hase Lhe service
will arranqe LransorL for elder ersons and handicaed.
Rowever, Lhe sysLen can be exLended Lo include rivaLe cars,
Lhus qrowinq inLo a real dynanic ride sharinq service. !oday,
Ecolanes sysLen is oeraLinq nore Lhan 1600 Lrisjday in Lhe
Relsinki area.

NRC-TR-Z00T-003 Copyright Z006 Nokia

Fgurc 4. ehoLions sysLen ouLline


5.8scrvcc ramp-up
As dynanic ride sharinq does noL nake any sense unless
Lhe nunber of users exceeds a criLical nass, service
ran-u is Lhe LouqhesL arL of Lhe ro|ecL. !here is no
dynanic ride sharinq service exisLinq Loday so Lhere is no
exerience on success facLors and difficulLies. 8uL iL is a
qood exercise Lo consLrucL sone ossible inLroducLion
scenarios and discuss Lhe ros, cons and oLenLial iLfalls.
A few obvious oinLs:
bsers shall noL be enLirely deendenL on Lhe service
buL should be able Lo rely on a backu service, like
ublic LransorL or Laxi.
!he iniLial and Lechnical burden Lo subscribe and use
Lhe service should be as low as ossible.
ublic incenLives which favour carools will hel
siqnificanLly.
|xtcrsicr cI o 0R1 scrvicc
0P! sysLens are exisLinq Loday, esecially Lo rovide
LransiL services Lo urban areas sreadinq ouL inLo sarsely
oulaLed, rural eriheries. ln Lhese areas Lhe oeraLion
of ublic LransorL wiLh fixed sLos and schedules is
raLher unecononical, resulLinq in unaLLracLive LineLables.
0P! overcones Lhis qa already Loday, and could be used
as an enabler. ln facL, Lhe Lechnoloqy Lo run an
auLonaLed 0P! service is very sinilar Lo whaL is required
for an insLanL ride sharinq service. !he nain difference is
LhaL in dynanic ride sharinq Lhe driver is "his own
cusLoner" in LhaL he hinself is headinq Lowards a
desLinaLion, while a 0P! vehicle is only servicinq iLs
assenqers.
!he service ran in an area wiLh exisLinq 0P! would
allow rivaLe eole Lo siqn-u as 0P! vehicles whenever
a rivaLe Lri is done. lf Lhe envisaqed Lri of a rivaLe car
is naLchinq 0P! requesL, Lhis car is selecLed insLead of a
connercial 0P! vehicle.
!his aroach nay work for ciLies which have a 0P!
sysLen in lace. Rowever, for nosL urban areas Lhis is
noL Lhe case.

|xtcrsicr cI or cxistir toxi scrvicc
!axis are Lhe sinlesL, buL nosL inefficienL flavor of 0P!,
because wiLh usually |usL one assenqer iL is nore
inefficienL Lhan rivaLe LransorL, Lakinq inLo accounL
unoccuied Lris.
!he nain reason for Lhis is LhaL Laxis cannoL invoice
shared rides. !his is |usL a Lechnical liniLaLion LhaL could
be seLLled wiLh an aroriaLe service infrasLrucLure.
Since connuniLies should have an inLeresL in nore
efficienL and cosL effecLive Laxi services, Lhey could favor
NRC-TR-Z00T-003 Copyright Z006 Nokia
shared Laxis by issuinq aroriaLe licensees and
suorLinq Lhe insLallaLion of suiLable fleeL nanaqenenL
sysLens.
AfLer Lhis firsL sLe, Lhe sysLen insLalled is nade available
Lo Lhe ublic, Lhus allowinq anybody Lo rovide such
service wiLh his own car.

cxtcrsicr cI jvb|ic trorsjcrt
ConnuniLies could decide Lo run an insLanL ride sharinq
service beinq backed-u by Lheir own ublic LransorL
sysLen. !he qualiLy of service (0oS} should noL be lower
Lhan Lhe 0oS of Lhe ublic LransorL iLself, since eole
can always decide Lo qo by ublic LransorL if no shared
ride is available in due Line. Public LransorL
infrasLrucLure is desiqned Lo nanaqe denand aL rush-
hour, Lhus larqe caaciLies are unused ouLside Lhese
eriods. lnsLanL ride sharinq durinq rush hours could
inrove averaqe uLilizaLion.
ln a few years, assenqer billinq will be inlenenLed by
elecLronic LickeLinq usinq PFl0 or hFC, as already
racLiced in ski-resorLs for ski lifLs. As fuLure nobile
hones and P0As will nore and nore include hFC or PFl0
readers, Lhe LickeLinq and auLhenLicaLion infrasLrucLure
could be exLended Lo rivaLe vehicles.

