New Aspects for Neutral Grounding of Generators Considering Intermittent Faults

G. Koeppl
KOEPPL POWER EXPERTS gskoeppl@bluewin.ch

D. Braun
ABB Switzerland dieter.braun@ch.abb.com

Abstract1-phase faults in generator stator windings are predominantly intermittent arcing faults, as may be deduced from MV cable tests. Simulations show that energy absorption in the fault resistance at intermittent faults is about 20 times higher than for a persistent "textbook" fault. Resonant grounding of the generator neutral prolongs substantially the intervals between re-strikes thus reducing correspondingly arc damages in the stator iron. Hence resonant grounding of the generator neutral is to be preferred to high ohmic resistive grounding.

For the sake of simplicity the generator circuit-breaker shall be open and the generator be excited but unloaded. The following data have been assumed Un = 20kV, Sn = 150MVA (xd = 26%), 50Hz Ld = 2.207mH; Cg = CGenerator + CSurge Cap. = 0.20F + 0.105F = 0.305F/Ph; Rf = 10 (fault resistance); RNeutral (disregarded in a first step) = 3500 >> Ld The single phase 50Hz, capacitive fault current peak for this arrangement is I = 2 U 3C
f LG g

Introduction: The vast majority of all electric failures are arcing faults. In the theoretical treatment and for protection considerations they are mostly seen as steady state faults in combination with a fault resistance. This is justified in case of 3- and 2phase faults and also for single-phase faults in systems with low impedance grounded neutral where there is practically no chance of fault arc extinction. In the case of single-phase faults in a system with isolated or high impedance grounded neutral however the electric arc may be extinguished at a current zero and the system voltage recovers then until to a certain magnitude when a re-strike occurs followed again by an arc extinction. This series of events may recur several and even many times; it is called an intermittent fault.

= 2 20000 3 314 0.305 10 6 = 4.7 A The transient initial fault current is considerably higher. It consists of 2 parts: A discharge current it1 and a recharge current it2

a) Discharge Current it1 At the instant of a phase-to-ground fault (normally close at maximum of 50Hz L-G voltage) the capacitance of the affected phase is discharged through the fault resistance to ground. For the simplified circuit of FIG. 1 the discharge current is given by ) U L G t / R C i t1 = e , for the above data : Rf

1. Steady State and Transient Fault Current in a High Impedance Grounded System
Let us first analyze transient intermittent fault currents in the simplified typical generator step up transformer scheme of FIG. 1.
L" d

e t / 3.05s = 1633 e t / 3.05s A 3 10 It is obvious that this current is also influenced by the small local inductances which have been here ignored. This discharge current disappears very quickly however. In a more complex circuit it might have a correspondingly modified shape. i t1 =
b) Recharge Current it2

2 20000

If

The recharge current it2 is driven by the vector sum of the three phase voltages and flows through the fault resistance Rf ground 2Cg (in parallel) Ld/2 (in parallel) + Ld (in series). Its frequency is:

Rneutral or Petersen Coil

FIG. 1:

fo =
C
g

1 2 1.5L"d 2C g

; for data of FIG.1 f o = 3540Hz

Rfault

And the corresponding current for a fault at L-G voltage maximum is:

1-phase fault at synchronous generator (generator c.b. open)

i t2 = U LG

2C g 1.5L
" d

sin 2f o t

2.1
(ignoring R f ),

Generator and System Model

i t 2 = 221.7 sin 2 3540t (A) If Rf is taken into account the amplitude value is somewhat modified and an exponential damping part with a time constant T2=21.5Ld/Rf = 0.66ms has to be considered. Again the amplitude of the recharge current is by far and large higher than that of the 50Hz single phase fault current (4.7A). The neutral grounding resistor or inductance (Petersen coil) respectively for a practical generator arrangement has almost no influence on the magnitude and shape of these two transient components of the single phase fault current. In FIG. 2 the total fault current calculated according to the data of FIG. 1 is shown for a resistively grounded neutral (Rneutral = 3500) and a Petersen coil grounded neutral (slightly delayed) (L=1/32Cg=11.07H). There are several current zeros, where current interruption is possible and the 2 curves are almost identical. It is clear that there is a difference in the steady state fault current however (If = 4.7A with R, If 0 with Petersen coil)

