Practical 1 Title Introduction Fuel The first step in refining is the separation of petroleum into fractions by fractional distillation

in an oil refinery. Each fraction consists of a mixture of hydrocarbon molecules that boils over a range of temperatures. For example, the kerosene fraction is a mixture that boils between 170 and 250 degrees Celsius Aim Materials Apparatus Investigating the fractional distillation of Petroleum / Petroleum, anti-bumping granules ( porcelain chips ), filter paper, retort stand, thermometer ( -10 -360C ), distillation flask, Liebig condenser, conical flask, wire gauze, tripod stand, evaporating dish, Bunsen burner. Procedure A. Fractional distillation of Petroleum 1. The apparatus is set up as shown in Figure 1. 2. The petroleum is heated in the distillation flask. 3. The first fraction of petroleum is collected at 30C - 80C. 4. The heating is continued and the distillation is collected in separate conical flasks at different ranges of temperature at 80C - 120C, 120C 160 C and 160C - 200C B. Characteristics of various fractions 5. The colour is observed of each fraction. 6. The viscosity of the fractions is observed by tilting the conical flask. 7. For each of the fractions, some of it was poured into evaporating dish and it was heated. The colour of the flame is observed and produced soot. 8. The observation is recorded.

Figure 1: Set-up Fractional distillation Result: Temperature Fraction Gasoline Benzene Range 30 C 80 C Colour Colourless Viscosity Very low Low (slightly Naphtha 120 C -160 C Yellow viscous) Medium Flammability Higher (Burn easily) High (burn with a little soot) Medium (burn with a more Kerosene 160 C - 200 C Dark brown Table 1 high smoky flame) Low (burn with a very smoky flame)

80 C - 120 C Yellowish

Observation :

Yellowish and slightly viscous Figure 2

Colourless and non-viscous

Burn with a littler soot

Burn easily

Figure 3

Burn longer

Burn less long

Produce more soot

Produce less soot

Discussions: 1. Discuss the flammability of the fractions of petroleum.

The higher of the temperature, the flammability will be decreases.

2. Discuss the relationship between the boiling point of the fractions with the: a) colour of the fractions The higher of the temperature, the colour of the fraction will be darkness. b) viscosity of the fractions The higher of the temperature, the viscosity of the fractions will be increases. c) the amount of soot produced by fractions The higher the range of temperature, the amount of soot produced by fractions will be increases. 3. Fraction X has a formula of C6H14. Predict its colour ,viscosity and the amount of soot produced by X Temperature Fraction X range Colour Viscosity The amount soot 80 C - 120 C Yellowish Low (slightly viscous) of High (burn with a little soot)

4. Write a balanced chemical equation to represent the combustion of gasoline(C8H18). C8H18 + 25/2 O2 8CO2 + 9H2O

5. The incomplete combustion of gasoline results in emission of poisonous gasses such as carbon monoxide and nitric oxide. Write a balanced chemical equation to represent the incomplete combustion of gasoline (C8H18). 4

C8H18 + 19/2 O2 + N2

8CO + 2NO + 9H2O

6. What is biodiesel? Biodiesel is a form of diesel fuel manufactured from vegetable oils, animal fats, or recycled restaurant greases. It is safe, biodegradable, and produces less air pollutants than petroleum-based diesel. Biodiesel can be used in its pure form (B100) or blended with petroleum diesel. Common blends include B2 (2% biodiesel), B5, and B20. B2 and B5 can be used safely in most diesel engines. 7. What are the advantages of using biodiesel compare to petroleum fuel. . Domestically produced from non-petroleum, renewable resources Can be used in most diesel engines, especially newer ones Less air pollutants (other than nitrogen oxides) and greenhouse gases Biodegradable Non-toxic Safer to handle

Conclusion: Petroleum can be separated into its fractions by fractional distillation. As the boiling point of the fraction increases, a) The darker the colour it is, b) The more viscous it is, and c) The more difficult it is burn with more soot is produced.

Practical 2 Title Alloy 5

Introduction

An alloy is solid mixture solution either of two or more metals, or of a metal with one or more iron metals. The presence of foreign atoms of different sizes does disrupts the orderly arrangement of atoms of the pure metal. The foreign atoms make the layers of metal atoms more difficult to slide over one another, making an alloy stronger than its pure metal. However, they cannot prevent the layers of metal atoms from sliding. When a great force Is applied, the layers of metal atoms can still slide.

Aim Materials Apparatus

To compare the rate of rusting of iron, steel and stainless. / Iron nail;ferum (fe), steel nail, stainless steel nail, jelly solution, potassium hexacyanoferrate (III) solution, water, sand paper, test tube, test tube rack.