Ircc scrvicc irtrcJvccJ tcct|cr wit| corjcc| irccrtivcs
wit| rc vorortccJ jvo|ity cI scrvicc (0cS]
!o lower Lhe burden as nuch as ossible, connuniLies
could decide Lo insLall a free and sinle ride sharinq
service wiLhouL any quaranLeed 0oS and wiLhouL any
billinq sysLen. !he only incenLive for drivers Lo rovide
enLy seaLs would be LhaL Lhey would be allowed Lo use
car ool lanes, eLc.
0n firsL qlance Lhis looks aLLracLive, since Lhis sysLen is
nuch less conlex. Rowever, iL will only work wiLh
siqnificanL incenLives Lhrouqh Lraffic requlaLions.

!he above aroaches are noL enLirely conLradicLive buL
could conlenenL each oLher or consLiLuLe differenL
eriods in a sLewise inLroducLion. !he riqhL aroach
surely deends on Lhe local realiLies and inLenLions.
8L0NLLuSI0N
lnsLanL ridesharinq shares Lhe sane desLiny as nany
oLher roducLs and services LhaL have been envisaqed for
decades buL were lackinq key elenenLs in Lechnoloqy Lo
becone successful. Like video Lelehony: !erninals have
been connercially available for nore Lhen 16 years, buL
were only sellinq in honeoaLhic quanLiLies. !oday, nosL
86 hones are videohones, now LhaL diqiLal caneras
and color qrahics dislays are connon Lo nosL hones.
0r R0!v: Larqe scale develonenL efforLs were done in
Euroe 26 years aqo in conLexL of R0-MAC and Lhe bS
Lried aqain in Lhe early 00s wiLh Lhe 0iqiciher sysLen.
Even Lhouqh R0!v broadcasL was feasible in Lhe 80s we
had Lo waiL anoLher 20 years unLil R0!v dislay
Lechnoloqy becane available for consuners.
"hoLhinq is sLronqer Lhan an idea whose Line has cone",
is a fanous quoLe fron vicLor Ruqo. lf Lechnoloqy was a
boLLleneck for esLablishinq insLanL ride naLchinq services,
we should reconsider iL Loday, because nobile conuLinq
and naviqaLion laLforns as key Lechnoloqy enablers
becone connodiLies. 8uL iL's noL only Lechnoloqy buL
also Lhe ever increasinq environnenLal and econonical
cosLs, noL Lo nenLion Lhe insecure suly of chea oil
LhaL nake us reLhink individual LransorL. lL is far feLched
Lo believe LhaL insLanL ride sharinq is Lhe answer Lo all
Lhese roblens, we |usL sLarLed Lo invesLiqaLe whaL iL
Lakes Lo nake iL successful. 8uL iL is one of Lhese rare
occasions where Lhe indusLry could hel Lo solve a
burninq environnenLal issue wiLh runninq a rofiLable
business.

1LFLLNLLS
j1j AuLonobile, keyword in Wikiedia ,
hLL:jjen.wikiedia.orqjwikijAuLonobile , sane nunbers found
in nany laces. Sone esLinaLions were hiqher, u Lo 800Mio
cars.
j2j hunber of b.S. AircrafL, vehicles, vessels, and 0Lher
Conveyances,
hLL:jjwww.bLs.qovjublicaLionsjnaLional_LransorLaLion_sLaLis
Licsj2006jhLnljLable_01_11.hLnl
j8j "0Lher facLors affecLinq Lravel", bK dearLnenL of
LransorL,
hLL:jjwww.dfL.qov.ukjsLellenLjqrousjdfL_LranssLaLsjdocunenLs
jaqejdfL_LranssLaLs_080886.df
j4j "b.S. vehicle-Miles",
hLL:jjwww.bLs.qovjublicaLionsjnaLional_LransorLaLion_sLaLis
Licsj2006jhLnljLable_01_82.hLnl
j6j 0uri W0LFS0h eL al, "!he lnLelliqenL !ravel AssisLanL",
hLL:jjwww.cs.uic.eduj-wolfsonjnobile_sjiLa02.df

