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16.333: Lecture #1 Equilibrium States Aircraft performance Introduction to basic terms

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Aircraft Performance
Accelerated horizontal ight balance of forces Engine thrust T Lift L ( to V ) Drag D ( to V ) Weight W T D =m and LW =0
D T L

mg

dV = 0 for steady ight dt

1 Dene L = 2 V 2SCL where

air density (standard tables) S gross wing area = c b, = mean chord c b = wing span A R wing aspect ratio = b/c
c0 c

ct

Trailing edge

Sweepback angle k kc

2 Q=1 2 V dynamic pressure

V = speed relative to the air

b = 2.s

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CL lift coecient for low Mach number, CL = CL ( 0) 3 angle of incidence of wind to the wing
3 0 is the angle associated with zero lift

Back to the performance: 1 L = V 2SCL and L = mg 2 2mg which implies that V = SC so that
L

V CL

1/2

and we can relate the eect of speed to wing lift

A key number is stall speed, which is the lowest speed that an aircraft can y steadily 2mg Vs = SCLmax
where typically get CLmax at max = 10

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Steady Gliding Flight

Aircraft at a steady glide angle of

Assume forces are in equilibrium L mg cos = 0 D + mg sin = 0 Gives that D CD L CL Minimum gliding angle obtained when CD /CL is a minimum tan = High L/D gives a low gliding angle (1) (2)

Note: typically
2 CL CD = CDmin + A Re

where CDmin is the zero lift (friction/parasitic) drag

2 CL
gives the lift induced drag

e is Oswalds eciency factor 0.7 0.85

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Total drag then given by 1 2 1 2 2 D = V SCD = V S CDmin + kCL 2 2 1 2 (mg )2 = V SCDmin + k 1 2 2 2 V S

(3) (4)

D Total drag

No-lift drag

Lift-dependent drag VS VEmd VE

So that the speed for minimum drag is 1/4 k 2mg Vmin drag = S CDmin

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Steady Climb
T-D L T D W V R/C

Equations: T D W sin = 0 L W cos = 0 which gives T D so that tan = L cos = 0 sin T D L (5) (6)

Consistent with 13 if T = 0 since then as dened above is negative

Note that for small , tan sin (T D)V L so that the rate of climb is approximately equal to the excess power available (above that needed to maintain level ight) R/C = V sin V

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Steady Turn

L sin L cos Centrifugal force L

R Radius of turn

Equations: L sin = centrifugal force mV 2 = R L cos = W = mg V2 tan = Rg Note: obtain Rmin at CLmax WV 2 1 2 Rmin( V SCLmax ) sin = 2 g Rmin = W/S 1/2gCLmax sin max V g (7) (8) (9)

V =R

(10)

where W/S is the wing loading and max < 30

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Dene load factor N = L/mg . i.e. ratio of lift in turn to weight N = sec = (1 + tan2 )1/2 tan = N2 1 so that V2 V2 R= = g tan g N 2 1 (11) (12)

For a given load factor (wing strength) R V2

Compare straight level with turning ight If same light coecient L mg 1 CL = 1 2 = 1 2 N mg Vt2S 2 2 V S 2 V S so that Vt = N V gives the speed increase (more lift)

Note that CL constant CD constant D V 2CD Tt Dt Vt2CD N D so that must increase throttle or will descend in the turn

16.333: Lecture #2

Static Stability
Aircraft Static Stability (longitudinal)
Wing/Tail contributions

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Static Stability

Static stability is all about the initial tendency of a body to return to its equilibrium state after being disturbed

To have a statically stable equilibrium point, the vehicle must develop a restoring force/moment to bring it back to the eq. condition

Later on we will also deal with dynamic stability, which is concerned with the time history of the motion after the disturbance Can be SS but not DS, but to be DS, must be SS SS is a necessary, but not sucient condition for DS

To investigate the static stability of an aircraft, can analyze response to a disturbance in the angle of attack At eq. pt., expect moment about c.g. to be zero CMcg = 0 If then perturb up, need a restoring moment that pushes nose back down (negative)

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Classic analysis:

Eq at point B A/C 1 is statically stable

Conditions for static stability CM = 0; note that this requires CM |0 CM CM

< 0 > 0

Since CL = CL ( 0) with CL > 0, then an equivalent condition for SS is that CM < 0 CL

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Basic Aerodynamics

Lw Macw Dw
c.g.

iw w FRL Xac

Zcg
Fuselage Reference Line (FRL) Wing mean chord

Xcg

Take reference point for the wing to be the aerodynamic center (roughly the 1/4 chord point)1 Consider wing contribution to the pitching moment about the c.g. Assume that wing incidence is iw so that, if w = F RL + iw , then F RL = w iw With xk measured from the leading edge, the moment is: Mcg = (Lw cos F RL + Dw sin F RL)(xcg xac) +(Lw sin F RL Dw cos F RL)(zcg ) + Macw Assuming that F RL 1, Mcg (Lw + Dw AF RL)(xcg xac) +(Lw F RL Dw )(zcg ) + Macw But the second term contributes very little (drop)
1 The aerodynamic center (AC) is the point on the wing about which the coecient of pitching moment is constant. On all airfoils the ac very close to the 25% chord point (+/ 2%) in subsonic ow.