Procedure

1. The nails are rubbed using sand paper to remove the rust from the surface of the nails. 2. The iron nail is placed in test tube A, the steel nail is in test tube B and the stainless steel nail is in test tube C. 3. A 5% jelly solution is prepared by adding 5g of jelly into 100cm of boiling water. A few drops of potassium hexacyanoferrate (III) solution are then added to the jelly solution. 4. The hot jelly solution is poured into the three test tubes until all the nails are fully immersed. 5. The test tube is placed in a test tube rack and left aside for three days. The intensity of the blue colour is observed. 6. All observation is recorded in the table below.

Results : Test tube A B C Intensity of blue colour Very high Low Nil Inference Rusting occurs very fast. Rusting occurs slowly. No rusting occurs.

Discussions: 1. Explain the function of potassium hexacyanoferrate (III) solution. The potasium hexacyanoferrate (III) solution is added to the jelly solution as an indicator to detect the presence of iron (II) ion, Fe+ ( dark blue spot ). 7

Fe

Fe+

2e

2. What is the relationship between the intensity of blue colour and the rate of rusting? The higher the intensity of the blue colour, the higher is the rate of rusting. 3. Explain how the use of solidified jelly solution can improve the observation of the experiment. Solidified jelly solution is used to trap and see the blue colouration clearly. This is because diffusions occurs the slowest in solids. 4. Name the constituents of steel and stainless steel? The steel : 99% iron and 1% carbon The stainless steel : 74% iron, 8% carbon and 18% chromium.

5. Compare the rate of rusting of iron, steel and stainless steel and explain the inference. Based on the observation, iron rust faster than the steel. Stainless steel does not rust. The nail made of stainless steel does not rust. It is because this nail is an alloy of iron with carbon, chromium and nickel. The nail made from steel will rust slowly. The presence of carbon atoms will make the steel stronger than iron but does not prevent it from rusting. Rusting of iron is an example of corrosion. When corrosion occurs, the metal looses electrons to form metal iron. 6. How is the arrangement of atoms in a metal associated to its ductility and malleability? Malleability is the ability to be shaped as in when we pound metal into certain shapes for use. Ductility is the materials ability to deform under tensile stress. 8

Metals are described as malleable (can be beaten into sheets) and ductile (can be pulled out into wires). This is because of the ability of the atoms to roll over each other into new positions without breaking the metallic bond. If a small stress is put onto the metal, the layers of atoms will start to roll over each other. If the stress is released again, they will fall back to their original positions. Under these circumstances, the metal is said to be elastic.

If a larger stress is put on, the atoms roll over each other into a new position, and the metal is permanently changed.

7. What is the difference between: a) bronze and brass Bronze is the familiar brownish color whereas brass is the more greyish greenish, bluish. Both will weather to the fine verdigris patina without maintenance. 9

Brass is a combination of 70% copper and 30% zinc while brass is a combination of 90% copper and 90% tin. Bronze items are four times more expensive than brass. Bronze is much stronger and more corrosion resistant than brass. Bronze is harder and more abrasion resistant than brass Brass melts at lower temperature and therefore uses less energy to melt. It machines and polishes much easier than Bronze and therefore the price to make a fitting from it is lower.

Bronze is richer, more golden in color than brass which is usually a yellow color

8. Explain the difference between substitutions alloy and interstitial alloy. Alloys can be further classified as either substitution alloys or interstitial alloys, depending on their method of formation. In substitution alloys, the atoms of the components are approximately the same size and the various atoms are simply substituted for one another in the crystal structure. An example of a (binary) substitution alloy is brass, made up of copper and zinc. Interstitial alloys occur when the atoms of one component are substantially smaller than the other and the smaller atoms fit into the spaces (interstices) between the larger atoms. Conclusion: Practical 3 Title Introduction Alcohol, Ether and Amines The hydrocarbon part of the ethanol molecule, 10 The more intense the blue colour formed, the higher is the rate of rusting. Iron rust faster than steel. Stainless steel does not rust. Hypothesis is accepted.

C2H5OH is similar in structure to the corresponding ethane molecule, C2H6, consisting of carbon and hydrogen atoms. Therefore, combustion of these molecules produces the same product, carbon dioxide CO2 and water. Ethanol, C2H5OH has the hydroxyl group, -OH. It is the presence of the hydroxyl group which makes ethanol, C2H5OH react differently from ethane, C2H6. Hence, ethanol, C2H5OH has a set of reactions which involves the hydroxyl group. Aim A: To prepare samples of ethanol. B: To investigate the chemical properties of ethanol. Materials Apparatus / Glucose, cooked potatoes, mashed pineapple, rice, tapioca, mashed banana, yeast, lime water, distilled water, tap water, potassium dichromate (VI) solution, concentrated sulphuric acid, filter paper, conical flask, beaker, measuring cylinder, distillations flask, stopper with delivery tube, stopper with one hole, thermometer, Liebig condenser, fractioning column, retort stands and clamps, tripod stand, wire gauze, Bunsen burner, rubber tubing, filter funnel, boiling tube, blue litmus paper, evaporating dish, test tube holder, dropper, forceps.