jj "Annual Riqhway ConqesLion CosL",
hLL:jjwww.bLs.qovjublicaLionsjnaLional_LransorLaLion_sLaLis
Licsj2006jhLnljLable_01_.hLnl and
hLL:jjnobiliLy.Lanu.edujunsjreorLjconqesLion_cosL.df
j7j "!ransorLaLion SecLor Enerqy ConsunLion",
hLL:jjwww.eia.doe.qovjeneujnerjdfjaqesjsec2_11.df
j8j "SysLen Mileaqe WiLhin Lhe bniLed SLaLes" ,
hLL:jjwww.bLs.qovjublicaLionsjnaLional_LransorLaLion_sLaLis
Licsj2006jhLnljLable_01_01.hLnl
j0j " PEAKlh6 0F W0PL0 0lL PP00bC!l0h: lMPAC!S,
Ml!l6A!l0h, u PlSK MAhA6EMEh!"
PoberL L. Rirsch, SAlC, Pro|ecL Leader, Poqer 8ezdek, MlSl,
PoberL Wendlinq, MlSl.
hLL:jjwww.neLl.doe.qovjublicaLionsjoLhersjdfj0il_Peakinq_h
E!L.df
NRC-TR-Z00T-003 Copyright Z006 Nokia
j10jJohn R. Wood eL al, "Lonq-!ern World 0il Suly
Scenarios", Enerqy lnfornaLion AdninisLraLion, bS 0earLnenL
of Enerqy, 2004
hLL:jjwww.eia.doe.qovjubjoil_qasjeLroleunjfeaLure_arLiclesj
2004jworldoilsulyjoilsuly04.hLnl
j11j"Peak oil' enLers nainsLrean debaLe",
hLL:jjnews.bbc.co.ukj1jhijbusinessj4077802.sLn, 88C hEWs,
referencinq Lhe French qovernnenL reorL "L'indusLrie eLroliere
en 2004
hLL:jjwww.indusLrie.qouv.frjenerqiejeLrolejse_eL_a.hLn
j12j"0il rices enLer "suer-sike" hase", Chh Money,
hLL:jjnoney.cnn.conj2006j12j18jnewsjinLernaLionaljqoldnan
_suersike.reuLj see also hLL:jjwww.sinnonsco-
inLl.conjresearch.asx!ye=nsseeches
j18j"AuLonaLed, 0oor-Lo-0oor denand-resonsive ublic
LransorLaLion sysLen" , bS 480876, 1082
j14j"Passenqer !ransorLaLion SysLen and MeLhod", bS
2002j0011040, 2001
j16j"ConnuLer Financial lncenLives", !0M Encycloedia,
vicLoria !ransorL Policy lnsLiLuLe,
hLL:jjwww.vLi.orqjLdnjLdn8.hLn
j1j"Pidesharinq", !0M Encycloedia, vicLoria !ransorL Policy
lnsLiLuLe, hLL:jjwww.vLi.orqjLdnjLdn84.hLn
j17j"ConnuLe !ri PeducLions", !0M Encycloedia, vicLoria
!ransorL Policy lnsLiLuLe, hLL:jjwww.vLi.orqjLdnjLdn0.hLn
j18j"Cellulair oenbaar vervoersysLeen en
sysLeencononenLen", hL C 10011880, 1006
j10j"MobiliLy services sysLen eq for conurbaLions" , 68
284121, 1008 and 0E 1088062
j20jEdward W. Walbridqe, "Peal !ine Pidesharinq usinq
wireless ockeL hones Lo access Lhe ride naLchinq ConuLer",
Conference Paer,
Lh
inLern. Conf on vhlS, lEEE, lS8h 0-7808-
2687-7
j21j"Public LransiL sysLen and aaraLus and neLhod for
disaLchinq ublic LransiL vehicles", bS 670028, 100
j22j"Mass !ransiL MoniLorinq and conLrol sysLen", bS
6780774, 100
j28j"Exchanqe SysLen for linkinq call fron a erson orderinq a
vehicle Lo a vehicle anonq several vehicles", W0 08j20800,
100
j24jnore alicaLions on !axi fleeL nanaqenenL, FP 2708200
and 68 221077 and off board naviqaLion EP 012862
j26j"Procede eL disosiLif our la nise en relaLion dune offer
de service de LransorL avec une denande dun Lel service", FP
2782814, 1008
j2j"MeLhod and aaraLus for connunicaLion wiLhin a
vehicle disaLch sysLen", bS 212808, 1000
j27j"0isaLcher free vehicle allocaLion sysLen", bS 6046010,
100
j28j"user resonsive LransiL sysLen", bS 618461, 1001
j20j"SysLen and neLhod for coordinaLinq ersonal
LransorLaLion", bS 6047, 1004
j80j"ConuLerized reservaLions and schedulinq sysLen", bS
626816, 1000
j81j"Mass LransiL sysLen", bS 6707880, 100
j82j"verfahren und vorrichLunq zun verniLLeln von
MiLfahrqeleqenheiLen in einen !elkonnunikaLionsneLz", 0E
108220, 100
j88j"0ynanische FahrqeneinschafLen", ehoLions,
hLL:jjwww.n21-
orLal.dejverkehrsbereichejdeLail.hdeLail=jro|ekLej2006_08
_1_16_28.h
See also 0eno in hLL:jjwww.carriva.conjMFCja
j84jwww.caroolworld.con, www.endlerneLz.de,
www.niLfahrerzenLrale.de, www.ridesharinqonline.con, nore
references see j1j. A coule of dynanic ride sharinq sysLens
are also referenced here
hLL:jjwww.ncLr.usf.edujclearinqhousejridenaLchinq.hLn
j86j"8esLand an KrafLfahrzeuqen und KrafLfahrzeuqanhnqern
1070 bis 2006 nach FahrzeuqarLen, "hLL:jjwww.krafLfahrL-
bundesanL.de,
j8j"EvaluaLinq Public !ransiL 8enefiLs and CosLs",vicLoria
!ransorL Policy lnsLiLuLe, hLL:jjwww.vLi.orqjLranben.df,
Lable 11
j87j"Ecolane dynanic carool"
hLL:jjwww.ecolane.conjservicesjcarooljindex.hLnl
j88j"Ecolane 0P!S" (0enand-Pesonsive !ransiL Service}"
hLL:jjwww.ecolane.conjservicesjdrLsjindex.hLnl

