Classification of pre stressed concrete mbers: External pre stressed member :the concrete members which are pre

stressed by external reactions given by the rigid abutments are termed as externally pre stressed in this case the pre stress can either be applied by compressing the members by jacking them against the abutments rather than providing tendons Internally pre stressed members : the concrete members which are pre stressed by providing the tension tendons are termed as internally pre stressed members .in this case ,the pre stressing is carried out by the expanding cements. the existing space between the edge of the beam and the abutment is filled with concrete using expanding cement .the beam is effected by compression after the expansion of cement. Linear pre stressing member : the linear pre stressing is mostly applicable for straight members such as beams and slabs etc. Pre-tensioning and post tensioning : the tendons are tensioned even even before casting the concrete one end of the reinforcement is secured to the abutment while the other end of the reinforcement by using a jack and this end is fixed to another abutment. The concrete is now poured, after the concrete is cured and hardened, the ends of the reinforcement are released from the abutments. The reinforcement which tend to resume its original length will compress the concrete surrounding it by bond action. The prestress is thus transmitted to concrete entirely by the action of bond between the reinforcement and the surrounding concrete. A post-tensioned member is one in which the reinforcement is tensioned after the concrete has fully hardened. The beam is first cast leaving ducts for placing the tendons the ducts are made in number of ways by leaving the corrugated steel tubes in the concrete by providing steel spirals, sheet metal tubing, rubber hose or any other duct forming unit in the frame work when the concrete has hardened and developed its strength, the tendon is passed through the duct one end is provided with the anchor and is fixed to one end of the member. Now the other end of the tendon is pulled by a jack which is butting against the end of the member .the jack simultaneously pulls the tendon and compress the concrete. After the tendon is subjected to the desired stress, this end of the tendon is also properly anchored to the concrete. To avoid the crushing of concrete due to excessive bearing stress

A distribution plate is provided at each end. System of pre stressing : a system of pre stressing means that actual process adopted in making a pre stressed beam a system of pre stressing involves the process of tensioning the tendons and securing them firmly to the concrete. Some of the systems commonly followed are described below. Pre tensioning system The simplest method of making a pre-tensioned member is to pull the tendon between abutments or bulk-heads which are secured freely or anchored firmly against the ends of the stressing bed. The tendons are cut off at each end after the concrete hardens. Now the prestress is transferred to the concrete. The bulkhead at the ends and the bed should be designed to resist the pre-stress and the eccentricity. Hoyer system: the hoyer system is usually adopted for the production of pre-tensioned members on a large-scale. This method consists of first stretching the wires between two bulkheads at a large distance part. The concrete is now poured so that a number of beams can be produced in one line, by providing suitable shuttering between them. After the concrete has hardened the wires are released from bulkheads. the wires between the different units in one line beams will also be cut off. The pre stress is transferred to the concrete through bond between the tendons and concrete. There are similar systems based on the above principle. These systems are put to use for usually pre-cast beams. Pre-tensioning system was widely used in earlier days but has since been replaced by post-tensioning system .pre-tensioning systems are found uneconomical for large spans. In order to grip the pre-tensioned wires properly to bulkheads the devices shown in are followed. Post-tensioning system: the basic principle in all post-tensioning systems is to introduce prestresses in the concrete member cast previously by tightening the tendons accommodated in the ducts which are formed while casting the beam. As the tendons are pulled using a jack against the end of the concrete member ,the desired prestresses force is obtained. After the wires are pulled they are anchored in their stretched position against the end of concrete member by a suitable wedging device. The various systems followed differ in arrangement of wires in the process of jacking and in the anchorage devices in order to ensure correct prestress in the reinforcement it is preferable to measure the load applied by the jack as well as the consequent extension of the reinforcement