In order to be able to analyse also faults in the lower parts of the stator winding, the simple model of FIG. 1 has been more detailed. First the synchronous generator has been represented by distributed voltage sources, inductances and capacitances (10 per phase) according to FIG. 3. Also the armature resistances and high resistance damping resistors tuned to an over-voltage factor of 1.5p.u. at the interruption of short-circuit currents
GK Ra1 L1 G1 M1 K2 Q1 Ra1 L1 G2 M2 Q2 Rd1 Cl-g 10 L 1 = Ld" /10 (K1, M1 - K0, M0 grounded, part of the distributed voltage sources G1 - G0) Q9 Ra1 K0 L1 G0 M0 GN Rd1 Cl-g 20 Ra1 = Ra/10 Rd1 = 1530* L 1 Rd1 Cl-g 20 Cl-g 10 K1

RNeutral or Petersen Coil

FIG. 3:
GN

Generator model with distributed sources

GKA GKB GKC LA LB LC

FAULT

GRD Petersen Coil

CGENERATOR
(DISTRIBUTED)

CSURGE + DUCTS

CSURGE + XFORMER

FIG. 4: FIG. 2: Discharge and recharge currents at 1-phase faults as per FIG .1

Scheme for analysis of generator 1-phase faults

2. Intermittent Single Phase Faults in Stator Windings

In [1] tests with single phase intermittent faults in an urban 8kV cable system with isolated neutral have been described. Those tests have clearly shown that the arc channel in the cable insulation between core and sheath behaves like a restriking switch: The transient current is interrupted at current zero and then the voltage recovers with 50Hz and a re-strike occurs if the voltage has reached a certain level. Surprising at these tests has been, that the arc current was interrupted already after the first half-cycle of the recharge current it2. This process of arc extinction and re-strike showed to be repeated almost regularly. Therefore it seems reasonable to suppose that a stator winding behaves similarly and that intermittent faults occur also in generators. It is the aim of the following analyses to simulate such phenomena in generator windings and to assess the consequences on methods of grounding and fault protection of synchronous generators.

have been included in this generator model (based on measured recovery voltages). Further the step-up transformer 150MVA, 15% and the HV equivalent have been included, being the normal state of the system (FIG. 4). Here a capacitance to ground (surge capacitance plus transformer capacitance) of 0.12F/phase has been assumed. The equivalent HV-side short circuit inductance has been chosen according to 5000MVA.
2.2 Model for Neutral Grounding

In [2] basically two methods of neutral grounding of unit generators are discussed: high resistance grounding and resonant grounding. Single phase faults are considered generally to be steady state faults and hence both grounding methods have been assessed as nearly equivalent. A quite recent CIGRE brochure [3] focussing on this topic deals only with high resistance grounding methods and ignores intermittent single phase faults too. Literature [2] and [3] both recommend the use of a MV/LV single phase transformer for the connection of the neutral and a LV resistor or LV Petersen coil respectively at the LV side of this transformer. Since this is not essential for the basic question of resistive or resonant grounding we have simply

3 inserted between generator neutral and ground a HV resistance or a Petersen coil tuned to the total capacitance to ground of FIG. 4.
2.3 Model for Intermittent Faults

3.1

Neutral Grounding via High Resistance (RNeutral = 1 / 3Ctotal = 2500)

Case 1 This is the classical textbook case, i.e. a persistent singlephase-to-ground fault at the generator terminals.

The tests described in [1] have shown that after the interruptions of the transient current at a natural current zero the re-ignitions occur very regularly at about the same voltage level. This would suggest establishing a corresponding trigger level for a model switch to close. The switch should also interrupt only at a natural current zero and this procedure should be repeatable as frequently as necessary. Moreover the arcing time should be adjustable in a wide range to cover faults from intermittent to permanent. Such a switch model is the type 12 switch for spark gap and triac application of the ATP [4]. The firing is controlled by a TACS variable SPARK which starts and closes the switch if the voltage across the switch > re-strike voltage. The SPARK signal becomes zero after an adjustable arcing time and will lead to interruption of the fault current = switch current. To achieve this signal structure the pulse originated at u > Ure-strike has to be delayed by the arcing time; the sum of the original and of the delayed pulse is used to deduce a sample signal which now forms the desired SPARK signal. The re-strike voltage is a parameter which has to be fixed for the different locations in the generator winding. It is obvious, that the selected winding location has to be coordinated with the switch location (= fault location).

