Glossary of Biology terms

abscission layer a layer of easily-ruptured tissue in a leaf stalk which causes leaves to drop in the autumn Adaptive radiation divergent evolution caused by the adapting of populations to new conditions, not experienced by previous generations; see also divergent evolution ADH anti-diuretic hormone, released by the pituitary gland to cause increased water retention by kidney nephrons Adhesion forces which cause molecules to adhere to plant surfaces such as xylem vessels adrenaline a hormone or chemical messenger which stimulates the nervous system and metabolism especially in times of stress AIDS (acquired immunodeficiency syndrome) reduced immunity caused by infection with HIV aleurone layer a layer under the epidermis of a barley seed which can produce amylase under the control of GA allele frequency preponderance of alternative versions of

genes

Amino acids the basic units of proteins. They consist of the elements C, H, O and N Angiosperms flowering plants antibodies proteins synthesised in response to foreign antigens antidiuretic hormone (ADH) the hormone released by the pituitary gland to cause increased water retention by kidney nephrons antigens any substances that cause the immune system to produce antibodies. They may be foreign or made within the body antimicrobial proteins peptide chains which deter pathogens antiparallel running in opposite direction to apical meristems growth of the apical (terminal) bud at the expense of lateral buds Apical meristems growing points (regions of mitosis) found at the tips of plant stems or roots allowing

increase in length appeasement display behaviour used to divert the threat posed by a dominant animal artificial environment surroundings approximating to those naturally found artificial selection breeding is controlled by Man so that selected genetic lines survive avoidance behaviour behaviour which reduces threat displays from dominant animals behavioural relating to reponses of the whole organism to its environment budding producing new cels by mitosis as buds forming on the parent cell, eg. in Yeast calcicoles plants which prefer calcium-rich soil calcifuges plants which avoid calcium-rich soil callus a group dividing cells which may develop into a new plant cambium

(plural: cambia) a region of mitosis capsid the outer part of a virus captive breeding the use of zoos or reserves to allow captured organisms to produce offspring under protected conditions carbon fixation combination of carbon with hydrogen in the second phase of photosynthesis Cell banks laboratory preserved reserves of cells cellulase an enzyme which digests cellulose sugar characteristic banding pattern sequence of bands usual in that species chloride secretory cells cells which can release chlorine ions climax, or mature, community the last populations establishing themselves. These are long-lived. clones groups of genetically identical individuals produced from one parent by mitosis, perhaps using micropropagation codon a triplet of exposed bases on a length of

mRNA Cohesion forces which cause molecules to stick to one another compensation point any point at which photosynthetic rate and rate of respiration exactly balance one another out, usually once in the morning as photosynthesis speeds up and once in the early evening as phtosynthesis is retarded by lack of light and heat Competition the need for the same resources continental drift the gradual moving apart of continents due to plate tectonics convergent evolution the evolution of similar adaptive features in unrelated groups of organisms critical period the number of hours of darkness in any 24 hour period which is crucial in triggering flowering cuticle a waxy, waterproof layer on the epidermis of a leaf or stem Cyanogenic plants plants such as clover which release cyanide in response to grazing

Deletion removal Deletion mutation loss of a section of DNA or a number of nucleotides different phenotypes varying expression of genes diffusion movement of chemicals other than water from high to low concentration through a semi permeable membrane

Divergent evolution separation of populations as they adapt to varying conditions as demonstrated by pedigrees showing the relationships among various species; see also adaptive radiation DNA Deoxyribonucleic acid, the molecule which makes up genes and chromosomes. It is a nucleic acid containing phosphate, deoxyribose sugar, adenine, thymine, guanine and cytosine DNA polymerase an enzyme which helps DNA to replicate dominance hierarchy a ranking order within a social group whereby each knows his place double helix

the shape of a DNA molecule, see Duplication repetition of a series of nucleotides Ecological barriers impediments to interbreeding which result from differences in ecology such as fresh water inflow separating two regions of salt water ecological niche the position of an organism in the food web ectotherms animals whose body temperature is largely dependent on external ambient temperature

effector cells, muscles or glands which perform responses to stimuli effector cells any muscle cell or gland cell that performs a response to a stimulus embryo the early stages of development of a plant root and shoot found in the seed endosperm starchy food store of a barley seed endotherms animals whose body temperature is controlled internally. These are the birds and

