Depletion of Natural Resources

We now face a serious problem of depletion of essential resources, despite the fact that most humans have little access to them. Depletion of resources has played a role in the collapse of past civilizations and now threatens to lead to the collapse of global society as a whole. It is possible, however, adopt measures leading to sustainable use of resources. Not all are simple measures, of course, but it is urgent to begin to implement, as claimed by the Worldwatch Institute, with a mobilization and in times of war. The depletion of many resources vital to our species-a result of dilapidation or destruction, the result of predatory behavior consciously or unconsciously guided by the pursuit of private benefits in the short term is one of the most troubling problems of the current situation planetary emergencies (Brown, 1998; Folch, 1998). It should start reflecting on the meaning of resource as defined in dictionaries as good or means of subsistence, so as natural resource can be considered a mineable ore body or a bag of oil, like a forest, or breathable air (Vilches and Gil Perez, 2003). In fact, what we consider action has been changing over time. Oil, for example, was known for thousands of years, always had the same characteristics and properties, but its emergence as an energy resource is very recent, when the company has been able to exploit technically. And the same could be said of many mineral resources of the seabed, waterfalls or solar energy, which obviously always been there. Moreover, the idea has associated resource limitation, that of something that is valuable to meet needs but is not available to everyone. Therefore, depletion of resources is one of the most worrying social problems, as evidenced by the first Earth Summit organized by the UN in Rio in 1992. It then explained that the consumption of certain key resources exceeded by 25% the chances of recovery of the Earth. And five years later, in the so-called Rio + 5 Forum, warned of accelerating the process, so that consumption at the global level already exceeded by 33% to the chances of recovery. As stated in that forum the experts: if possible extend to all human beings the level of consumption in developed countries would need three planets to meet global demand. In other words, we face a serious problem of depletion of essential resources, although most human beings have little access to them. Depletion of resources has played a role, although not exclusive to the collapse of past civilizations and now threatens to drive the collapse of global society as a whole (Diamond, 2006). And what are the key resources whose depletion is posing problems? It must, of course, referring to the exhaustion of fossil energy resources, which appears as one of the clearest examples. However, social behaviors in our developed countries show no real understanding of the problem: we continue to build vehicles that burn brightly increasing amounts of oil, regardless or their projected depletion, nor the problems caused by combustion ( see a borderless pollution) or the fact that is the raw material, sometimes

exclusively, many synthetic materials (fibers, plastics, rubber, drugs ). Burning oil we are depriving future generations of a valuable commodity.

Cause of depletion of natural resources

Oil depletion
Oil depletion occurs in the second half of the production curve of an oil well, oil field, or the average of total world oil production. The Hubbert peak theory makes predictions of production rates based on prior discovery rates and anticipated production rates. Hubbert curves predict that the production curves of non-renewing resources approximate a bell curve. Thus, when the peak of production is passed, production rates enter an exponential decline. The American Petroleum Institute estimated in 1999 the world's oil supply would be depleted between 2062 and 2094, assuming total world oil reserves at between 1.4 and 2 trillion barrels and consumption at 80 million barrels per day. In 2004, total world reserves were estimated to be 1.25 trillion barrels and daily consumption was about 85 million barrels, shifting the estimated oil depletion year to 2057. A study published in the journal Energy Policy by researchers from Oxford University, however, predicted demand would surpass supply by 2015 (unless constrained by strong recession pressures caused by reduced supply or government intervention). The United States Energy Information Administration predicted in 2006 that world consumption of oil will increase to 98.3 million barrels per day (mbd) in 2015 and 118 mbd in 2030. With 2009 world oil consumption at 84.4 mbd, reaching the projected 2015 level of consumption would represent an average annual increase between 2009 and 2015 of 2.7% per year while EIA's own figures show declining consumption and declining supplies during the 2005-2009 period.

Resource availability
The world's oil supply is fixed because petroleum is naturally formed far too slowly to be replaced at the rate at which it is being extracted. Over many millions of years, plankton, bacteria, and other plant and animal matter become buried in sediments on the ocean floor. When conditions are right a lack of oxygen for decomposition, and sufficient depth and temperature of burial these organic remains are converted into petroleum compounds, while the sediment accompanying them is converted into sandstone, siltstone, and other porous sedimentary rock. When capped by impermeable rocks such as shale, salt, or igneous intrusions, they form the petroleum reservoirs which are exploited today.

Production decline models

Oil production decline occurs in a predictable manner based on geological circumstances, governmental policies, and engineering practices. The shape of the decline curve varies depending upon whether one considers a well, a field, a set of fields, or the world.

Oil well production decline

Oil well production curves typically end in an exponential decline. At natural rates, oil well production curves appear similar to a bell curve, a phenomenon known as the Hubbert curve. The typical decline is a rapid drop in production, and eventually a leveling off to a point at which they no longer produce profitable amounts. Such wells are referred to as marginal or stripper wells. The shape of production curve of an oil well can be affected by a number of factors:

* Well may be restricted by choice by lack of market demand or government regulation. This flattens the peak of the curve, but will not change the well's total production significantly. * Hydraulic fracturing (fracing) or acidizing may be used to cause a sharp spike in production, and may increase the recoverable reserves of a given well. * The field may undergo a secondary or tertiary recovery project, discussed in the next section. Oil field production decline
Each individual oil well is a portion of a larger fixed area oil field. As with individual wells, discovery and production amounts of oil fields generally average to a similar bell shaped production curve. Eventually, when the field is completely drilled out, a field's production goes into a sharp decline as the average production of its wells enter decline. As this decline levels off, production can continue at relatively low rates. A number of oil fields in the U.S. have been producing for over 100 years. Oil field production curves can be modified by a number of factors:

* Production may be restricted by market conditions or government regulation. * A secondary recovery project, such as water or gas injection, can repressurize the field and improve the production rate temporarily. However, it will not change the total production amount over the life of the field. Eventually the field will go into a steeper than normal decline.

* the field may undergo an enhanced oil recovery project, such as drilling of wells for injection of solvents, carbon dioxide, or steam. This can be very expensive but allows more oil to be coaxed out of the rock, increasing the ultimate production of the field. Multi-field production decline
Most oil is found in a small number of very large oil fields. If oil fields are discovered at a constant rate until they have all been found, the combined production of fields will yield a curve such as the one at right. Production starts off slowly, rises faster and faster, then slows down and flattens until it reaches a peak. After the production peak, production enters an exponential decline, eventually flattening out. Oil production may never actually reach zero, but eventually becomes very low. Factors which can modify this curve include:

* Inadequate demand for oil, which reduces steepness of the curve and pushes its peak into the future. <

From Yahoo Answers

Question:tell me:- 1.wat r natural resources? 2.their types? 3.causes of their depletion? 4.practices could be done to conserve them. please help me!!! Answers:1 -Sun and its energy 2 -Natural is natural only one type. Yes there are number of them 3 -Over use of it like Ground water it has been so much use that in some places the land has gone barren. 4 -Use it in limit the saying is 'Excess of every thing is bad'

Question:And how do these also link in with increasing population and use of resources? Thanks! Answers:They are linked but not in direct ways. The major problem facing humanity is population growth and the size of our present global population. The greater the number of people, the greater the use of resources (simple night follows day scenario) Up to the present, and for some time to come, we have used carbon based fuels, which on combustion produce carbon dioxide and water (plus other odds and sods). So - increased population results in increased

carbon dioxide output. It is argued that the carbon dioxide levels have now increased to the point where there is a measurable effect on global temperatures (greenhouse effect). With ozone depletion, the problem is principally caused by the release of fluoro-chloro hydrocarbons into the atmosphere (now being controlled). So the more of us there are around, the more of these CFCs were released. Acid rain comes in two sorts - natural and 'artificial'. The natural sort has always been there and is caused by carbon dioxide dissolving in rain to form the weak, unstable Carbonic Acid. The 'artificial' sort comes from the release of sulphur dioxide caused by the burning of sulphur containing fuels; this dissolves in rain to form, eventually, sulphuric acid; this is a strong acid. Again we have started to control this and the output of sulphur dioxide was related to demand and thus population. This is a bit succinct, but should give you the main threads.

Question:A. potentially renewable resources B. nonrenewable resources C. perpetual resources D. amenity resources E. all of these answers Which of the following best describes the concept of environmental degradation? A. using solar power at a rapid rate B. using oil C. cutting trees for wood products D. letting agriculture runoff cause oxygen depletion and fish kills downstream E. growing crops for food Nonpoint sources of pollution A. enter ecosystems from single identifiable sources B. are more difficult to control than point sources C. include smokestacks and automobile exhaust pipes D. are cheaper and easier to identify than point sources E. are always found in rural areas Answers:C A E

Question:According to Statistics Canada, there were 732,832 farms in 1941 and 276,548 farms in 1996. Why did the number of farms decline? List four reasons why Canadian farms are more productive than in the past. Why is farming in the Maritimes concentrated in river valleys and coastal lowlands? Why is Prince Edward Island different? Most agriculture in Atlantic Canada is mixed farming. Why? What are the primary export products of Atlantic Canada? What physical characteristics of the Great Lakes and St. Lawrence Lowlands enable the region to be a major agricultural area? What are the primary products? Why is there a rapid rate of loss of agricultural land there? Why is it incorrect to characterize agriculture in the Prairie region as wheat farming only? What are the hazards to

agriculture in the Prairies? How is the geography of British Columbia advantageous and disadvantageous to agriculture? In a table, list the four main agricultural regions in British Columbia. List the main products in each region. Describe other Canadian regions that each region in BC resembles. In 2003, BSE (mad cow disease) was found in a cow in Alberta. The single occurrence nearly collapsed the Canadian cattle industry. Why? Answers:Question 1! It takes more land and concentrated farming and a good retirement income to be a farmer or rancher in the 21st century. In 1941 people could exist on their farming abilities. The world didn't expect us to pay $50,000 for a simple vehicle and half a mil for a tractor. A combine costs in the neighborhood of one mil to one and a half, USD!! in the 21st century. In 1941 some were still using animals to pull the plows and harvesting machinery, Last question!! BSE in that one cow caused the export door to slam shut. Cows couldn't even be moved from one province to another. If a rancher/farmer cannot sell his "product" he cannot continue. Most of the farm/ranches had to eat all their excess calves themselves because they couldn't sell them. Their markets depended heavily on the USA export. With that door and the Asian markets closed down, there was no where to go with the animals. With no income, most of the industry went into bankruptcy courts. Animals that can't be fed are killed and buried on the spot in huge land fills.