3. Analysis Discussion

of

Various

Cases,

Results,

All simulations start at the same critical conditions i.e. generator feeding 110MW, 25MVar (power factor 0.975) into the step-up transformer at 1.0p.u. voltage. The first phase-to-ground fault occurs at the voltage maximum L-G of the faulted phase, re-strikes occur if the voltage L-G of the affected phase exceeds 0.8p.u. The selection of a lower re-strike value would lead to more frequent re-strikes and vice versa. The results are shown in form of plots of the generator L-G voltages, of the fault current and of the zero sequence voltage at the generator terminals which is normally used for fault detection. The cases analysed and the main results are listed in Table I.
Generator Neutral Grounding (Restrikes at 0.8p.u.)
Case No Case Data1) Neutral Fault at Arcing time [ms] t2 max. [A] 440 440 440 440 80 440 440 [kHz] 4.7 4.7 4.7 4.7 5.3 4.7 4.7 Results f 0, Ifault L-G, transient healthy ph. [p.u.] 2.18 2.18 2.18 2.18 1.23 2.18 2.18 Re-strikes per cycle 2 2 2 2 1/10
2)

FIG. 5:

Case 1; persistent 1-phase fault at generator terminal, high resistance grounding

After fault initiation a very short discharge current peak (1600A) followed by a damped oscillating recharge current with a first peak of about 440A flows through the fault resistance of 10. The small steady state fault current of 6.6A is only just visible on the plot (100 times enlarged!). The energy absorption in the fault resistance due to the steady state fault current is small i.e. about 10J/cycle. In the healthy phases there are transient overvoltage peaks of 2.18p.u. and then 3 UL-G. The zero-sequence voltage corresponds to the L-G voltage.
Case 2, same as Case 1, but with arc extinctions and restrikes Here conservatively an arcing time of about 5ms has been assumed, i.e. the small steady state fault current would be extinguished at its natural current zero with an extremely small di/dt. After extinction of the fault arc the voltage recovers with 50Hz and at 0.8p.u. a re-strike occurs in the damaged insulation causing again current and voltage transients. This process is repeated until disconnection and de-excitation of the generator. Obviously at each re-strike high overvoltage

Table I

Energy in fault resist. [J] 140 + 9.4/cycle 140 + 220/cycle 1402) + 210/cycle 140 + 160/cycle 5 + 8/cycle 140 + 1/cycle 1402) + 11/cycle 3)
2) 2) 2) 2)

grounding winding [%] 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

1) 3)

high resist. " " " " resonant resonant

100 100 100 100 20 100 100

5.0 0.4 0.2 5.0

5.0
2)

Fault resistance = 10 Ohm;

Due to initial flash-over

Due to prolonged intervals between re-strikes

4 transients are produced in the healthy phases jeopardizing the stator insulation.

FIG. 6:

Case 2; intermittent 1-phase fault at generator terminal, high resistance grounding

FIG. 7:

Case 3; intermittent 1-phase fault at generator terminal, arcing time = 0.4ms, high resistance grounding

Also noteworthy is the energy absorption of 220J/cycle, i.e. 11000J/s in the fault resistance which is substantially higher than for the textbook case 1. This is actually the cause of heavy iron burning and severe core damages. The zero sequence voltage at the generator terminals shows about the same amplitude but a non-sinusoidal shape. The conditions for fault detection and tripping of protection are practically the same as for case 1.
Case 3, same as Case 2, but shorter arcing time If the arc of the recharge current it2 is extinguished at about the end of the oscillatory part (arcing time = 0.4ms) the number of arc extinctions and re-strikes per cycle remain about the same, the amplitude of the zero sequence voltage at the generator side is now smaller, however still sufficient for tripping of protection. Case 4, same as Case 3, but still shorter arcing time Reduction of arcing time to 0.2ms delivers practically the same results as Case 3 (no plots). Case 5, same as Case 2, but fault in lower part of winding corresponding to 20% of generator voltage An intermittent fault in the lower part of the winding causes considerably smaller zero sequence voltage. This is also the case for a persistent fault and leads to other fault detection principles for faults close to the generator neutral (third harmonic criterion).