mammals. envelope an outer part Enzyme induction the switching on of a gene or group of genes to cause production of an enzyme as it is required enzymes chemicals which promote reactions by forming enzyme/substrate complexes at active sites etiolated growth of a stem featuring yellow colour, long internodes and a plumular hook occuring when plants are grown in darkness Extinction total loss of a species Fatty acids molecules which combine with glycerol to make fats filter feeding the use of a syphon effect to suck plankton or bacteria into specialised feeders such as some molluscs fitness ability to survive Foetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS) a condition causing mental and physical retardation of children of mothers who are

alcoholic Foraging systematic searching for food, such as when an animal quarters a field function job Galls areas of plant tissue which isolate damaged areas or parasitic organisms gene pool population of genotypes available for mixing through mating genetic code the sequence of nucleotides in a DNA molecule determines the sequence on mRNA and this codes for the sequence of amino acids in a protein

Genetic engineering the use of organisms which have had DNA inserted by Man to produce selected products Geographical barriers impediments to interbreeding which result from accidents of geography such as distance or mountainous regions which prevent populations meeting gibberellic acid (GA) a plant growth substance which promotes cell

elongation and causes production of amylase in germinating seeds glomeruli knots of tiny blood capillaries found in the Bowmans capsules of nephrons glucose a six carbon sugar which is the product of photosynthesis and the substrate of respiration glycogen the storage product formed by the action of insulin on glucose glycolysis the breakdown of glucose (sugar) into 2 molecules of pyruvic acid grazer an animal which spends many hours feeding on plants growth curve a graph showing growth in sze over an organisms lifetime guard cells kidney shaped cells found in pairs to form stomata habituated a term decribing an animal which has learned to ignore a specific, repetitive, harmless stimulus haemoglobin

a globular protein containing iron which associates readily with oxygen when available Henle the loop of Henle is a part of the nephron which folds back on itself allowing a countercurrent exchange system between the two portions which lie parallel to one another Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) a virus which disrupts the immune system by invading white blood cells hybrid plants plants produced using genes of different varieties or species hydrogen carriers molecules such as NAD which easily bind to Hydrogen when available Hydrophytes plants adapted to live in wet conditions such as in ponds

hypertonic solution A (or cell A) is hypertonic to solution B (or cell B) if it has less water, that is more solute, than solution B (or cell B) hypothalamus part of the brain adjacent to the pituitary gland which monitors and regulates temperature and water balance

hypotonic solution A (or cell A) is hypotonic to solution B (or cell B) if it has more water, that is less solute, than solution B (or cell B) imprinting a specific association learned shortly after birth, usually to allow a young animal to learn to follow a parent inborn errors of metabolism genetic mutations leading to the failure of stages in metabolic pathways indicator species a species indicative of certain environmental conditions such as lack of sulphur dioxide, or presence of sewage indole acetic acid (IAA) a plant growth substance which promotes fruit formation, cell production and cell elongation. The effects at root and shoot vary at the same concentration. It also inhibits leaf abscission. inducer the molecule which causes a repressor substance to cease binding to the operator gene; in the lacoperon model, this is lactose Insertion mutation the addition of an extra nucleotide instinctive (or unlearned) behaviour inherited behaviour, unmodified by learning Insulin

a hormone produced in the pancreas which converts excess glucose to glycogen internal environment conditions within all the different cells and fluids in the body interspecific between species intraspecific within one species Inversion reversal Inversion mutation reversal of a sequence of nucleotides or a length of DNA islets of Langerhans cells in the pancreas which produce insulin and glucagon isotonic equal in concentration Jacob-Monod hypothesis of gene action the theory, observed in bacteria, that genes work in functional groups to control use of resources

kidneys osmoregulatory organs; they remove urea and excess water from the blood

lac operon the group of genes responsible in bacteria for regulation of lactose digestion by betagalactosidase enzyme Lateral meristems growing points (regions of mitosis) found inside plant stems or roots allowing increase in girth learned behaviour behaviour copied by observation in social groups liver a large organ with many functions, including storing vitamins and iron, deaminating excess amino acids to form urea, and storing glycogen Long-day plants plants which use lengthening days as a trigger for flowering; there is a critical number of hours which must be exceeded. lymphocytes cells involved in producing humoral antibodies (B-lymphocytes) and in cellmediated responses (T-lymphocytes) lysis bursting, eg. the release of daughter viruses from a host cell. See also glycolysis

