Wagan, Luigi P.

V2B MATSCIE

Magnetism is the property of material that responds to an applied magnetic field that causes the material to be either attracted or repelled.

History of Magnetism The ancient Greeks observed electric and magnetic phenomena possibly as early as 700 B.C. They found that a piece of amber, when rubbed, becomes electrified and attracts pieces of straw or feathers. The Greeks knew about magnetic forces from observations that the naturally occurring stone magnetite (Fe3O4) is attracted to iron. (The word electric comes from elecktron, the Greek word for amber. The word magnetic comes from Magnesia, the name of the district of Greece where magnetite was first found.) In 1600, the Englishman William Gilbert discovered that electrification is not limited to amber but rather is a general phenomenon. In the years following this discovery, scientists electrified a variety of objects. Experiments by Charles Coulomb in 1785 confirmed the inverse-square law for electric forces. It was not until the early part of the nineteenth century that scientists established that electricity and magnetism are related phenomena. In 1819, Hans Forested discovered that a compass needle is deflected when placed near a circuit carrying an electric current. In 1831, Michael Faraday and, almost simultaneously, Joseph Henry showed that when a wire is moved near a magnet (or, equivalently, when a magnet is moved near a wire), an electric current is established in the wire. In 1873, James Clerk Maxwell used these observations and other experimental facts as a basis for formulating the laws of electromagnetism as we know them today. (Electromagnetisms a name given to the combined study of electricity and magnetism.) Shortly thereafter (around 1888), Heinrich Hertz verified Maxwells predictions by producing electromagnetic waves in the laboratory. This achievement led to such practical developments as radio and television. Permeability Constant The product of the diffusion coefficient D and solubility coefficient S. The amount of a given permeating species which will pass through a given material of unit area and unit thickness under a unit pressure gradient in unit time. calculated as:

where: Q = quantity of material which has permeated in time (t) t = time b = thickness of the material A = effective area P1 = pressures at the two interfaces P2 = pressures at the two interfaces Magnetic susceptibility and permeability data for selected materials Susceptibility Permeability m [H/m] (volumetric SI) 1.25 1010
2

Medium

Relative Permeability /0

Magnetic field

Frequency max.

Metglas Nanoperm Mu-metal Mu-metal Permalloy Electrical steel 8,000

1,000,000 80,000 20,000 50,000

at 0.5 T at 0.5 T at 0.002 T

100 kHz 10 kHz

2.510

1.010 5.010

8,000 4,000 8.010

4

at 0.002 T at 0.002 T 100 kHz ~ 1 MHz 100 kHz ~ 1 MHz at 0.002 T at 0.002 T

Ferrite (nickel zinc)

2.010

16640

Ferrite (manganese zinc) Steel Nickel Neodymium magnet Platinum

>8.010

640 (or more)

8.7510 1.2510

100 100 600

1.05
6

1.256970110

1.000265

Magnetic susceptibility and permeability data for selected materials Susceptibility Permeability m [H/m] (volumetric SI) 2.2210
5

Medium

Relative Permeability /0

Magnetic field

Frequency max.

Aluminum Wood Air Concrete Vacuum Hydrogen Teflon Sapphire

1.256665010

1.000022 1.00000043

4^-7

1.00000037 1

0 2.210
9

1.256637110 1.256637110 1.256710

6

(0) 1 1.0000000 1.0000

2.110

1.256636810

0.99999976

Copper

6.410 6 or 9.210 8.010

6

1.256629010

0.999994

Water Bismuth

1.256627010

0.999992 0.999834

1.6610 1

Superconductors

Diamagnetism is the property of an object or material that causes it to create a magnetic field in opposition to an externally applied magnetic field. It is a quantum mechanical effect that occurs in all materials; where it is the only contribution to the magnetism the material is called a diamagnet. Unlike a ferromagnet, a diamagnet is not a permanent magnet. Its magnetic permeability is less than (the permeability of free space). In most materials diamagnetism is a weak effect, but a superconductor repels the magnetic field entirely, apart from a thin layer at the surface. Paramagnetism is a form of magnetism whereby certain materials are attracted by an externally applied magnetic field. In contrast with this behavior, diamagnetic materials are repelled by magnetic fields. Paramagnetic materials include most chemical elements and some compounds; they have a relative magnetic permeability greater or equal to unity (i.e., a positive magnetic susceptibility) and hence are attracted to magnetic fields. The moment induced by the applied field is linear in the field strength and rather weak. Ferromagnetism is the basic mechanism by which certain materials (such as iron) form permanent magnets, or are attracted to magnets. In physics, several different types of magnetism are distinguished. Ferromagnetism (including ferrimagnetism) is the strongest type; it is the only type that creates forces strong enough to be felt, and is responsible for the common phenomena of magnetism encountered in everyday life. The difference between Diamagnetism, Paramagnetism, and Ferromagnetism Diamagnetism The magnetic moment, intensity of magnetization and magnetic susceptibility are all negative while magnetic permeability has value less than 1. Repelled by a strong magnet The magnetic susceptibility is independent of temperature Paramagnetism The magnetic moment, intensity of magnetization and magnetic susceptibility are all positive while magnetic permeability has value slightly greater than 1. Attracted by a strong magnet The magnetic susceptibility decreases with rise of temperature Ferromagnetism The magnetic moment, intensity of magnetization and magnetic susceptibility are all positive and quite large and magnetic permeability is of the order of hundreds and thousands. The magnetic susceptibility decreases with rise of temperature