FIG. 8:

Case 5; intermittent 1-phase fault at lower part of winding (20%), high resistance grounding

3.2

Neutral Grounding via Petersen coil

Case 6 A persistent fault with neutral grounding via Petersen coil results in the same transient part of the fault current as for Case 1. The steady state fault current however is now close to zero, depending on the degree of compensation and the resistive part of the Petersen coil. The shapes of phase

5 voltages L-G and zero sequence voltage are identical to those of Case 1 (no plot).
Case 7, same as Case 6, but with arc extinctions and restrikes Now a quite different picture shows compared to resistive grounding (Case 2). After arc extinction the voltage in the affected phase recovers extremely slowly due to exact tuning of the resonant circuit (FIG. 9).

4.

Conclusions
From tests in an MV cable system with isolated neutral it can be concluded that single phase faults in the stator insulation of a synchronous generator are in the vast majority arcing faults which are characterised by a sequence of arc extinctions and re-strikes. An analysis of the transient single phase fault current in a generator step-up transformer system with high impedance grounded neutral which is normal for synchronous generators shows that after an extremely high and short discharge current of the capacitance of the faulted phase an oscillatory damped recharge current follows, the first amplitude of which is about 6080 times higher than the final steady state capacitive fault current. Simulations with arc-extinctions and re-strikes of the single phase fault current in a typical generator step-up transformer system (modelled with distributed sources and generator elements) demonstrate quite clearly that for a high resistance grounded neutral intermittent faults may occur with a high cadence (2 extinctions / re-strikes per cycle). The energy absorbed in the fault resistance and caused by the damped transient recharge current is by a factor of 20 higher than that caused by the small steady state fault current. It is the intermittent high transient current which is responsible for heavy iron burning (welding) and insulation damages. The interval between arc extinction and re-strike in the faulted insulation is substantially prolonged by using a Petersen coil instead of a high resistance for grounding of the generator neutral. This way the energy absorption in the fault resistance and consequently the damage may be reduced by a factor of 20. From this point of view neutral grounding of synchronous generators via Petersen coil is far superior to high resistance grounding. For fault detection the signal of the zero sequence voltage is sufficient for a high percentage of the stator winding. Protection of 100% of the stator winding requires different methods (third harmonic measurement).

FIG. 9: Case 7; intermittent 1-phase fault at generator terminal; resonant grounding

The time constant for the recovery voltage at resonant tuning is predominantly determined by the Petersen coil, i.e. 2LC/RC = 2Q/ = 2 20/314.16 s = 0.127s, i.e. a re-strike at 0.8.p.u. will occur not until 0.205s after fault current extinction. It is a significant improvement compared to high-resistance grounding, where 2 re-strikes per cycle are to be expected. It manifests also in the energy absorbed in the fault resistance which is now 550J/s compared to 11000J/s for highresistance grounding and may be considered as a measure of damage. The zero sequence voltage at the generator terminals starts with the same value as in Case 6 and then decays with the above mentioned time constant TC = 2LC/RC. Again fault detection and triggering of protection is no problem.

5. References
[1] G. Koeppl, P. Abaecherli, A. Schmid, G. Voss; Concept and Practical Testing of Single Pole Operated Earthing Breakers in an Urban Cable Network CIRED, 18th International Conference on Electricity Distribution, 2005, Session No 3, Turin 69 June 2005 IEEE C62.92-2 1989: IEEE Guide for the Application of Neutral Grounding in Electric Utility Systems, Part II Grounding of Synchronous Generator Systems CIGRE WG A1.09: Guide for minimizing the damage from stator winding grounds on turbo-generators, December 2009, CIGRE Brochure 397 Electromagnetic Transients Program (EMTP), Alternative Transients Program (ATP), Rule Book, Bonneville Power Administration, June 1984

[2]

[3] [4]