Fossil fuel
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation, search "Oil and gas" redirects here. For other uses, see Oil and gas (disambiguation).

Coal, one of the fossil fuels. Fossil fuels are fuels formed by natural processes such as anaerobic decomposition of buried dead organisms. The age of the organisms and their resulting fossil fuels is typically millions of years, and sometimes exceeds 650 million years.[1] Fossil fuels contain high percentages of carbon and include coal, petroleum, and natural gas.[2] They range from volatile materials with low carbon:hydrogen ratios like methane, to liquid petroleum to nonvolatile materials composed of almost pure carbon, like anthracite coal. Methane can be found in hydrocarbon fields, alone, associated with oil, or in the form of methane clathrates. Fossil fuels formed from the fossilized remains of dead plants[3] by exposure to heat and pressure in the Earth's crust over millions of years.[4] This biogenic theory was first introduced by Georg Agricola in 1556 and later by Mikhail Lomonosov in the 18th century. It was estimated by the Energy Information Administration that in 2007 primary sources of energy consisted of petroleum 36.0%, coal 27.4%, natural gas 23.0%, amounting to an 86.4% share for fossil fuels in primary energy consumption in the world.[5] Non-fossil sources in 2006 included hydroelectric 6.3%, nuclear 8.5%, and others (geothermal, solar, tidal, wind, wood, waste) amounting to 0.9%.[6] World energy consumption was growing about 2.3% per year. Fossil fuels are non-renewable resources because they take millions of years to form, and reserves are being depleted much faster than new ones are being made. The production and use of fossil fuels raise environmental concerns. A global movement toward the generation of renewable energy is therefore under way to help meet increased energy needs. The burning of fossil fuels produces around 21.3 billion tonnes (21.3 gigatonnes) of carbon dioxide (CO2) per year, but it is estimated that natural processes can only absorb about half of that amount, so there is a net increase of 10.65 billion tonnes of atmospheric carbon dioxide per year (one tonne of atmospheric carbon is equivalent to 44/12 or 3.7 tonnes of carbon dioxide).[7] Carbon dioxide is one of the greenhouse gases that enhances radiative forcing and contributes to global warming, causing the average surface temperature of the Earth to rise in response, which the vast majority of climate scientists agree will cause major adverse effects.

Fossil fuels

There are three major forms of fossil fuels: coal, oil and natural gas. All three were formed many hundreds of millions of years ago before the time of the dinosaurs hence the name fossil fuels. The age they were formed is called the Carboniferous Period. It was part of the Paleozoic Era. "Carboniferous" gets its name from carbon, the basic element in coal and other fossil fuels. The Carboniferous Period occurred from about 360 to 286 million years ago. At the time, the land was covered with swamps filled with huge trees, ferns and other large leafy plants, similar to the picture above. The water and seas were filled with algae the green

stuff that forms on a stagnant pool of water. Algae is actually millions of very small plants. Some deposits of coal can be found during the time of the dinosaurs. For example, thin carbon layers can be found during the late Cretaceous Period (65 million years ago) the time of Tyrannosaurus Rex. But the main deposits of fossil fuels are from the Carboniferous Period. For more about the various geologic eras, go to www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/help/timeform.html As the trees and plants died, they sank to the bottom of the swamps of oceans. They formed layers of a spongy material called peat. Over many hundreds of years, the peat was covered by sand and clay and other minerals, which turned into a type of rock called sedimentary. More and more rock piled on top of more rock, and it weighed more and more. It began to press down on the peat. The peat was squeezed and squeezed until the water came out of it and it eventually, over millions of years, it turned into coal, oil or petroleum, and natural gas.

Fossil fuel
Fossil fuels are hydrocarbons, primarily coal, fuel oil or natural gas, formed from the remains of dead plants and animals.

In common dialogue, the term fossil fuel also includes hydrocarbon-containing natural resources that are not derived from animal or plant sources. These are sometimes known instead as mineral fuels. The utilization of fossil fuels has enabled large-scale industrial development and largely supplanted water-driven mills, as well as the combustion of wood or peat for heat. Fossil fuel is a general term for buried combustible geologic deposits of organic materials, formed from decayed plants and animals that have been converted to crude oil, coal, natural gas, or heavy oils by exposure to heat and pressure in the earth's crust over hundreds of millions of years. The burning of fossil fuels by humans is the largest source of emissions of carbon dioxide, which is one of the greenhouse gases that allows radiative forcing and contributes to global warming. A small portion of hydrocarbon-based fuels are biofuels derived from atmospheric carbon dioxide, and thus do not increase the net amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.

Common Uses Of Fossil Fuels

Everything on this planet needs energy, and this energy is derived from renewable and nonrenewable energy sources, including solar energy and fossil fuels. While fossil fuels are abundantly used to drive life on earth, renewable energy sources are way behind in use.

Uses of Fossil Fuels

Despite global warming, fossil fuels top the list of non-renewable energy sources that are most abundantly used. Fossil fuels serve the following purposes:

Electricity: The most common use of fossil fuels is the generation of electricity. Fossil fuels like coal run most of the power plants in the world that generate electricity. Transportation: Most modes of transport are powered by coal and petrol. Though hybrid and electric vehicles have made inroads into our lives, fossil fuels still power millions of vehicles. Industrial production: Fossil fuels, especially coal and oil, power most of the industries throughout the world. Kitchens: Nearly one-third of world's population uses fossil fuels like coal and biomass, such as wood and dung for cooking and heating. Heating: During winters, fossil fuels like coal, wood, and gas serve as great heating generators.

Coal is the most abundant fossil fuel that triggered the industrial revolution. Coal alone produces the largest amount of electricity on earth. The large coal reserves on this planet make it a popular candidate to serve the energy needs of the global community.

Can Renewable Sources Replace Fossil Fuels?

With global temperatures showing ominous signs of rising thanks to the excessive use of nonrenewable energy sources, the thought of switching to renewable energy sources certainly pacifies the spirit; however, whether renewable sources can really serve as alternative energy source remains the question on everybodys lips. As far as the present energy scenario is concerned, we still need time to switch over to renewable energy sources. Renewable energy is negligible compared to that derived from fossil fuels. It will require a huge investment to set up renewable energy plants, viz. solar and wind-powered plants. Still, thorough research needs to be conducted on renewable sources. One must, however, remain optimistic seeing the developments being carried out in this energy sector. All that is needed is more research, more funding, and more cooperation between public and private sectors.

Energy sources
What is an energy-source, which kinds of energy are there and why are energy sources so important? At this place you learn about sources of energy. What are sources of energy and where are they used for? Which different sources of energy do we know? What are the pros and cons of different sources of energy?

What are sources of energy and where are they used for? An energy source is a system which makes energy in a certain way, for instance a hydroelectric station. A hydro-electric station uses the current of the river for the making of electricity. Nowadays we need energy-sources for electricity. Without electricity no computers, no television, no washers. A lot of apparatus would not work without electricity. Which different sources of energy do we know? How many energy-sources do we know, below are the most important sources.

Nuclear power Nuclear power is a form of energy which arise from a reaction between atomic nucle. Mostly this form of energy comes out of nuclear fission. To explain how this process works, we give a little explanation about the structure of atomic nucle. Atomic nucle excist out of neutrons and protons. these little parts (neutrons and protons) are held together in the center of the atomic nucleus through a special energy, called binding-energy. In a process in which the atomic nucle collide whith eachother, they fall apart and the loose parts come out of the atomic nucleus. The energy which kept the parts together is not necessary anymore and this energy comes 'free'. At the technique of nuclear fission, atomic nucle collide with eachother in a central boiler to become as much energy out of it as possible. The so called 'binding-energy' falls apart and this energy comes out of the atomic nucleus. This energy is used for heating up water and this water becomes steam. Through the steam a turbine can be driven and so electricity is a fact. The speed in which the atomic nucle collide is controlled by special rods. These rods can pull atomic nucle towards them and so there become less atomic nucle which can collid and then there is less binding-energy to come 'free'. Fossil energy Fossil energy is generated through the burning of fossil remains. At this burning the fossil fuel is used as a source of heat to make steam out of water. This steam is used for the working of a turbine. With the help of a generator, this turbine can make

electricity. Examples of fossil fuels are oil, natural gas and coal. These fossil fuels are remains of dead materials of plants and animals. These plants and animals died over a million years ago and under the pressure of the earth's surface and through the decay of this material their came a process of compression. Carbon is the main part of these fossile fuels, the more carbon, the heavier the fuel.

Alternative energy Alternative energy is a form of energy without waste-matters. It is also a form where the source, which delivers the energy, is endless. Some alternative energy-sources are sun-, water- and windenergy. By al these forms of alternative energy, excisting energy (like water, wind and sun) is used for the making of electric energy. For instance, a hydro-electric station makes use of the fall between a lake and a river. They build a flood control dam between the lake and the river. And in the one outlet of the dam they build a turbine. This turbine activates a generator and the water energy is transformed into electric energy. More information about alternative energy you can find in the article about green energy.

What are the pros and cons of different sources of energy? The three different kinds of energy-sources have their own pros and cons. In this part we give a few of them.

Nuclear power For the generation of nuclear power little raw material is needed to generate a lot of electric energy. This is an advantage, because the supply of the raw material will be enough for quite a time. A very big disadvantage is that the raw material for nuclear power, uranium, is very radio-active. Also the used rods en other used materials stay radio-active for ages. at a nuclear power plant as Tsjernobyl we have seen how dangerous this type of energy-generation can be. This is the major reason why environmental groups (like Greenpeace) are against this form of energy-winning. Fossil energy The big advantage of fossil energy is that, to generate the energy from the raw material is easy and cheap. Disadvantage is that during the process of combustion a lot of toxic materials comes into the air which causes extra pollution of the atmosphere, these materials also increase the effect of global warming. Another disadvantage of fossil energy is that the supply of fossil fuels is not endless. The current supply is for approximately 50 years. That is why the USA wants to trail for oil and natural gas in Alaska. If the USA do this, there are big consequences for the environment. For more information about this subject, go to the article about exhaustion. Alternative energy The advantage of alternative energy is that the energy source is endless and doesn't give any pollution. Still, there are not many alternative energy forms, because for instance the technique to transform sun-beams into electric energy is very expensive. For more information about alternative forms of energy-winning, go to the article about green energy

What is conventional source of energy?