Procedure

A. To prepare samples of ethanol 1. Approximately about 20g of glucose is dissolved in 150cm of distilled water contained in a clean conical flask. 2. Approximately about 10g of yeast is added to the mixture 11

and the mixture is shaken well.

3. The conical flask is closed with a stopper connected with a delivery tube. The other end of the delivery tube is dipped into lime water contained in a boiling tube as shown in Figure 1(a). 4. The apparatus is left in a warm place (35C) for about a week. 5. For time to time, any changes taking place are observed. 6. After about a week, the contents of the conical flask are filtered. The filtrate is poured into a distillation flask. 9. 1(b) is 10. 11. that 12. 13. is 14. 15. 16. banana 17. consecutively to replace glucose. examined. 10. Steps 1 to 9 are repeated using cooked potatoes, mashed pineapple, rice, tapioca and mashed boils over 78 to 80C is collected. 9. The colour and the smell of the distillate collected set up. 8. The filtrate is heated in water bath and the ethanol 7. The apparatus for distillation as shown in Figure

B. To investigate the chemical properties of ethanol 12

B-1 To investigate the combustion of ethanol. 1. About 2cm of the prepared ethanol is poured into an evaporating dish. 2. A lighted wooden splinter is used to ignite the ethanol (Figure 2). 3. The combustibility of ethanol is noted.

B-2 To investigate the oxidation of ethanol 1. About 10cm of potassium dichromate (VI) solution is poured into a boiling tube. 2. A dropper is used to add about 10 drops of concentrated sulphuric acid into the boiling tube. 3. About 3cm of ethanol is then added to the mixture. 4. The apparatus is set up as shown in Figure 3. 5. The boiling tube is heated carefully with a gentle flame until the mixture boils. Any colour change to the mixture is noted. 6. The distillate is collected in a test tube immersed in cold water. 7. The colour and smell of the distillate are noted. 8. The distillate is tested with a moist blue litmus paper. 9. The change to the blue litmus paper is recorded.

13

Figure x

W ater ba th

F ermentation produ ct

C ool water

Figure 1: Preparation of ethanol

L ig h te d w o o d e n s p lin te r

E th a n o l

14

E v a p o ra tin g d is h

Figure 2: Combustion of ethanol

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Figure 3: Oxidation of ethanol

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Results: B-1 Test Combustibility Colour of the flame Sootiness of flame Observation Catches fire readily. Blue. Noon-sooty

B-2 Test Colour Smell Effect on blue litmus paper Observation Colourless liquid. Smell of vinegar. Blue litmus paper turns red.

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Discussions: 1. Name the enzyme present in yeast that decomposes glucose into ethanol. Zymase, the enzyme from yeast, slowly decomposes glucose in the absence of oxygen to form ethanol and carbon dioxide. 2. Write a balance chemical equation to represent the decomposition of glucose into ethanol. C6H12O6(aq) 2CH3CH2OH(aq) + 2CO2 (g) The carbon dioxide released turns lime water milky. 3. Explain the use of fractional distillation in this experiment. Water and ethanol are two miscible liquid with different boiling points. Hence, both liquids have to be separated by fractional distillation. 4. Write a balance chemical equation to represent the combustion of ethanol. Complete combustion of ethanol produces carbon dioxide and water as shown in the equation below : C2H5 OH (1) + 3O2 (g) 2CO2 (g) + 3H2O (1)

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5. Can ethanol be used as vehicle fuel? Explain your answer. A lot of gas has up to 15% ethanol now. But, to use 100% ethanol, the vehicle needs a different fuel storage and usage mechanism. If we put pure ethanol in our regular vehicle, the ethanol will corrode the fuel tank, the gas lines, etc., all the way to the engine. Ethanol is not as efficient as gasoline either so our mileage would be less. The other factor with ethanol is that if the entire U.S. corn crop was used for vehicle fuel, it would only provide about 12% of the total fuel used now. There would be no corn for feeding livestock then or making corn flakes so food prices would skyrocket. 6. What is the function of potassium dichromate (VI) solution in this experiment ? Acidified potassium dichromate (VI) solution in this experiment is used as the oxidising agent. 7. Write a balanced chemical equation to represent the oxidation of ethanol . CH3CH2OH(1) + 2[O] CH3COOH(1) + H2O(1)

Conclusion: Ethanol can be obtained by the fermentation of glucose found in sugars or carbohydrates. The chemical reactions of ethanol are :a) Combustion to form carbon dioxide and water. b) Oxidation to produce ethanoic acid. c) Dehydration to produce ethene.

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