.extension measure gives an idea how much of steel is being prestressed. Excessive bearing stresses will be produced at the end of the members due to the anchoring devices which bear against the concrete. In this part of the member it will be necessary to provide additional reinforcement to prevent local splitting and failure by shear. A number of systems are available each protected by the patent rights. The systems are adopted for linear pre-stressing and with some of the commonly followed systems of post tensioning are described below: The freyssinet system : the freyssinet system was first to be introduced among the post-tensioning systems. High tension steel wires 5mm to 8mm diameter about 12 in number are arranged to form a group cable with a spiral spring inside. The spiral spring provided the means for a power clearance between the wires and thus produce a channel which can be cement grouted. It further assists to transfer the reaction to concrete. The whole thing is enclosed in a thin metal sheet. The anchorage consist of a cylinder of ordinary good quality concrete and is powered with corrugation on the outside. It has a central conical hole and is provided with heavy hoop reinforcement. These cylinders are kept in proper position and the conical plugs are pushed into the conical holes after the cables are tightened.the central hole passing axially through the plug permits cement grout to be injected through it. In this the space between the wires is filled with the grout. this provides additional restraint against the slipping of tendons. Advantages of the system 1. securing the wires is not expensive 2. designed stretching force is obtained quickly. 3. the plug may be left in the concrete and they do not project beyond the members. Disadvantages of the system All the wires of the cable are stretched together.hence the stresses in the wire may not be exactly the same. The greatest stretching force applied to a cable is from 250kn to 500kn. This may not be sufficient. The jacks used are heavy and expensive. The magnel blaton system in this system a cable of rectangular section is provided, which contains layers of wires 5mm to 8mm diameter. The wires are arranged with four wires per layer. Up to sixteen layers deep for a cable of sixty four wires. The wires in the same layer and the wires in adjacent layers are separated with a clearance of 4mm. the geometric

pattern of the wires is maintained. In the same form throughout the length of the cable vidlings grills or spacers at regular intervals the grills do not offer any appreciable frictional resistance to the wires which can be moved relative to each other during tensioning process. The wires are anchored by wedging two at a time into sandwich plates are about 25mm thick and are provided with two wedge-shaped grooves on two faces. The wires are taken two in each groove and tightened. Then a steel wedge is driven between the tightened wires to anchorage between them against a plate. A complete anchorage unit may consist of one to eight sandwitch plates number of wires depending upon the number of wires in the cable. Each plate can anchor eight wires. The various sandwich plates forming an unit are arranged one above the another against a distribution plate. The wires are tightened by jacking two wires at a time. Gifford udall system This method offers the following three First method; this is the earliest of the three methods of this system. In this method the wired are stressed and anchored one by one in separate cylinder using small wedging grips called udall grips. Each grip consists of two half cones.the bearing plate bears against a thrust ring which is cast into the concrete. The duct end is encircled into concrete by a helix. Anchorages are supplied to suit cables of 2,4,6 and 12 wires. Second method : in this method the wires are anchored by wedges which fit directly into tapered recesses made in the bearing plate. The bearing plate bears against a tube unit containing the tube unit and helix. This tube unit is cast into the concrete. Anchorages are supplied for cables of 8 to 12wires this arrangement is compact and minimizes the congestion of the steel wires in the anchor block. Third method: in this method a tendon of 28mm diameter type is used. This needs a duct of only 40mm diameter. The tendon is stronger than sixteen 6mm wires. The anchoring is done by 90mm diameter grip with a three segment interlocking wedge. This method uses a barrel which bears directly against a tube unit which bears directly against a tube unit which is cast into concrete. Devices used for tensioning steel: the various devices used for tensioning the steel are classified into the following categories. Mechanical devices: the commonly used mechanical devices are as follows.

Weights with lever transmission Weights without lever transmission Geared transmission with pulley blocks Screw jack with gear drives Screw jack with out gear drives Wire winding machinery The mechanical devices are generally used for imparting pre stress in the concrete members which are prepred in large amounts in big factories. Hydraulic devices: these types of devices include the hydraulic jacks used as a means of imparting pre stress in concrete. Hydraulic jacks are the simplest and the most widely used devices for providing pre stress of high magnitudes. Various hydraulic devices are prepared by different scientists from which the commonly used devices are as follows. a freyssinet system b magnel system c Gifford system d baur-leonhardt system e lee mc call system while pre stressing members with hydraulic devices. The applied force should be measured accurately while tensioning the tendons. This can be achived providing pressure gauges with the jacks. Electric devices : this type of devices are used commonly for the tensioning of deformed bars and steel wires. The method of pre-stressing involves the heating up of steel wires and anchoring them before filling the moulds with concrete. Due to the process of electric heating, this method of pre-stressing is known as thermo electric pre-stressings. Chemical substances : chemical substances are also used for developing pre-stressing force in concrete member. The basic chemical substance used is expansive cement. When expansive cement is used in constructing, the tendons are subjected to tension and hence the concrete is subjected to compression. The amount and rate of expansion is controlled the curing controlled by controlling curing. Application of post-tensioning : the suitability of post-tensioning is good for medium and large span in situ work, where the cost of tensioning is very les.the major advantage of post tensioning is that stopped off and curved cables is allowed by which the designer can easily differ the pressure distribution.long span bridge decks are also called fabricated by using posttensioning. It is used to construct long span bridge structures. Concrete dams biological shields of nuclear reactors