lysozyme an enzyme produced in tears to defend

against pathogens macro-elements elements such as N, S, P, K, Ca, Mg which are required in relatively large quantities by plants mass extinctions large scale losses of species and genera maximum sustainable yield (MSY) the highest harvest of plants or animals which can continue over time without detriment ot the population harvested membranous envelope a coating formed by a membrane memory cells cells (B cells) which produce a secondary immune response as they are activated by low levels of antigen meristem a growing point in a plant, ie. a place where mitosis produces new cells (see cambia) meristems growing points in plants, ie. places where mitosis produces new cells (see cambium) messenger RNA (mRNA) the nucleic acid which carries the genetic code to the ribosomes

metabolic pathway a series of reactions which build up (anabolic) products or break down (catabolic) substrates metabolic water water released during respiration in all respiring cells (check the equation) micropropagation the use of plant tissue other than seeds to grow new plants allowing mass production of uniform crops mitosis nuclear division mobile able to move monocytes large, long-lived white blood cells which become macrophages which engulf viruses and bacteria NAD A co-enzyme which easily attaches to Hydrogen atoms, but releases them when they are required national park an area reserved for wildlife by government legislation natural environment native surroundings

natural selection the survival of the fittest, whereby only individuals with the most suitable genetic constitution for any set of circumstances pass their genes on negative feedback homeostasis; the process by which an increase in one factor causes a decrease in another factor, thereby maintaining equilibrium around a set point (norm) nephrons the functional units of kidneys within which filtration of blood and reabsorption of useful substances occur nerve impulses electrical messages which travel along neurones due to changes in ion concentrations at the cell membranes neutrophils numerous single-use, very mobile (motile) white blood cell containing a lobed nucleus and tiny sacs of enzymes that digest pathogens engulfed during phagocytosis nocturnal active at night nonspecific general in nature, eg phagocytosis nucleic acid DNA or RNA

nutrient a mineral such as nitrogen, phosphorous or potassium, or a chemical which releases minerals to a plant obligate intracellular parasites organisms which require to live in the cells of hosts operator gene the gene which switches on the structural gene when appropriate operon a group of regulator, operator and structural genes which operate as a unit order sequence osmoregulation the mechanisms used by organisms to maintain water and solute balance Osmoregulation control of water and solute concentrations within tolerable limits osmosis movement of water from high to low concentration through a semi permeable membrane pancreas

an organ which both releases enzymes, such as amylase, and also hormones, insulin and glucagon peptide bonds connections between amino acids perennial living for several years pesticides chemicals applied to kill pests Phagocytes white blood cells called macrophages Phagocytosis the process by which macrophages engulf bacteria which invade tissues phenotypes that are beneficial constitutions which allow individuals to exploit resources and circumstances better than their competitors phenylalanine an amino acid phenylalanine hydroxylase (PAH) the enzyme which cannot be produced in the inherited disorder phenylketonuria Phenylketonuria (PKU) (PKU) is an inherited metabolic disorder (or inborn error of metabolism) which results in inability to convert phenylalanaine to tyrosine

photoperiodism the response of an organism to changing daylength photophosphorylation the production of ATP using light energy

photosynthesis the production of glucose and oxygen in the chloroplasts of a green plant using light energy to combine carbon dioxide with hydrogen extracted from water physiological relating to responses and secretions of body organs physiological homeostasis mechanism used to maintain a stable internal environment phytoalexins chemicals produced by plants when they are attacked by parasites in the same way that antibodies protect animals pioneer community the first populations establishing themselves. These are short-lived. pituitary gland the master gland, found in the brain, which releases growth hormone, TSH and ADH, among others plant growth hormones substances which promote or inhibit the

development of plant tissues, depending on concentrations plasmodesmata pores in a cell membrane (plasmalemma) connecting adjacent cells plasmolysed shrunken due to loss of water

polymers long molecules composed of repeated units (monomers) polypeptide chains several amino acids joined by peptide bonds primary growth first increase in size due to production and enlargement of new cells at the cambia within a vein (vascular bundle) primary immune response first defensive reaction on detection of an antigen. It is usually weak and slow. Primary succession changes in the types of species which occupy an initially barren area through time protein coat outer part of a virus protoplasts nucleoplasm and cytoplasm