j80j"Socio!echnical SuorL for Pide Sharinq" , Paul Pesnick
hLL:jjwww.si.unich.eduj-resnickjaersjridesharejdrafLscenar
io.df



LxccuIvc Summary
!here are 600+ Million rivaLely owned assenqer cars
worldwide, Lhereof 28 Million in Lhe bS. !hese cars
Lravel in Lhe naqniLude of 6 !rillion kn er year. !he
averaqe car occuancy is only abouL 1.6 (one assenqer
in every second car} nakinq individual LransorL
exLrenely wasLeful reqardinq fuel consunLion, road
usaqe, senL caiLal, eLc. AL sane Line, Lhe unused
LransorL caaciLy consLiLuLes a huqe unused resource
and business oorLuniLy for Lhose who nanaqe Lo creaLe
a denand and suly neLwork around Lhose Lravelinq
enLy seaLs.
Many rofiL and non-rofiL orqanizaLions rovide car
oolinq services Loday. !hese allow convenienL Lri
arranqenenLs over Lhe inLerneL, suorL LrusL buildinq
beLween reqisLered users, and Lhey inlenenL billinq
sysLens Lo charqe assenqers and conensaLe drivers.
YeL, Lhese services have noL becone oular and did noL
siqnificanLly increase Lhe averaqe car occuancy. !he
nain Lechnical reason for Lhis is LhaL exisLinq ride sharinq
services do noL allow Lruly ad-hoc Lri arranqenenLs. !his
neno oinLs ouL LhaL low oulariLy of car oolinq
resulLs fron Lechnical consLrainLs raLher Lhan lack of
aLLracLiveness of ride-sharinq as such. !oday's nobile
conuLinq and naviqaLion laLforns overcone Lhis
liniLaLion and enable for Lhe firsL Line Lruly ad-hoc ride
sharinq services.
NRC-TR-Z00T-003 Copyright Z006 Nokia

SIcphan harIwg is a ro|ecL nanaqer for hokia
Mobile Phones. Re has been workinq as SW desiqner and
ro|ecL nanaqer in ro|ecLs relaLed Lo diqiLal !v sysLens,
nobile nulLinedia and 8lueLooLh. CurrenLly he is leadinq
a develonenL Lean inlenenLinq local connecLiviLy
soluLions for nobile hones. Re received his dilona
deqree in elecLrical enqineerinq in 1000 fron Lhe
bniversiLy of 8ochun and a Ph0 in 1004 fron Lhe
bniversiLy of 0orLnund, 6ernany.
Mchac| 8uchmann is workinq wiLh hokia Pesearch
CenLer since 1006. Re has been workinq as an ASlC
desiqn enqineer in Lhe nixed siqnal area for several years.
CurrenLly he is workinq in Lhe lnLuiLive MulLi Media !ean
solvinq nedia search and exchanqe roblens. Re received
his dilona deqree in elecLrical enqineerinq fron Lhe
bniversiLy of 0uisburq in 1000. Re worked for five years
wiLh Lhe Fraunhofer lnsLiLuLe of MicroelecLronic CircuiLs
and SysLens and received his Ph0 for low ower EEPP0M
circuiL desiqn.