V.Singh The conventional sources of energy are generally non-renewable sources of energy, which are being used since a long time. These sources of energy are being used extensively in such a way that their known reserves have been depleted to a great extent. At the same time it is becoming increasingly difficult to discover and exploit their new deposits. It is envisaged at known deposits of petroleum in our country will get exhausted by the few decades and coal reserves are expected to last for another hundred years. The coal, petroleum, natural gas and electricity are conventional sources of energy. Coal: Coal is one of the most important sources of energy and is being used for various proposes such as heating of housed, as fuel for boilers and steam engines and for generation of electricity by thermal plants. Coal has also become a precious source of production of chemical of industrial importance coal is and will continue to be the mainstay of power generation in India. It constitutes about 70% of total commercial energy consumed in the country. Oil and Natural Gas: Like coal, petroleum is also derived from plants and also from dead animals that lived in remote past. Natural gas has also been produced in the Earth's curst by the similar process as petroleum and this is also a combustible fuel. The exploitation of oil on a large scale started after 1960, the year when the first commercial well is reported to have come into existence. In India, efforts made by the Oil and Natural Gas Corporation since the late 1950s have led to the identification of a number of oil and gas deposits both offshore and onshore. The onshore fields were mainly discovered in the Mumbai, Gujarat, Assam and Arunachal Pradesh and the offshore fields in the sea are the notably Mumbai High fields such as North and South Basin and South Tapti. Oil and natural gas has also been discovered in the Godavari Basin on the East Coast and the Barmer district of Rajasthan. The new exploration strategy has been developed which places emphasis on intensive exploration, survey and drilling in order to add to petroleum reserves and to argument production. Natural gas is also emerging as an important source of energy in India's commercial energy scene in view of large reserves of gas that have been established in the country, particularly, in South Bassein off west coast of India. Natural gas in also making significant contribution to the household sector.

About 30% of the country's output of LPG comes from this source. About three- fourths as the total gas comes from Mumbai high and rest is obtained from Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, Assam Tamil Nadu and Rajasthan. The Oil and Natural Gas Corporation has made a significant hydro carbon finding and Reliance Industries struck gas off the Orissa coast in Bay of Bengal. Electricity: It is another conventional source of power, which is playing a barometer of a nation's economic well-being. Availability of abundant electricity means unrestricted growth of industries, transport and agriculture. There are various sources from which electricity is being produced. Depending upon raw material used, there are three types of electricity (1) Hydroelectricity (ii) Thermal electricity (steam, gas, oil) (iii) Nuclear electricity.

Many nations count on coal, oil and natural gas to supply most of their energy needs, but reliance on fossil fuels presents a big problem. Fossil fuels are a finite resource. Eventually, the world will run out of fossil fuels, or it will become too expensive to retrieve those that remain. Fossil fuels also causes air, water and soil pollution, and produce greenhouse gases that contribute to global warming.

Renewable energy resources, such as wind, solar and hydropower, offer

clean alternatives to fossil fuels. They produce little or no pollution or greenhouse gases, and they will never run out.

1. Solar Energy The sun is our most powerful source of energy. Sunlight, or solar energy, can be used for heating, lighting and cooling homes and other buildings, generating electricity, water heating, and a variety of industrial processes. Most forms of renewable energy come either directly or indirectly from the sun. For example, heat from the sun causes the wind to blow, contributes to the growth of trees and other plants that are used for biomass energy, and plays an essential role in the cycle of evaporation and precipitation that makes hydropower possible. 2. Wind Energy Wind is the movement of air that occurs when warm air rises and cooler air rushes in to replace it. The energy of the wind has been used for centuries to sail ships and drive windmills that grind grain. Today, wind energy is captured by wind turbines and used to generate electricity.

3. Hydropower Water flowing downstream is a powerful force. Water is a renewable resource, constantly recharged by the global cycle of evaporation and precipitation. The heat of the sun causes water in lakes and oceans to evaporate and form clouds. The water then falls back to Earth as rain or snow, and drains into rivers and streams that flow back to the ocean. Flowing water can be used to power water wheels that drive mechanical processes. And captured by turbines and generators, like those housed at many dams around the world, the energy of flowing water can be used to generate electricity. 4. Biomass Energy Biomass has been an important source of energy ever since people first began burning wood to cook food and warm themselves against the winter chill. Wood is still the most common source of biomass energy, but other sources of biomass energy include food crops, grasses and other plants, agricultural and forestry waste and residue, organic components from municipal and industrial wastes, even methane gas harvested from community landfills. Biomass can be used to produce electricity and as fuel for transportation, or to manufacture products that would otherwise require the use of non-renewable fossil fuels. 5. Hydrogen Hydrogen has tremendous potential as a fuel and energy source, but the technology needed to realize that potential is still in the early stages. Hydrogen is the most common element on Earthfor example, water is two-thirds hydrogenbut in nature it is always found in combination with other elements. Once separated from other elements, hydrogen can be used to power vehicles, replace natural gas for heating and cooking, and to generate electricity. 6. Geothermal Energy The heat inside the Earth produces steam and hot water that can be used to power generators and produce electricity, or for other applications such as home heating and power generation for industry. Geothermal energy can be drawn from deep underground reservoirs by drilling, or from other geothermal reservoirs closer to the surface. 7. Ocean Energy The ocean provides several forms of renewable energy, and each one is driven by different forces. Energy from ocean waves and tides can be harnessed to generate electricity, and ocean thermal energyfrom the heat stored in sea

watercan also be converted to electricity. Using current technologies, most ocean energy is not cost-effective compared to other renewable energy sources, but the ocean remains and important potential energy source for the future.

What is Energy Management?

Is the sum of measures planned and carried out to achieve the objective of using the minimum possible energy while the comfort levels (in offices or dwellings) and the production rates (in factories) are maintained. It can be applied to a factory, to an office building, to a sport center, to a dwelling, and to any kind of building where energy use is required. To make an efficient use of the energy and, as a consequence, to save it, the actions are focussed on:

Energy conservation Energy recovery Energy substitution

Why is Energy Management necessary?

To reduce the CO2 emissions to the atmosphere it is necessary to improve the energy efficiency and to use more renewable energy sources. We will save money by making a more efficient use of the installations and the equipments, or by using better equipments. By using energy efficiently (for example avoiding overheated rooms), we can achieve a more comfortable working environment. It is a way to clearly identify all the energy costs.

Which factors does Energy Management deal with?

People Behaviour: Usually the main problem is that people have some habits on energy use that need to be improved. By changing these habits, we will use the energy more efficiently and, as a consequence, we will save energy and usually also money. On one hand, the decision maker in terms of Energy Management is mainly the Energy Manager with the support of the General Manager. They are the people who can change the energy policy. On the other hand, everybody who uses the building can do something to improve the energy use. One of the most important tasks of Energy Management is to inform people with the aim of changing their habits as far as energy use is concerned. Occupancy: The number of hours when the building is occupied is a factor that influence the energy demand.

Building There are some aspects of the building that influence the energy necessities. If it is an already existing building: o Sun light: We should use as much sun light as possible. This way we surely need less artificial lighting. The sun is free!! o Sun heat: In summer, we can use less air conditioning if we protect us by using venetian blinds or curtains. o Energy system controls: Control devices such as thermostats, switches... should be easily accessible to the energy users. This will let people make a more effective use of the energy. o Energy system distribution: With a more efficient distribution of the energy systems we can reduce the energy consumption. o Energy system efficiency: By using a more efficient system the energy consumption will surely decrease.

If it is a new building:
o o o

Orientation: A building oriented to the south site will probably need less heating due to the provision of sun heat. Insulation: A building with a good insulation will require less heating and cooling due to the lower energy losses. Materials: The materials used in the construction influence the heat transfer and, as a consequence, also the energy losses.

Energy type used Some energy services can be achieved by different types of energy. Heating can be obtained from gas, solid fuels, oil, electricity, or the sun. Energy savings can consider changing the energy type being used. In that case several factors have to be considered. The cost of the energy has to be included to the costs of the equipment. The electric heating equipment is usually less costly than solar panels but the sun is free. We may record less energy consumption with an electric water heating system than with a gas boiler, but we may actually use more energy. We buy final energy, but we really consume primary energy, that is, the amount of raw energy being used to provide us with the final energy we are buying or measuring. Traditional thermal power plants need about three times the electrical energy they provide. We buy electricity, but we are really consuming coal, oil, gas or uranium, or using water, wind or sun. When buying electricity from renewable sources we do not consume any primary energy. In several EU countries one can already choose electrictly generated from renewable sources. Load control Controling the time of the electric loads can reduce the cost of the electricity while not reducing the consumption. We can avoid the load peaks or the consumption in high tariff rates.

Installed equipment The installed equipment is one of the most important energy solicitors of the building. Depending on their efficiency and performance, there will be a different level of demand on energy. External factors There are some external factors, such as the weather conditions, that influence energy demand and therefore Energy Management. For example, when the winter external temperatures are high, the heating demand usually drops.

Population growth and resource depletion

by Jennifer M. Wenner, Geology Department, University of Wisconsin-Oshkosh

Jump down to: Resource Use | Exponential Growth | Prediction | Distribution | Examples & Exercises
Essential Concepts

There are 5 main concepts that our students struggle with when learning about population growth and the relationship of population to geological resource use:

1. overpopulation is a leading environmental problem, 2. exponential population growth and development leads to faster depletion of resources, 3. population grows exponentially, 4. why population prediction is difficult, 5. population is not evenly distributed throughout the world.
A leading environmental problem: Overpopulation

Students do not understand that overpopulation is the cause of many other environmental problems. To help students understand this, one of my colleagues asks her students to list three important local and global environmental issues as part of a survey on the first day of class. During the following lecture, she presents overpopulation as the top environmental problem: It may surprise many of you to find out that overpopulation is a leading global environmental problem. Remember on the first day of class, I asked you to list three important global environmental problems. Here are the results of those surveys: Show results

How many of these problems are the direct or indirect result of overpopulation? Would we have such a problem with the top three -- pollution, global warming and habitat -- if world population was not so large? Other than some of the natural disasters (and even those are arguable), most of these other environmental problems are due to overpopulation.

Lifestyle affects resource use

The characterization of overpopulation as the cause of many environmental problems may be an oversimplification. Consumption of natural resources also plays an important role in straining the environment. On a global scale, it is probably pretty intuitive to students that the presence of more people in the world causes a bigger strain on natural resources. What may not be intuitive is the concept of sustainability. What does sustainability mean?