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Nondimensionalize: CL = Gives: CMcg = (CLw + CDw F RL)( Dene: xcg = hc (leading edge to c.g.) c (leading edge to AC) xac = hn

xcg xac ) + CMac c c L 1
2 2
V S
M CM =
1
2
2
V Sc

Then CMcg = (CLw + CDw F RL)(h hn ) + CMac (CLw )(h hn ) + CMac = CLw (w w0 )(h hn ) + CMac

Result is interesting, but the key part is how this helps us analyze the static stability: CMcg = (h hn )>0
CLw since c.g. typically further back that AC Why most planes have a second lifting surface (front or back)

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Contribution of the Tail

lt

Lw
Macw iw

c.g.
Zcgw
FRL

Lt
Mact it Dt Zcgt

Dw
FRL

FRL
V

V'

Some lift provided, but moment is the key part Key items: 1. Angle of attack t = F RL + it , is wing downwash

2. Lift L = Lw + Lt with Lw Lt and

St
CL = CLw + CLt S 2 = (1/2Vt2)/(1/2Vw ) 0.81.2 depending on location of tail

3. Downwash usually approximated as d w d where 0 is the downwash at 0. For a wing with an elliptic distribution 2CLw 2CLw d = A R d A R = 0 +

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Pitching moment contribution: Lt and Dt are , to V not V = F RL to FRL, so must rotate and So they are at angle then apply moment arms lt and zt. Mt = + Dt sin ] lt [Lt cos zt [Dt cos Lt sin ] + Mact

First term largest by far. Assume that 1, so that Mt ltLt 1 Lt = Vt2StCLt 2 CMt
2 Mt lt 1 2 Vt St CLt = 1 2 = 1 c 2 V 2S 2 V Sc ltSt = CLt Sc

Dene the horizontal tail volume ratio VH = CMt = VH CLt

lt St Sc ,

so that

Note: angle of attack of the tail t = w iw + it , so that CLt = CLt t = CLt (w iw + it ) where = 0 + w So that CMt = VH CLt (w iw + it (0 + w )) = VH CLt (0 + iw it w (1 ))

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More compact form: CMt = CM0t + CMt w CM0t = VH CLt (0 + iw it) CMt
= VH CLt (1 ) where we can chose VH by selecting lt, St and it

Write wing form as CMw = CM0w + CMw w CM0w = CMac CLw w0 (h hn ) CMw = CLw (h hn )

And total is: CMcg = CM0 + CM w CM0 = CMac CLw w0 (h hn ) + VH CLt (0 + iw it ) CM = CLw (h hn ) VH CLt (1 )

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For static stability need CM = 0 and CM < 0 To ensure that CM = 0 for reasonable value of , need CM0 > 0 use it to trim the aircraft

For CM < 0, consider setup for case that makes CM = 0 Note that this is a discussion of the aircraft cg location (nd h) But tail location currently given relative to c.g. (lt behind it), which is buried in VH need to dene it dierently (ht h); ht measured from the wing leading edge, then Dene lt = c VH = which gives CM = CLw (h hn ) = h(CLw + St (ht h)CLt (1 ) S ltSt St = (ht h) c S S

St St CLt (1 )) CLw hn CL (1 ) ht S S t

A bit messy, but note that if LT = Lw + Lt, then CLT = CLw + so that CLT = CLw (w w0 ) + = CL0T + CLT w

t with CLT = CLw + S S CLt (1 )

St CL S t

St CL (0 iw + it + w (1 )) S
t

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Now have that CM = hCLT CLw hn

ht St
CL (1 ) S
t

Solve for the case with CM = 0, which gives h = hn

CLw CLT St CLt + ht (1 ) S CLT

Note that with =

CL

CLw

1, then hn + ( 1)ht hN P

h=

which is called the stick xed neutral point

Can rewrite as CM = CLT h hn

CLw CLT

St CLt ht (1 ) S CLT

= CLT (h hN P ) which gives the pitching moment about the c.g. as a function of the location of the c.g. with respect to the stick xed neutral point For static stability, c.g. must be in front of NP (hN P > h)

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Summary plot: (a = CLT ) and (hn = hN P )

Cm CG aft Cm

h > hn Cm = Cm + a(h - hn)

0

h = hn h < hn CG forward

Observations: If c.g. at hN P , then CM = 0 If c.g. aft of hN P , then CM > 0 (statically unstable) What is the problem with the c.g. being too far forward?

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Control Eects

Can use elevators to provide incremental lift and moments Use this to trim aircraft at dierent ight settings, i.e. CM = 0
Horizontal tail

Deecting elevator gives: CL =

dCL de e

= CLe e, with CLe > 0

CL = CL ( 0) + CLe e
Cm

e = 0
Original trim

Cm

0 Final trim

e > 0

Cm =

dCm de e

= Cme e, with Cme < 0

Cm = Cm0 + Cm + Cme e
CL

e > 0 e = 0
Final trim pt. Original trim pt.

CL

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For trim, need Cm = 0 and CLTRIM Cm Cme T RIM Cm0 = CL CLe (e)TRIM CLTRIM + CL 0 So elevator angle needed to trim: (e)TRIM = CL Cm0 + Cm (CLTRIM + CL 0) Cm CLe CL Cme

Note that typically elevator down is taken as being positive Also, for level ight, CLTRIM = W/(1/2V 2S ), so expect (e)TRIM to change with speed.