pursuit time time spent pursuing prey ranking order the organisation of a hierarchy of dominance within a group of social animals receptor name applied to cells which monitor changes in environment recombinant plasmids circular portions of DNA containing genes inserted artificially Regeneration regrowth of amputated parts in lower organisms such as starfish and spiders regulator describing a gene of an operon which causes a repressor molecule to inhibit action of an operator gene repressor molecule the compound produced under the control of a regulator gene to inhibit operator gene expression Reproductive barriers impediments to interbreeding arising from differences in courtship ritual or in breeding season Resin gum reverse transcriptase

an enzyme used by pathogens to generate DNA from RNA using the host cells resources reversed stomatal rhythm specialised behaviour of desert plants which causes the stomata to open at night rather than in the daytime ribose a sugar which forms part of an RNA nucleotide ribosomes structures found in the cytoplasm and attached to ER where protein synthesis occurs

rickets bone deformity due to lack of vitamin D or calcium RNA a nucleic acid containing phosphate, ribose sugar, adenine, uracil, guanine and cytosine root pressure the apparent push of water up through a cut stem from the roots search time time spent foraging secondary growth increase in width of a stem or root due to activity of lateral meristems. This is the method by which trees add annual rings as

they grow perennially. secondary immune response defensive reaction on second or subsequent exposure to an antigen. It is fast and strong. Secondary succession changes in the types of species which occupy a previously colonised area through time selected allowing advantage selective behaviour choosing prey of the optimum size and availability

semi-conservative method of replication whereby each new DNA double helix consists of one strand of original DNA, and one newly constructed sequence of nucleotides sessile unable to move shade plants plants which thrive in poorly-illuminated situations Short-day plants plants which use shortening days as a trigger for flowering; there is a critical number of

hours which must not be exceeded. short-term modification a change in learned behaviour lasting only a short time as it has not been practised social behaviour behaviour which affects relationships social signals behaviour communicating status or mood somatic cell hybrid a cross between two species arising from the fusion of cells other that gametes somatic fusion the joining of two plant cells, other than gametes, which have had their cell walls removed so that their contents fuse together speciation formation of a new species species a group of organisms which can breed to produce fertile, viable offspring specific immune response cancelling of one type of antigen by antibodies which match only that single pathogen stomata pores, mainly found on the undersurfaces of leaves, which allow gas exchange

strong bonds conections between molecules, such as covalent bonds, which are not easily broken structural genes genes responsible for the transcription of mRNA, leading to enzyme production structure 1: a particular organelle within a cell, eg. nucleus, nucleolus; 2: the way in which a molecule or an organelle or organ is built, eg.proteins are made of amino acids struggle to survive competition for resources Substitution mutation the replacement of one nucleotide by another Succession the series of changes in the types of species which occupy a given area through time sun plants plants which thrive in sunny situations territory an area defended by an animal, or by a pair, usually to allow breeding behaviour thalidomide a morning-sickness drug which caused limb and other deformities in foetuses thermostat receptors in the hypothalamus which detect blood temperature and receive nervous

siganls from the skin relating to temperature threat displays behaviour used to intimidate a subordinate (inferior) animal thymine an organic base forming part of DNA nucleotides thyroxine a hormone produced in the thyroid using iodine; it increases metabolic rate in young and old tobacco mosaic disease a virus which invades plants, especially tobacco plants transfer RNA (tRNA) a short strand of RNA twisted on itself to expose three bases. It carries a specific amino acid to a ribosome transgenic varieties variants of a species containing genes of unrelated species

translation the sequencing of amino acids at ribosomes based on the sequence of nucleotides in mRNA Translocation transposition of a length of DNA onto another chromosome

Transpiration release of water by stomata transpiration pull movement of water through the xylem of a plant due to solar evaporation through the stomata transpiration stream the flow of water through the xylem of a plant caused by transpiration loss at the leaves triplet code three exposed bases on a length of DNA or RNA forming a code for matching bases type kind tyrosine an amino acid unidirectional in one direction only uracil an organic base forming part of RNA nucleotides

variations differences vasoconstriction contraction in diameter of a blood vessel,

thus reducing blood flow vasodilation enlargement in diameter of a blood vessel, thus increasing blood flow vegetative relating to stems, leaves or roots, but not flowers wildlife reserve a protected environment for native species wobble third position in the DNA code Xerophytes desert-adapted plants xylem water-carrying tissue formed of lignified tubes of dead cells