Friends of the Earth define sustainability as "the simple principle of taking from the earth only what it can provide indefinitely, thus leaving future generations no less than we have access to ourselves." Many other organizations define it in differently; however, the crux of the definition is the same. Sustainability involves living within the limits of the resources of the Earth, understanding connections among economy, society, and environment, and equitable distribution of resources and opportunities. It is the last part of the definition that joins population growth, particularly in developed countries, and resource use. Developed countries, in general, have and use more of the Earth's resources. Population growth in developed countries puts a greater strain on global resources and the environment than growth in less developed nations. For example, in 1997, the U.S. generated 27.5% of the world's total CO2 emissions; more than five times that of India (5% of the world's total), a country with 4-5 times the population of tht U.S (Texas A&M's LABB). In fact, the way of life in the United States, on average, requires approximately 5 times the resources available on Earth today (Earthday Network).

To emphasize the disparate effects of population and lifestyle in developed vs. undeveloped countries have your students complete the "Ecological Footprint quiz" from Earthday Network. This quiz shows the participants how many "Earths" would be needed if everyone lived the way that they do. It is likely that students in the United States will find that they need approximately 5 planets to sustain their lifestyles! It may surprise them to learn this. If you want to reinforce (or contrast) the impact of undeveloped nations on resources, have your students take the quiz for an undeveloped nation. You may wish to tell them the choices to make or you may want them to make decisions about how they think people in that country live. The results may shock them.
The above makes developed nations out to be the bad guys but that is not entirely true. Undeveloped countries with large (and growing) populations also put a strain on the local environment and the limited resources that they have. Countries that struggle to meet growing demands for food, fresh water, timber, fiber and fuel can alter the fragile ecosystems in their area, putting a great strain on the limited resources that they have to draw from (ICTSD.org).

More people = More babies

Students may have a hard time understanding that population growth is controlled not only by birth and death rates but also by the present population. The mathematics of exponential growth govern the prediction of population growth. In some cases, you may want to point out that students may have heard of exponential growth in other contexts, such as compound interest or the spread of viral disease. The rate of population growth at any given time can be written:

Where:

r is the rate of natural increase and is usually expressed as a percentage (birth rate - death rate) t a stated interval of time, and N is the number of individuals in the population at a given instant.

The equation above is a differential equation and may not be appropriate for some introductory courses Show derivation of algebraic equation - but most students in entry-level courses can handle the algebraic solution presented below. The algebraic solution to this differential equation is

where:

N0 is the starting population N is the population after a certain time, t , has elapsed, r is the rate of natural increase expressed as a percentage (birth rate death rate) and e is the constant 2.71828... (the base of natural logarithms).

A plot of this equation looks something like the plot on the right. Population grows exponentially - if the rate of natural increase (r) doesn't change. The variable r is controlled by human behavior as described below.

Essential to understanding the mathematics of population growth is the concept of doubling time. Doubling time is the time it takes for population to double and it is related to the rate of growth. When the population doubles, N = 2N0. Thus the equation becomes

Show manipulation of equation ln 2/r = t

or

0.69/r = t; where r is the rate and t is the doubling time.

In many ways, it is similar to half-life. But instead of the time it takes for half the isotopes to decay, it is the time it takes for a known quantity to double.

Population prediction models: Subject to change

Students (especially those in introductory classes) may have a difficult time understanding why predictions of population growth are difficult to make and constantly debated. To help them understand the difficulty of prediction have them think about the complex variables that must be considered when predicting population growth. It may be fairly obvious to students that calculation of the rate of population growth can be expressed in the following equation: Birth rate (b)- death rate (d) = rate of natural increase (r) Thus, population growth is directly related to:

current population - the number of people today has implications for future population birth rate - this number is usually reported in number of births per 1,000 people per year and combined with the death rate influences the growth of population death rate - this number is usually reported in number of deaths per 1,000 people per year and combined with birth rate influences the growth of population

And it may be quite intuitive to students that b - d = r. However, students may not have considered the factors that can influence both birth and death rates. Let's think about some of the factors that may modify the birth and death rates in a region (or in the world). Do you think these things are constant throughout time? What other "variables" could change them? Show some variables related to population growth rate

There are many more variables that can affect change in the population and its growth - have your students brainstorm about other factors that affect the rate and prediction of population growth. UNESCO and World Bank have a website with a number of learning modules on population related topics.

Wide open spaces can be hard to find

The concept of population density is sometimes difficult for students to grasp. Population density can be calculated by dividing the total population of a city (or country) by its area.

Total population / area = population density My students mostly come from small towns and cities in Northeast Wisconsin

and may not comprehend that other places in the world are far more crowded than where they live. To give them a sense of perspective, I try to give them a sense of what it is like to live in other places. For example, I tell them that in Winnebago county (the county UW-Oshkosh is situated) has a population density of 138 people/km2. On the other hand, in 1990, Kowloon (a walled part of Hong Kong) had a population density 1,924,563 people/km2 (demographia.com)! Other places of interest include: Bombay (Mumbai), India, with 39,860 people/km2 , Manhattan (New York City), United States, with

25,849 people/km2, London, England, with 4,700 people/km2 and Sydney, Australia, with about 2,500 people/km2 (wikipedia.com). Estimates of population density by city vary considerably but the general idea is that most small cities in the U.S. are not very densely populated. I also use a story about a friend of mine who moved from China to the U.S. about 5 years ago. My friend Gong Yan moved to Atlanta from Wuhan, China, where he grew up and went to university. When he got to Atlanta, he was very uncomfortable because he felt there was so much open space.

In Wuhan, when he was in a public place, he was always surrounded by people - people bumping into him, people talking to him, people streaming along the street. He would often go to a mall in Atlanta just to be around people. In contrast, many Americans become uncomfortable when in large crowds. A friend of mine traveled to Japan and tells a story of standing in line at the airport with the Japanese gentleman behind her pushing her with her body while she strained not to touch the person in front of her in line. Culturally, we deal with population density problems by changing our concept of "personal space". In many parts of the U.S., we have the luxury of significant amounts of personal space; other developing and highly urban places do not.

What is Global Warming?

Global Warming is the increase of Earth's average surface temperature due to effect of greenhouse gases, such as carbon dioxide emissions from burning fossil fuels or from deforestation, which trap heat that would otherwise escape from Earth. This is a type of greenhouse effect.

Is global warming, caused by human activity, even remotely plausible?

Earth's climate is mostly influenced by the first 6 miles or so of the atmosphere which contains most of the matter making up the atmosphere. This is really a very thin layer if you think about it. In the book The End of Nature, author Bill McKibbin tells of walking three miles to from his cabin in the Adirondack's to buy food. Afterwards, he realized that on this short journey he had traveled a distance equal to that of the layer of the atmosphere where almost all the action of our climate is contained. In fact, if you were to view Earth from space, the principle part of the atmosphere would only be about as thick as the skin on an onion! Realizing this makes it more plausible to suppose that human beings can change the climate. A look at the amount of greenhouse gases we are spewing into the atmosphere (see below), makes it even more plausible.

What are the Greenhouse Gases?

The most significant greenhouse gas is actually water vapor, not something produced directly by humankind in significant amounts. However, even slight increases in atmospheric levels of carbon dioxide (CO2) can cause a substantial increase in temperature. Why is this? There are two reasons: First, although the concentrations of these gases are not nearly as large as that of oxygen and nitrogen (the main constituents of the atmosphere), neither oxygen or nitrogen are greenhouse gases. This is because neither has more than two atoms per molecule (i.e. their molecular forms are O2 and N2, respectively), and so they lack the internal vibrational modes that molecules with more than two atoms have. Both water and CO2, for example, have these "internal vibrational modes", and these vibrational modes can absorb and reradiate infrared radiation, which causes the greenhouse effect. Secondly, CO2 tends to remain in the atmosphere for a very long time (time scales in the hundreds of years). Water vapor, on the other hand, can easily condense or evaporate, depending on local conditions. Water vapor levels therefore tend to adjust quickly to the prevailing conditions, such that the energy flows from the Sun and re-radiation from the Earth achieve a balance. CO2 tends to remain fairly constant and therefore behave as a controlling factor, rather than a reacting factor. More CO2 means that the balance occurs at higher temperatures and water vapor levels.

How much have we increased the Atmosphere's CO2 Concentration?

Human beings have increased the CO2 concentration in the atmosphere by about thirty percent, which is an extremely significant increase, even on inter-glacial timescales. It is believed that human beings are responsible for this because the increase is almost perfectly correlated with increases in fossil fuel combustion, and also due other evidence, such as changes in the ratios of different carbon isotopes in atmospheric CO2 that are consistent with "anthropogenic" (human

caused) emissions. The simple fact is, that under "business as usual" conditions, we'll soon reach carbon dioxide concentrations that haven't been seen on Earth in the last 50 million years. Combustion of Fossil Fuels, for electricity generation, transportation, and heating, and also the manufacture of cement, all result in the total worldwide emission of about 22 billion tons of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere each year. About a third of this comes from electricity generation, and another third from transportation, and a third from all other sources. This enormous input of CO2 is causing the atmospheric levels of CO2 to rise dramatically. The following graph shows the CO2 levels over the past 160 thousand years (the upper curve, with units indicated on the right hand side of the graph). The current level, and projected increase over the next hundred years if we do not curb emissions, are also shown (the part of the curve which goes way up high, to the right of the current level, is the projected CO2 rise). The projected increase in CO2 is very startling and disturbing. Changes in the Earth's average surface temperature are also shown (the lower curve, with units on the left). Note that it parallels the CO2 level curve very well.

Is the Temperature Really Changing?

Yes! As everyone has heard from the media, recent years have consistently been the warmest in hundreds and possibly thousands of years. But that might be a temporary fluctuation, right? To see that it probably isn't, the next graph shows the average temperature in the Northern Hemisphere as determined from many sources, carefully combined, such as tree rings, corals, human records, etc.

These graphs show a very discernable warming trend, starting in about 1900. It might seem a bit surprising that warming started as early as 1900. How is this possible? The reason is that the increase in carbon dioxide actually began in 1800, following the deforestation of much of Northeastern American and other forested parts of the world. The sharp upswing in emissions during the industrial revolution further added to this, leading to a significantly increased carbon dioxide level even by 1900. Thus, we see that Global Warming is not something far off in the future - in fact it predates almost every living human being today.