and circular pre-stressing of large concrete tanks are strengthinged by using post tensioning. Tendon solices: tendons are splice in case of continous concrete member pre-stressed to gain contunity. The various types of splices used as tendons are screw connector, torpedo splices, clamped splice and wrapped splice. Screw connectors are use to splice for high-tensile bars of large diameter,the ends are threaded. The splice is covered with sheet metal sheat and the screw threaded connectors are not suitable for splicing pre strsssing steels which are heat-treated. The torpedo splice comprises of sleeve to protect the entire unit and the wires are secured by triple wedges. Cols-drawn wires are spliced largely by this type of splice. Clamp splices have nuts and bolts, and to use the tendons a series of clamp plates are provided in between them the use of the splices is in the location where the tendon curvature the pre-stressing force,

DUCTILITY : The ability of a member structure to undergo enormous invariable deformations such that the reduction of strength and stiffness is insignificant Is termed as ductility the ductile member deforms inelastically when it is being subjected to over loading and excessive load is redistributed among the elastic parts of the structure the term ductility is also defined as the measure of plastic strain at the section of failure Significance of ductility : The settlement of foundation and variation in volume leads to unpredictable overloads, reversal of loads impacts and structural movements of a ductile structure the factors mentioned above are difficult to be determined due to which they are not considered during the analysis and design when the amount of ductility is greater than the members which are subjected to flexural posses greater rotational abilities.the axially loaded members undergo greater elongations if the amount of ductility is greater. The ductility of a structure is used for determing the perfomance of structure by portraying the amount of seismic energy,which was disspiated due to plastic deformations.the concept of ductility in case of earth quake resistant design offers the possibility of reducing the seismic design forces and it also regulates the damage of structures caused due to strong earthquakes. Factors effecting ductility 1.ratio of tension steel : as the ratio of steel decreaces , the ductility of a reinforced concrete section increases .the crushing of concrete before the yielding of steel is favoured by excessive reinforcement of steel due to which brittle failure relating to =1 is occurred. 2.ratio of compression steel ; as the vsalue of steel ratio decreases, the ductility of a structure increases. Therefore, with an increase in compression steel the ductility of structure increases. 3.grade of steel : the grade of steel have an effect over the ductility. The most recommended steel grade to be used is fe-250 due to its high percentage of elongation and it is best suited for reinforcement for earth quakes resistant design .the steel grade of fe-415 posses lower percentage of elongation. 4.grade of concrete : the grade of concrete has an effect over ductility. According to the code IS 4562000 the minimum grade of concrete is limited to m20. The ductility of a structure gets reduced due to low ultimate compressive strength when high strength

concrete is being used. Where as the concrete of low density is also considered as undesirable because it is offering poor performance under cycling loading. But in case of earth quake resistant design the concrete of m-30 grade is to be used. 5.lateral reinforcement : if the lateral reinforcement provided in the structures in the form of stirrups and if the concrete is being confined using circular hoops in the zone of compression then the ductility of a structure gets improved. Due to which the premature compression failure and shear gets reduced thereby increasing it the capacity of deformation for reinforced concrete beams. 6.shape of cross section : the neutral axis of tee-beams at the section of collapse falls off within the flange due to its enlarged compression face which results into an increase in ductility of structure. Design a structure for ductility : The various design considerations which are to be followed while desigining a structure so as to ensure adequate ductility of members is as follows 1.The shear failure which is occurring in the member is required to be prevented by providing sufficient stirrups. 2. The flexural failure corresponding to under reinforced section is required to be ensured. 3.A low percentage of tensile reinforcement which is of low grade and compression reinforcement are to be used. 4.The detailing reinforcement is to be done with respect to anchorage, splicing, quantity of minimum reinforcements in the section. 5.The spirals or closely spaced hoops are to be used for confining the concrete in zone of compression so as to prevent compression failure of concrete corresponding to over reinforced section. 6.The inelastic behavior of structure with respect to moment distribution and energy dissipation at various plastic hinges is developed due to contunity in construction. Is provisions for flexural members: According to Indian standard code the provisions for desigining and detailing of flexural members in the earth quake resistant design are as follows. 1.The overall depth of the flexural member is restricted upto one forth of clear span so as to regulate the shear deformations. 2.The lateral stability and greater resistance to torsion is reduced by limiting width (b) of member upto 200mm and the ratio of overall depth to width is not allowed to excced more than 0.3.