How do we know if the temperature increase is caused by anthropogenic emissions?

Computer models strongly suggest that this is the case. The following graphs show that 1) If only natural fluctuations are included in the models (such as the slight increase in solar output that occurred in the first half of the 20th century), then the large warming in the 20th century is not reproduced. 2) If only anthropogenic carbon emissions are included, then the large warming is reproduced, but some of the variations, such as the cooling period in the 1950s, is not reproduced (this cooling trend was thought to be caused by sulfur dioxide emissions from dirty power plants). 3) When both natural and anthropogenic emissions of all types are included, then the temperature evolution of the 20th century is well reproduced.

Is there a connection between the recent drought and climate change? Yes. A recent study by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration gives strong evidence that global warming was a major factor. Click here for more details. Who studies global warming, and who believes in it?
Most of the scientific community, represented especially by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC - www.ipcc.ch), now believes that the global warming effect is real, and many corporations, even including Ford Motor Company, also acknowledge its likelihood.

Who are the IPCC?

In 1998, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) was established by the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) and the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), in recognition of the threat that global warming presents to the world. The IPCC is open to all members of the UNEP and WMO and consists of several thousand of the most authoritative scientists in the world on climate change. The role of the IPCC is to assess the scientific, technical and socio-economic information relevant for the understanding of the risk of human-induced climate

change. It does not carry out new research nor does it monitor climate related data. It bases its assessment mainly on published and peer reviewed scientific technical literature. The IPCC has completed two assessment reports, developed methodology guidelines for national greenhouse gas inventories, special reports and technical papers. Results of the first assessment (1990--1994): confirmed scientific basis for global warming but concluded that ``nothing to be said for certain yet''. The second assessment (1995), concluded that `` ...the balance suggests a discernable human influence on global climate'', and concluded that, as predicted by climate models, global temperature will likely rise by about 1-3.5 Celsius by the year 2100. The next report, in 2000, suggested, that the climate might warm by as much as 10 degrees Fahrenheit over the next 100 years, which would bring us back to a climate not seen since the age of the dinosaurs. The most recent report, in 2001, concluded that "There is new and stronger evidence that most of the warming observed over the last 50 years is attributable to human activities". Due to these assessments, debate has now shifted away from whether or not global warming is going to occur to, instead, how much, how soon, and with what impacts.

Global Warming Impacts

Many of the following "harbingers" and "fingerprints" are now well under way:

1. Rising Seas--- inundation of fresh water marshlands (the everglades), low-lying cities, and islands with seawater. 2. Changes in rainfall patterns --- droughts and fires in some areas, flooding in other areas. See the section above on the recent droughts, for example! 3. Increased likelihood of extreme events--- such as flooding, hurricanes, etc. 4. Melting of the ice caps --- loss of habitat near the poles. Polar bears are now thought to be greatly endangered by the shortening of their feeding season due to dwindling ice packs. 5. Melting glaciers - significant melting of old glaciers is already observed. 6. Widespread vanishing of animal populations --- following widespread habitat loss. 7. Spread of disease --- migration of diseases such as malaria to new, now warmer, regions. 8. Bleaching of Coral Reefs due to warming seas and acidification due to carbonic acid formation --- One third of coral reefs now appear to have been severely damaged by warming seas. 9. Loss of Plankton due to warming seas --- The enormous (900 mile long) Aleution island ecosystems of orcas (killer whales), sea

lions, sea otters, sea urchins, kelp beds, and fish populations, appears to have collapsed due to loss of plankton, leading to loss of sea lions, leading orcas to eat too many sea otters, leading to urchin explosions, leading to loss of kelp beds and their associated fish populations. Where do we need to reduce emissions?
In reality, we will need to work on all fronts - 10% here, 5% here, etc, and work to phase in new technologies, such as hydrogen technology, as quickly as possible. To satisfy the Kyoto protocol, developed countries would be required to cut back their emissions by a total of 5.2 % between 2008 and 2012 from 1990 levels. Specifically, the US would have to reduce its presently projected 2010 annual emissions by 400 million tons of CO2 . One should keep in mind though, that even Kyoto would only go a little ways towards solving the problem. In reality, much more needs to be done. The most promising sector for near term reductions is widely thought to be coalfired electricity. Wind power, for example, can make substantial cuts in these emissions in the near term, as can energy efficiency, and also the increased use of high efficiency natural gas generation. The potential impact of efficiency should not be underestimated: A 1991 report to Congress by the U.S. National Academy of Sciences, Policy Implications of Greenhouse Warming, found that the U.S. could reduce current emissions by 50 percent at zero cost to the economy as a result of full use of cost-effective efficiency improvements.

Discussing Global Climate Change:

Here is a useful list of facts and ideas:

1. Given the strong scientific consensus, the onus should now be on the producers of CO2 emissions to show that there is not a problem, if they still even attempt to make that claim. Its time to acknowledge that we are, at very least, conducting a very dangerous experiment with Earth's climate. 2. A direct look at the data itself is very convincing and hard to argue with. Ask a skeptical person to look at the data above. The implications are obvious. The best source of data is probably the IPCC reports themselves, which are available at www.ipcc.ch (see, for example, the summaries for policy makers). 3. The recent, record-breaking warm years are unprecedented and statistically significant. It is a fact that they are very statistically unlikely to be a fluctuation (and now we can point to specific

side effects from those warm temperatures that appear to have induced recent worldwide drought). 4. Lastly, but perhaps most importantly, whether or not you believe in global warming per se, the fact remains that the carbon dioxide levels are rising dramatically --- there is no debate about this. If we continue to use fossil fuels in the way we presently do, then the amount of carbon we will release will soon exceed the amount of carbon in the living biosphere. This is bound to have very serious, very negative effects, some of which, such as lowering the pH of the ocean such that coral cannot grow, are already well known. Response of Government: Develop "Carbon Sequestration" Technology
Many government agencies around the world are very interested in maintaining fossil fuel use, especially coal. It should be noted that US energy use, which is enormous, is increasing, not decreasing. Furthermore, we are not going to run out of coal in the near term (oil may begin to run low sometime after 2010). Methods for reducing carbon emission levels while still burning coal are now investigation by government and industry, as we now discuss. We believe that a major increase in renewable energy use should be achieved to help offset global warming. While there are some US government programs aimed in this direction, there is simply not enough money being spent yet to achieve this goal in a timely manner. A primary goal of many new programs is not to increase renewables, but rather, is to find ways to capture the extra CO2 from electricity generation plants and "sequester" it in the ground, the ocean, or by having plants and soil organisms absorb more of it from the air.

Possible Problems with Carbon "Sequestration"

One of the Carbon sequestration approaches under investigation is the possibility of depositing CO2 extracted from emission streams in large pools on the Ocean bottom. It is possible that such pools will not be stable, and may either erupt to the surface, or diffuse into the ocean and alter the oceans pH. Another scheme under investigation is the idea of stimulating phytoplankton growth on the ocean surface by dusting the surface with iron (the limiting nutrient). This will cause an increased uptake of carbon by the plankton, part of which will find its way to the ocean bottom. Fishing companies are considering using this to increase fish harvests while simultaneously getting credit for carbon sequestration. Serious ecological disruptions could occur, however, especially if this approach is conducted on a sufficiently large scale. Another idea is to stimulate Earth's terrestrial ecosystems to take up more carbon dioxide. While the impacts here are more difficult to ascertain, an important point

to note is that these systems are not thought to be able to completely absorb all the extra CO2 . At best, they may be sufficient to help the US stabilize carbon emission rates for a few decades, but even if this is achieved, stabilization of rates are not likely to return the Earth to pre-industrial carbon levels. Worse, biological feedbacks to global warming, such as forest fires, drying soils, rotting permafrost, etc, may actually greatly accelerate carbon emissions, i.e. we may experience massive carbon de-sequestration. Another major approach under consideration is to pump CO2 into old oil and gas wells. While seemingly attractive, it must be kept in mind that for this to be truly effective, it would have to be done on a world wide scale, include many sources of CO2 , including many sources which are presently small and widely distributed (such as car emissions, and not just coal plant emissions). All of this CO2 would need to be captured, transported, injected into old wells, and then the wells would need to be sealed and monitored. It is not clear that this would be affordable at all, and that there would be adequate capacity or assurance that CO2 would not leak out in massive quantities. In the worst case scenario, carbon sequestration efforts may simply fail, but also end up being a political tool that is used to seriously delay a transition to renewable energy sources, and also possibly create many new environmental problems problems while prolonging old ones. In the best case scenario, given the truly enormous amount of CO2 we are presently emitting, some sequestration approaches may serve as a useful bridge to curbing emissions while the transition to renewables is being made.

Ozone depletion

The ozone layer protects the Earth from the ultraviolet rays sent down by the sun. If the ozone layer is depleted by human action, the effects on the planet could be catastrophic. Ozone is present in the stratosphere. The stratosphere reaches 30 miles above the Earth, and at the very top it contains ozone. The suns rays are absorbed by the ozone in the stratosphere and thus do not reach the Earth.

Ozone is a bluish gas that is formed by three atoms of oxygen. The form of oxygen that humans breathe in consists of two oxygen atoms, O2. When found on the surface of the planet, ozone is considered a dangerous pollutant and is one substance responsible for producing the greenhouse effect. The highest regions of the stratosphere contain about 90% of all ozone. In recent years, the ozone layer has been the subject of much discussion. And rightly so, because the ozone layer protects both plant and animal life on the planet. The fact that the ozone layer was being depleted was discovered in the mid-1980s. The main cause of this is the release of CFCs, chlorofluorocarbons. Antarctica was an early victim of ozone destruction. A massive hole in the ozone layer right above Antarctica now threatens not only that continent, but many others that could be the victims of Antarctica's melting icecaps. In the future, the ozone problem will have to be solved so that the protective layer can be conserved.

The Ozone Layer Over Time. Image Credit: Institute for Studies in Development, Environment, and Security.

Causes of ozone depletion

Only a few factors combine to create the problem of ozone layer depletion. The production and emission of CFCs, chlorofluorocarbons, is by far the leading cause. Many countries have called for the end of CFC production because only a few produce the chemical. However, those industries that do use CFCs do not want to discontinue usage of this highly valuable industrial chemical. CFCs are used in industry in a variety of ways and have been amazingly useful in many products. Discovered in the 1930s by American chemist Thomas Midgley, CFCs came to be used in refrigerators, home insulation, plastic foam, and throwaway food containers. Only later did people realize the disaster CFCs caused in the stratosphere. There, the chlorine atom is removed from the CFC and attracts one of the three oxygen atoms in the ozone molecule. The process continues, and a single chlorine atom can destroy over 100,000 molecules of ozone. In 1974, Sherwood Rowland and Mario Molina followed the path of CFCs. Their research proved that CFCs were entering the atmosphere, and they concluded that 99% of all CFC molecules would end up in the stratosphere. Only in 1984, when the ozone layer hole was discovered over Antarctica, was the proof truly conclusive. At that point, it was hard to question the destructive capabilities of CFCs. Even if CFCs were banned, problems would remain. There would still be no way to remove the CFCs that are now present in the environment. Clearly though, something must be done to limit this international problem in the future.

Ozone depletion effects

Even minor problems of ozone depletion can have major effects. Every time even a small amount of the ozone layer is lost, more ultraviolet light from the sun can reach the Earth. Every time 1% of the ozone layer is depleted, 2% more UV-B is able to reach the surface of the planet. UV-B increase is one of the most harmful consequences of ozone depletion because it can cause skin cancer. The increased cancer levels caused by exposure to this ultraviolet light could be enormous. The EPA estimates that 60 million Americans born by the year 2075 will get skin cancer because of ozone depletion. About one million of these people will die. In addition to cancer, some research shows that a decreased ozone layer will increase rates of malaria and other infectious diseases. According to the EPA, 17 million more cases of cataracts can also be expected. The environment will also be negatively affected by ozone depletion. The life cycles of plants will change, disrupting the food chain. Effects on animals will also be severe, and are very difficult to foresee. Oceans will be hit hard as well. The most basic microscopic organisms such as plankton may not be able to survive. If that happened, it would mean that all of the other animals that are above plankton in the food chain would also die out. Other ecosystems such as forests and deserts will also be harmed. The planet's climate could also be affected by depletion of the ozone layer. Wind patterns could change, resulting in climatic changes throughout the world

Carbon credit

A carbon credit is a generic term for any tradable certificate or permit representing the right to emit one tonne of carbon dioxide or the mass of another greenhouse gas with a carbon dioxide equivalent (tCO2e) equivalent to one tonne of carbon dioxide.[1][2][3] Carbon credits and carbon markets are a component of national and international attempts to mitigate the growth in concentrations of greenhouse gases (GHGs). One carbon credit is equal to one metric tonne of carbon dioxide, or in some markets, carbon dioxide equivalent gases. Carbon trading is an application of an emissions trading approach. Greenhouse gas emissions are capped and then markets are used to allocate the emissions among the group of regulated sources. The goal is to allow market mechanisms to drive industrial and commercial processes in the direction of low emissions or less carbon intensive approaches than those used when there is no cost to emitting carbon dioxide and other GHGs into the atmosphere. Since GHG mitigation projects generate credits, this approach can be used to finance carbon reduction schemes between trading partners and around the world.

There are also many companies that sell carbon credits to commercial and individual customers who are interested in lowering their carbon footprint on a voluntary basis. These carbon offsetters purchase the credits from an investment fund or a carbon development company that has aggregated the credits from individual projects. Buyers and sellers can also use an exchange platform to trade, such as the Carbon Trade Exchange, which is like a stock exchange for carbon credits. The quality of the credits is based in part on the validation process and sophistication of the fund or development company that acted as the sponsor to the carbon project. This is reflected in their price; voluntary units typically have less value than the units sold through the rigorously validated Clean Development Mechanism.[4]

Climate change refers to a statistically significant

variation in either the mean state of the climate or in its variability, persisting for an extended period (typically decades or longer). Climate change may be due to natural internal processes or external forcings, or to persistent anthropogenic changes in the composition of the atmosphere or in land use. The Earth is the only planet in our solar system that supports life. The complex process of evolution occurred on Earth only because of some unique environmental conditions that were present: water, an oxygen-rich atmosphere, and a suitable surface temperature. Mercury and Venus, the two planets that lie between Earth and the sun, do not support life. This is because Mercury has no atmosphere and therefore becomes very hot during the day, while temperatures at night may reach -140 C. Venus, has a thick atmosphere which traps more heat than it allows to escape, making it too hot (between 150 and 450 C) to sustain life. Only the Earth has an atmosphere of the proper depth and chemical composition. About 30% of incoming energy from the sun is reflected back to space while the rest reaches the earth, warming the air, oceans, and land, and maintaining an average surface temperature of about 15 C. The chemical composition of the atmosphere is also responsible for nurturing life on our planet. Most of it is nitrogen (78%); about 21% is oxygen, which all animals need to survive; and only a small percentage (0.036%) is made up of carbon dioxide which plants require for photosynthesis. The atmosphere carries out the critical function of maintaining life-sustaining conditions on Earth, in the following way: each day, energy from the sun (largely in the visible part of the spectrum, but also some in the ultraviolet, and infra red portions) is absorbed by the land, seas, mountains, etc. If all this energy were to be absorbed completely, the earth would gradually become hotter and hotter. But actually, the earth both absorbs and, simultaneously releases it in the form of infra red waves (which cannot be seen by our eyes but can be felt as heat, for example the heat that you can feel with your hands over a heated car engine). All this rising heat is not lost to space, but is partly absorbed by some gases present in very small (or trace) quantities in the atmosphere, called GHGs (greenhouse gases). Greenhouse gases (for example, carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, water vapour, ozone), reemit some of this heat to the earth's surface. If they did not perform this useful function, most of the heat energy would escape, leaving the earth cold (about -18 C) and unfit to support life. However, ever since the Industrial Revolution began about 150 years ago, man-made activities have added significant quantities of GHGs to the atmosphere. The atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide have grown by about 31%, 151% and 17%, respectively, between 1750 and 2000 (IPCC 2001).

Definition of environmental degradation

Environmental degradation describes the erosion of the natural environment through the depletion of resources, the destruction of ecosystems and the extinction of plant and animal species. It is caused by direct or indirect human activity, and has increased significantly since the Industrial Revolution. The United Nations has listed environmental degradation in its top ten list of high level threats faced by the planet to date. Environmental degradation is caused in a variety of ways, predominantly by human actions, however natural events can also result in the deterioration of an environment. Earthquakes, volcanoes and intense rainfall events can all affect the environment in negative ways. Although these events can cause environmental degradation they are a natural occurrence, and therefore many ecosystems have adapted to their effects. The scale of these disturbances is also minuscule when compared to the amount of damage the environment has sustained as a result of human actions. The extraction of natural resources and the production of waste and other pollutants have severely degraded many of the planets ecosystems. Mining, deforestation, fossil fuel burning and pollution are just some of the human activities that have lead to the environmental degradation. In an effort to reduce this problem, many of the aforementioned issues have been identified by governments across the globe and action plan designed to minimise their impact on the environment. This will require action from all members of society from businesses to households.

Western nations are the largest consumers of goods and services in the world and they are also the largest contributors of environmental degradation. Developed countries are also in the best position to minimise the causes of environmental deterioration and set examples for developing nations to emulate. By acknowledging the causes and effects of environmental degradation, humankind can make a real effort to reducing this serious environmental problem.

Industrial pollution is pollution which can be directly linked with industry, in

contrast to other pollution sources. This form of pollution is one of the leading causes of pollution worldwide; in the United States, for example, the Environmental Protective Agency estimates that up to 50% of the nation's pollution is caused by industry. Because of its size and scope, industrial pollution is a serious problem for the entire planet, especially in nations which are rapidly industrializing, like China. This form of pollution dates back to antiquity, but widespread industrial pollution accelerated rapidly in the 1800s, with the start of the Industrial Revolution. The Industrial Revolution mechanized means of production, allowing for a much greater volume of production, and generating a corresponding increase in pollution. The problem was compounded by the use of fuels like coal, which is notoriously unclean, and a poor understanding of the causes and consequences of pollution.

There are a number of forms of industrial pollution. One of the most common is water pollution, caused by dumping of industrial waste into waterways, or improper containment of waste, which causes leakage into groundwater and waterways. Industrial pollution can also impact air quality, and it can enter the soil, causing widespread environmental problems. Because of the nature of the global environment, industrial pollution is never limited to industrial nations. Samples of ice cores from Antarctica and the Arctic both show high levels of industrial pollutants, illustrating the immense distances which pollutants can travel, and traces of industrial pollutants have been identified in isolated human, animal, and plant populations as well. Industrial pollution hurts the environment in a range of ways, and it has a negative impact on human lives and health. Pollutants can kill animals and plants, imbalance ecosystems, degrade air quality radically, damage buildings, and generally degrade quality of life. Factory workers in areas with uncontrolled industrial pollution are especially vulnerable. A growing awareness of factory pollution and its consequences has led to tighter restrictions on pollution all over the world, with nations recognizing that they have an obligation to protect themselves and their neighbors from pollution. However, industrial pollution also highlights a growing issue: the desire of developing nations to achieve first world standards of living and production. As these countries industrialize, they add to the global burden of industrial pollution, triggering serious discussions and arguments about environmental responsibility and a desire to reach a global agreement on pollution issues.

What are the different types of industrial pollutants and their effects on the environment?

There are seven main pollutants of concern - carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen dioxide (NO2), ground level ozone (O3), particulate matter (PM10 and PM2.5, sulphur dioxide (SO2), hydrocarbons and lead). Each pollutant has different sources, effects and behaviour. Concentrations of carbon monoxide, nitrogen dioxide and particulate matter will generally be highest close to busy roads. Due to complex atmospheric chemistry, ozone levels will generally be highest in rural areas during the summer months. Sulphur dioxide concentrations are highest in the vicinity of large industrial combustion processes. Hydrocarbons are a group of chemicals, which contribute to the formation of ground level ozone. Benzene and 1,3 butadiene are part of this group and known carcinogens.

Concentrations of these hydrocarbons are generally highest close to busy roads and in the vicinity of petrol filling stations.