3.The ductile behavior of members under he conditions of reversal displacements in the elastic range, the percentage of tensile reinforcement (p1) is restricted up to 2.5 in the section. The considerations also reduces the congestion of reinforcement s and regulates the shear stress. 4.The cracking of concrete results into brittle failure of flexural members which can be prevented by providing minimum reinforcements at the top and bottom sections through ot the member. P min = 0.24 5.The beams are considered to yield under design of earthquake forces when the reinforcement detailing is provided in flexural members of ductile framed structure. Earth quake resistant design of columns 1.the lowest dimension of the cross section are should have a minimum value of 200mm. 2.The ratio between the short dimension and the long dimension of the column should be greater than or equal to 0.4. 3.if the column has unsupported length greater than 4m. its lowest dimension should atleast have a length of 300mm. 4. At any joint, the sum of factored moment resistance of columns should not be less than 10% of sum of characteristic resistance of beams. 5.The middle half length of the columns can be provided with lap splices. 6.The hoop with a spacing of 150mm are preffered placed overall the length of splices. 7.The larger of the below two values should be considered for the design shear force in the column (a) shear force obtained due to applied factored load . (b) shear force should should be developed due to formation of plastic moments in beams which is given by, vu=1.4(Mub1 + Mub2)/hs 8.Extra reinforcement should be provided in the form of hoops at columns beam junctions. These hoops should be provide for a length of Lo along the both the columns . the extinction length (Lo) should not be less than the following. (a) largest lateral dimension of member . (b) I/6 , L = length of column (c) 450mm 9. hoops are provided athe column footing junction to resist the plastic hinge formation at such junctions. These hoops should be placed for minimum distance of 300mm.

10.Special confining reinforcement hoops should be provided along the full length of column under the following circumstances, (a) if the column supports stiff members like walls or trusses . (b)if there exist a considerable stress variation along the length of the column . Pretensioning The method of prestressing of concrete with tendons before it is placed in position is known as pretensioning. The pre stress developed in this method is due to the bond between the concrete and steel tendons. posttensioning the method of pre stressing the concrete after it attains its strength is known as posttensioning. In this method, the ducts are made in the member at the time of placing of concrete and when the concrete gets hardened it is prestressed by passing tendons through those ducts. Anchorage Anchorage is the term used to denote a device which helps the tendons to transmit prestress to the member and to maintain it for the design period. There are various types of anchorages available such as freyssinet anchorage , magnel blaton anchorage. Transmission of length It is defined as the length of pre stressing tendon between the end of member and the point where steel attains its full stress. Adequate transmission length is necessary to reduce the radial force acting on the concrete. Tendon Tendon is a stretched member of a prestessed concrete element which serves the purpose of transmitting the pressure to concrete. It may be in the either in the form of high steel wires cables or stards. Supplementary reinforcement Supplementary reinforcements in pre stressed concrete member refers to the reinforcement which is not stressed initially such reinforcement is not tensioned at the time of construction of member this type of reinforcement is generally provided in partially pre stressed member. Proof stress When the steel in a prestresed member is stretched to such an extent that a residual strain of magnitude 0.2% is produced. The stress developed in steel under such conditions is known as proof stress . Cap cable

It is a curved tendon provided in continous beams at their inner supports it is small in size and consist of anchorages at its sides. Cracking load : It is defined as load at which first cracking appears in a pre stressed member. Shrinkage of concrete In prestressed member the shrinkage of concrete of members is due to the moisture lost resulting in difference in volume . the first drying shrinkage is based on relative humidity, quantity and type of aggregate, exposure time and ratio of water/cement in the mix. Lean mixes exhibit lesser shrinkage than rich mixes. The shrinkage is also based on degree of concrete hardening at the beginning of drying. The amount and rate of structural members shrinkage will b/w based on surface area ratio to volume of member under under ambient conditions . rock type and aggregate with low values of deferred strain and high modulai of high elasticity are effective in restraining the cement paste contraction. Creep of concrete In a concrete member the progressive inelastic strains may occur due to creep under less sustained stresses. For the purpose of design the difference between creep deformation due to stress applied externally and shrinkage deformation without apllying stress externally, can be carried out easily. Due to lack of knowledge about creep of concrete huge failure at pre-stressing may occur if ther is high pre compression in concrete. The various factors effecting the creep of concrete are concrete strength, relative humidity and age of concrete at loading, water/cement ratio, stress level and duration of stress. It is calculated that in three months 55% of 20 yrs creep occurs.where as in one year 76% occurs.