Air pollution is made up of a mixture of gases and particles that have been released into the atmosphere by man-made processes. Such emissions are typically from the combustion of fossil fuels such as coal, oil, petrol or diesel. The sources, health effects and chemical behaviour of each separate pollutant are different, making the task of understanding and controlling air pollution as a whole very complex. While it is us who produce the pollution, it is primarily the weather that dictates what will happen once it is released into the air. During wet or windy conditions pollution levels remain low, either blown away and dispersed to harmless levels, or removed from the air by rain. During certain conditions pollution levels are able to build up to harmful levels leading to pollution 'epiodes'. The following paragraphs explain each of the major pollutants, their sources, health effects and upward or downward trends. Carbon Monoxide (CO) Carbon Monoxide (CO) is a colourless, odourless poisonous gas produced by incomplete, or inefficient, combustion of fuel including 'cold' or badly tuned engines. It is estimated that road transport is responsible for almost 90% of all carbon monoxide emissions in the UK. Badly ventilated domestic fuel appliances (gas, oil or solid fuel) can cause high levels indoors, as can smoking. The gas affects the transport of oxygen around the body by the blood. At very high levels, this can lead to a significant reduction in the supply of oxygen to the heart, particularly in people suffering from heart disease. As traffic is a major source of carbon monoxide, ambient concentrations will generally be highest close to busy roads. Monitoring data suggests that annual average CO levels have been decreasing over the last few years. This is probably due to improved vehicle engine efficiency and the introduction of catalytic converters. The effect of technological improvements has been cancelled out to some degree by an increase in traffic levels. Carbon Dioxide (CO2) As opposed to carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide (CO2) is produced by 'complete' fossil fuel combustion. While ambient levels do not have any direct health effects, it is an important 'greenhouse gas' which contributes to global warming. Its major anthropogenic (i.e. manmade) sources are road transport, power stations and other industrial combustion processes and domestic heating. As carbon dioxide emissions lead to global environmental problems, efforts to reduce levels have to be co-ordinated across the world. The UK Government, along with many other countries, has agreed a commitment to progressively reduce emissions in future years. Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2)

Nitrogen dioxide ('NO2') is one of a group of gases called nitrogen oxides ('NOx') formed in the combustion of fossil fuels. The majority of nitrogen oxides emitted from a vehicle exhaust are in the form of nitric oxide ('NO'), which is not considered harmful to health. However, this gas can react with other gases present both in the exhaust and the atmosphere, to form nitrogen dioxide. Nitrogen dioxide is harmful to health and is also an important component in the formation of ozone. Road transport is estimated to be responsible for about 50% of total emissions of nitrogen oxides (NOx), power stations contributing another 25%. The calculation of how much of this NO is converted to NO2 is an important, but extremely difficult factor in the reduction of pollution levels. Because of the domination of traffic sources, mean nitrogen dioxide levels are highest close to busy roads and in large urban areas. At very high levels, nitrogen dioxide gas irritates and inflames the airways of the lungs. This irritation causes a worsening of symptoms of those with lung or respiratory diseases. A shift from coal to gas-turbine power stations and the increased use of catalytic converters during the 1990s should have lead to a decrease in nitrogen dioxide levels over recent years. It is possible that increases in traffic volume have cancelled out these improvements. The situation is further complicated by complex reactions with other pollutants. A long-term trend is not clearly identifiable from monitoring data. Ground Level Ozone (O3) While naturally occurring ozone in the upper atmosphere, 'the ozone layer', protects the Earth, ground level ozone ('O3') is harmful to health. Ozone is not directly emitted, but is formed by a complex set of reactions involving nitrogen oxides and hydrocarbons (described below) in the presence of sunlight. In natural, unpolluted conditions, a cyclic balance is reached where sunlight breaks down nitrogen dioxide to form ozone, which then reacts with nitric oxide to reform nitrogen dioxide. At night, when there is no sunlight to drive the first part of the cycle, ozone is destroyed but not replaced. In polluted conditions where the air contains hydrocarbons from fuel combustion, the balance is upset. The hydrocarbons also react to form nitrogen dioxide, which then breaks down into more ozone. As a result, both nitrogen dioxide and ozone levels increase leading, in severe cases, to summertime 'smog'. As mentioned above, the majority of nitrogen oxides emitted from a vehicle exhaust are in the form of nitric oxide. As it is nitric oxide that destroys ozone, ozone concentrations are actually lower next to busy roads. For the same reason, ozone annual means are higher in rural locations than in cities. Like nitrogen dioxide, high levels of ozone can irritate and inflame the lungs. It can also cause eye irritation, migraine and coughing. It is also a strong oxidising agent. This means that it can attack materials such as rubber and pigments and damage vegetation. The international costs of ozone pollution through damage to health, crops and materials are huge. Once formed, ozone can remain in the atmosphere for many days and is often transported over long distances. It is for this reason that a reduction in ozone levels can only be achieved through European-wide action. Studies have shown that European ozone levels have

increased rapidly since 1940. Monitoring data from rural sites in the UK suggest that there was a small annual increase during the 1990s. Particulate Matter Particulate matter in the atmosphere can be from a whole range of sources, both natural, such as sand or sea spray, and man made, such as construction dust or soot. The amount of particulate matter (measured as 'black smoke') in the air in urban areas has decreased rapidly over the last 30 years. This is due to a decrease in coal burning, heavy industry and improved industrial pollution control measures; we no longer experience the infamous London Smogs of the 1950s. Attention is now focused on finer particles known as PM10. These fine particles can be breathed more deeply into the lungs and are more likely to have a toxic effect than larger particles. Increasing concern now surrounds even finer particles known as PM2.5. Measurements of PM10 have only been carried out in this country for the last few years - too short a period to be able to identify any significant trends. PM2.5 monitoring has only recently commenced in a few areas of London. Again, it is likely that improvements brought about by a decrease in coal burning and improved technology are at least partly offset by increased numbers of vehicles on the road. The increased market share of diesel vehicles, which typically emit more PM10 particles than petrol vehicles, exaggerates this. The smaller a particle, the longer it can remain suspended in the atmosphere. Very fine particles, made up of carbon from combustion and chemical compounds (sulphates and nitrates) can remain in the atmosphere for weeks. These particles can drift for many miles causing pollution problems across many countries. Episodes caused by this long-range transport of particulate pollution are explained below. As particulate matter is composed of such a large range of chemicals and materials from a variety of sources, the control of pollution levels is very difficult. As with ozone, local improvements will have only limited effect without international action. The mass of sizes, shapes and chemical properties of particulate matter makes it very difficult to assess its health effects. Expert opinion is that there is no threshold concentration below which particulates have no effect on health. The aim must therefore be to reduce concentrations to a level at which minimal effects on health can be identified. Sulphur Dioxide (SO2) Sulphur dioxide ('SO2') is produced when a material, or fuel, containing sulphur is burned. Globally, much of the sulphur dioxide in the atmosphere comes from natural sources, but in the UK the major contributors are power stations (65% of the total emissions). Sulphur dioxide levels in this country have dropped considerably over recent years due to cleaner power stations and a decreased use of coal. The highest levels of sulphur dioxide are recorded in areas where coal is used extensively. Sulphur dioxide pollution episodes only generally occur where there is widespread domestic use of coal or in the vicinity of coal- or oil-fired power stations. The weather conditions that lead to an SO2 episode are explained later in this section.

Short-term exposure to high levels of sulphur dioxide may cause coughing, tightening of the chest and irritation of the lungs. Hydrocarbons (Including Benzene) The term 'hydrocarbons' is often used when discussing traffic pollution. This refers to a group of chemicals of which volatile organic compounds (VOCs) are a subgroup. Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) comprise of a range of chemical compounds all of which contribute, to varying degrees, to the formation of ground level ozone. In addition, certain VOCs are known to cause cancer. Current attention is focused on 1,3 butadiene, primarily from vehicle exhausts, and benzene. Benzene in the atmosphere either comes from the combustion or evaporation of petrol. Levels are therefore highest close to busy roads or in the vicinity of petrol filling stations. Long-term exposure to high levels of benzene and 1,3 butadiene has been linked to leukaemia and cancer. Health experts have concluded that the health risks from these pollutants become progressively smaller as cumulative exposure is reduced. Health standards are therefore set based on annual mean levels. As only very small concentrations of hydrocarbons are typically found in the atosphere, the monitoring process is very complicated and expensive. As monitoring has only been carried out for the last few years, it is impossible to identify any upward or downward trend in levels. Annual results suggest the annual mean levels are well below European health standards. Lead The main source of lead in the atmosphere has historically been from combustion of petrol. Since the phasing out of leaded petrol across Europe, lead levels have fallen sharply and lead monitoring is no longer considered necessary in most parts of the country. There are at least three major categories with some examples Air pollution 1.Burning fuels and and causing carbon dioxide to go into the atmosphere and causing global warming. 2. Releasing Nitrogen and Sulfur compounds into the air, causing acid rain 3. Releasing VOC's into the air which combine with other chemicals to create smog 4. Releasing halogenated hydrocarbons into the air, which drift up high in the atmosphere and damage the Ozone Layer Water pollution 1. spilling toxic industrial chemicals or oil into the water which causes direct damage to wildlife 2. releasing organic chemicals into the water, which through a number of processes changes the oxygen content of the water, resulting in the decreased ability of our rivers and lakes to support life

3. Using our rivers to get rid of waste heat from chemical refineries and power plants, resulting in an increased average water temperature, and the death of less adaptable species' of fish and water plants 4. Fertilzer and pesticide runoff from farms Soil Pollution 1. poisoning our land and water table when improperly disposed of stored chemicals leech though the soil, resulting in the loss of soil fertility, heavy metal poisoning in people and animals, etc.

The Effect of Industrial Pollution

By an eHow Contributor

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Pollutants given off by various industries and factories are often considered to be one of the prime factors contributing to air, water and soil pollution. According to the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), it has been estimated that industrial pollution is responsible for almost 50 percent of the pollution present in the United States. There are various wideranging effects, as well as serious consequences, of industrial pollution on the ecological balance of the atmosphere.

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Harmful Effects of Factory Waste What Are the Causes of Industrial Air Pollution?
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1. Global Warming
Global warming is one of the most common and serious consequences of industrial pollution. The emission of various greenhouse gases such as CO2, methane (CH4), among others from various industries, increases the overall temperature of the earth, resulting in global warming. Global warming has various serious hazards, both on the environment as well as on human health. It results in melting of glaciers and snow-capped mountains, causing an increase of the water levels in seas and rivers, thereby increasing the chances of flood. Apart from this, global warming also has numerous health risks on humans, such as increase of diseases such as malaria and dengue, cholera, Lyme disease and plague, among others.

Air Pollution
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Industrial pollution, as stated above, is one of the major causes of air pollution. With the increase in the number of industries and factories due to the industrial revolution; air pollution also has increased significantly. The emissions from various industries contain large amounts of gases such as carbon dioxide, sulphur and nitrogen, among others. These gases, when present in elevated levels in the atmosphere, often result in various environmental and health hazards such as acid rain, and various skin disorders in individuals.

Water Pollution
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Pollution emitted from the industries is also one of the major factors contributing towards water pollution. Dumping of various industrial waste products into water sources, and improper contamination of industrial wastes, often result in polluting the water. Such water pollution disturbs the balance of the ecosystem inside, resulting in the death of various animal and plant species present in the water.

Soil Pollution
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Soil pollution is defined as a phenomenon is which the soil loses its structure and fertility due to various natural and artificial reasons. Dumping of industrial wastes is one of the prime factors contributing towards soil pollution. Industrial wastes contain large amounts of various chemicals which get accumulated on the top layer of the soil, resulting in loss of fertility of the soil. Such loss of fertility ultimately results in changes in the ecological balances of the environment due to reduction in plant growth.

Other Common Effects

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Certain other common effects of industrial pollution include damaging buildings and structures, increasing the risk of various occupational hazards such as asbestosis, pneumoconiasis, among others.

Waste management
The collection, transportation, and disposal of garbage, sewage, and other waste products. Waste management encompasses management of all processes and resources for proper handling of waste materials, from maintenance of waste transport trucks and dumping facilities to compliance with health codes and environmental regulations

Sustainable development
Sustainable development has been defined in many ways, but the most frequently quoted definition is from Our Common Future, also known as the Brundtland Report:[1] "Sustainable development is development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. It contains within it two key concepts:

the concept of needs, in particular the essential needs of the world's poor, to which overriding priority should be given; and the idea of limitations imposed by the state of technology and social organization on the environment's ability to meet present and future needs."

All definitions of sustainable development require that we see the world as a systema system that connects space; and a system that connects time. When you think of the world as a system over space, you grow to understand that air pollution from North America affects air quality in Asia, and that pesticides sprayed in Argentina could harm fish stocks off the coast of Australia. And when you think of the world as a system over time, you start to realize that the decisions our grandparents made about how to farm the land continue to affect agricultural practice today; and the economic policies we endorse today will have an impact on urban poverty when our children are adults. We also understand that quality of life is a system, too. It's good to be physically healthy, but what if you are poor and don't have access to education? It's good to have a secure income, but what if the air in your part of the world is unclean? And it's good to have freedom of religious expression, but what if you can't feed your family? The concept of sustainable development is rooted in this sort of systems thinking. It helps us understand ourselves and our world. The problems we face are complex and seriousand we can't address them in the same way we created them. But we can address them. It's that basic optimism that motivates IISD's staff, associates and board to innovate for a healthy and meaningful future for this planet and its inhabitants.

Elements of Sustainable Development: Environment, Society and Economy

A key feature of sustainable development is that it comprises three elements: Environment,

Society, Economy. Or, if you like, the three Ps: Planet, People, Profit. All three, in no particular order, are balanced so that one doesnt destroy another. A sustainably run fishing community would go something like this:

Theyre environmentally responsible: they dont overfish, so preserve breeding stocks for next year. Theyre socially responsible: they make sure the fish they do catch generate jobs within the community. Theyre economically responsible: they stay in profit.

Sustainable development emphatically does not mean a return to some sort of pre-industrial lifestyle. Its about getting a better quality of life, not worse. The key is to use technology to help us to achieve sustainable development, not use sustainable development as a reason to shun technology. It means you can use your car, enjoy central heating, and wash your clothes and dishes by machine. You just do it in such a way that youre not wasting anything, that everything is re-used or recycled, that everything is developing sustainably. Of course we know its not that simple. All round Ireland, were depleting fish stocks. The reasons are complex but boil down to this: people have to overfish because of overfishing. There are too many factory ships chasing too few fish to sell too cheaply. Sustainable development is all very well, but, in essence, are the politicians going to subsidise trawlers not to catch fish in order to give them a job in the next decade? Also, no government is able to do much about changing our unsustainable way of life if we continue to be passive, apathetic consumers. For example, the Islands transport system - it favours cars over public transport because, frankly, most of us want it that way. If the motor lobby says that reducing car use will cost jobs, and if car use keeps going up, it will be a brave MP/TD who dares to put through anti-car legislation. (Of course, there is also a counter argument that when, and until, public transport improves, things will not change anyway.) Anyone can see that its unsustainable - but its up to us to do something about it. So what can we do? Well, as the waste hierarchy goes, we could start with minimising waste: print only when necessary (and always double sided), store copies of e-mails electronically, and take the stairs more often. Also, we could re-use or recycle. But although these are important first steps, they can sometimes seem a bit insignificant. Even if you diligently recycled every letter, brochure and factsheet you received, it would still only amount to saving a twig or two. If everyone does it, of course it becomes significant: new markets can become viable for using recycled plastic, glass, paper, clothes and laser cartridges.

Principles and Guidelines of Sustainable Development

Principles: 1. Integration of Environmental and Economic Decisions 1(1) Economic decisions should adequately reflect environmental, human health and social effects.

1(2) Environmental and health initiatives should adequately take into account economic, human health and social consequences. 2. Stewardship 2(1) The economy, environment, human health and social well-being should be managed for the equal benefit of present and future generations. 2(2) Manitobans are caretakers of the economy, the environment, human health and social well-being for the benefit of present and future generations. 2(3) Todays decisions are to be balanced with tomorrows effects. 3. Shared Responsibility and Understanding 3(1) Manitobans should acknowledge responsibility for sustaining the economy, the environment, human health and social well-being, with each being accountable for decisions and actions in a spirit of partnership and open cooperation. 3(2) Manitobans share a common economic, physical and social environment. 3(3) Manitobans should understand and respect differing economic and social views, values, traditions and aspirations. 3(4) Manitobans should consider the aspirations, needs and views of the people of the various geographical regions and ethnic groups in Manitoba, including Aboriginal peoples, to facilitate equitable management of Manitobas common resources. 4. Prevention Manitobans should anticipate, and prevent or mitigate, significant adverse economic, environmental, human health and social effects of decisions and actions, having particular careful regard to decisions whose impacts are not entirely certain but which, on reasonable and well-informed grounds, appear to pose serious threats to the economy, the environment, human health and social well-being. 5. Conservation and Enhancement Manitobans should (a) maintain the ecological processes, biological diversity and life-support systems of the environment; (b) harvest renewable resources on a sustainable yield basis; (c) make wise and efficient use of renewable and non-renewable resources; and (d) enhance the long-term productive capability, quality and capacity of natural ecosystems. 6. Rehabilitation and Reclamation Manitobans should (a) endeavour to repair damage to or degradation of the environment; and (b) consider the need for rehabilitation and reclamation in future decisions and actions. 7. Global Responsibility Manitobans should think globally when acting locally, recognizing that there is economic, ecological and social interdependence among provinces and nations, and working cooperatively, within Canada and internationally, to integrate economic, environmental, human health and social factors in decision making while developing comprehensive and equitable solutions to problems.

Guidelines: 1. Efficient Use of Resources which means (a) encouraging and facilitating development and application of systems for proper resource pricing, demand management and resource allocation together with incentives to encourage efficient use of resources; and (b) employing full-cost accounting to provide better information for decision makers. 2. Public Participation which means (a) establishing forums which encourage and provide opportunity for consultation and meaningful participation in decision making processes by Manitobans; (b) endeavouring to provide due process, prior notification and appropriate and timely redress for those adversely affected by decisions and actions; and (c) striving to achieve consensus amongst citizens with regard to decisions affecting them. 3. Access to Information which means (a) encouraging and facilitating the improvement and refinement of economic, environmental, human health and social information; and (b) promoting the opportunity for equal and timely access to information by all Manitobans. 4. Integrated Decision-Making and Planning which means encouraging and facilitating decision making and planning processes that are efficient, timely, accountable and cross-sectoral and which incorporate an inter-generational perspective of future needs and consequences. 5. Waste Minimization and Substitution which means (a) encouraging and promoting the development and use of substitutes for scarce resources where such substitutes are both environmentally sound and economically viable; and (b) reducing, reusing, recycling and recovering the products of society. 6. Research and Innovation which means encouraging and assisting the researching, development, application and sharing of knowledge and technologies which further our economic, environmental, human health and social well-being.

What Is the Meaning of Green Funding?

Environmentally sustainable business can attract considerable funds.

"Green funding" refers to funding of a project or business that is considered environmentally sustainable. Funding can come from private sources or government sources and can be in the form of loans or other types of debt, equity or grants. Green funding is often focused on goals beyond financial returns, seeking both financial returns and environmental benefits.

1. Recipients of Green Funding

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Green funding is sought by companies, organizations or individuals who are producing goods and services that are friendly to the environment, often by having a smaller environmental impact or footprint than alternative products or companies. Examples include renewable energy companies, purchasers of renewable energy generation, organic farms, makers of products that contain few or no synthetic chemicals and developers of clean technology.

Sources of Private Green Funding

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Private investors and philanthropists fund green projects and companies for a variety of reasons and under a variety of terms. Examples of private funders include bank lenders, venture capital funds, foundations and individuals. Private investors may be seeking a strictly financial return and think green investments are attractive on that basis alone. Other investors are seeking a positive environmental impact along with a financial return and still others are primarily after a low environmental footprint.

Sources of Public Green Funding

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City, state and national governments are sources of green funding. Funding can take the form of subsidized loans, grants, or contracts. The government typically wants job creation and innovation that will make the country, state or city competitive, as well as clean environmentally. Cash incentives for green companies often expire within a few years of being made available. The political climate is a major factor in much green funding made available through public channels.

Green is Not Black and White: Issues and Criticisms

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There is a continuing debate over what "green" is. The lack of a universally agreed-upon definition can be confusing. It can lead to a company claiming to be green while others disagree and possibly accuse the company of "greenwashing." Given the complexity of the world's ecosystems, it is very possible for a product or company to be green in one respect, but not in another. For example, many hydro-electric dams generate electricity without greenhouse gas emissions, so are considered green in one respect. They also, however, prevent salmon from making it upriver to spawn. In that respect, they are not green. Those involved in green funding wind up determining for themselves what they consider green.

Future
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As green becomes more carefully defined, and as metrics for measuring greenness improve, those involved in green funding, including customers of green companies, will continue to finance green projects and businesses. It remains to be seen whether further climate legislation is enacted around the world, which would funnel even more funds to those who can be competitive in a way that treads lightly on the environment.