ELEMENTS

THE

PSYCHOPHYSICS
BY

Gustav Theodor Fechner.

SECOND EDITION UNCHANGED. PART.

LEIPZIG
PRINTING AND PUBLISHING OF Breitkopf & Hrtel

in 1889.

Content. Editor's Preface Author's Preface Introductory. I. More general consideration of the relationship of body and soul II concept and role of psychophysics. III. A preliminary issue IV Royal term on sensation and stimulus Outer psychophysics.

The psychophysical measurement gauge. V. measure of physical activity. Living force. VI. Maprinzip sensitivity. VII Maprinzip of sensation. VIII measurement methods of sensitivity. 1) measurement methods, the difference in sensitivity. a) General view. b) General considerations and precautions. c) considerations in regard to the time and space conditions of the experiments. Constant error. d) Special on the method of right and wrong cases. e) Special to the method of average error. f) Mathematical relationship of the methods. 2) Methods of Measurement of absolute sensitivity. Fundamental laws and facts. IX. Weber's law. The self-reported Weber 1) light. 2) Sound 3) weights. 4) temperature. 5) Extensive sizes. (Judgment and Tastma) 6) Fortune physique et morale . X. The fact of the threshold 1) Intensive threshold a) Threshold b) Difference threshold 2) Extensive threshold 3) More general considerations regarding the threshold 4) Consequences of the existence of threshold XI. For more information about the size and dependency ratios of the thresholds in the different sensory domains 1) Intensive threshold a) Light color and b) sound intensity and pitch. c) weight d) Temperature 2) Extensive threshold

a) sight Special provisions smallest detectable sizes special provisions smallest detectable distances. ) Two points distante ) Two threads distante ) Stripped and wrflige figures Behavior of the side parts of the retina in the detection of the smallest sizes and distances Distance differences (eye) b) touch c) conception of time and motion XII. Parallel to Weber's law laws. 1) Weight attempts 2) experience in the areas of perception of light 3) experiments in areas of extensive sensation XIII. Laws of mixing phenomena

Author's Preface to the first edition.

Under psychophysics I understand according to the, on the 2nd Chapter detail given, a teaching statement that, although the extent of the task here is to ancient, but in regard to the collection and treatment of this task as a new that you might not find inappropriate and unnecessary for the new name, a short exact study of the relationships between body and soul. As an exact theory has psychophysics as physics and mathematical shortcut to experience experiential facts, which are based on a measure of the demands of the experience is commanded, and, where such is not at command to look for it. Now that the dimension in terms of the physical quantities is already given, the first and main task of this work will be the determination of the degree with respect to the psychological variables, where it has been still missing, and the second, to consider the applications and versions, which attach themselves to it . It is shown that the determination of the mental dimension is not a mere matter of philosophical or Studiertisches apergus, but a broad experiential base calls. I think this here by outside and internal investigations so far to have been adequately that the principle of measurement is ensured by the applications but so much that even the use of this measure will be recognized. But need the experiential base for development of psychophysical measurement gauge still great extension, and what is given by the applications, only shows that no comparison will be more to give. In short, the psychophysics is in the form in which it appears here, a lesson in the first state of becoming, so do you also the title of this document elements are not wrong, as if it is here to display of the most essential one already founded and formed

teaching at an elementary textbook, acted, but rather representation of the beginnings of a theory, which still can be found in the elemental state. So imagine not claim this scripture, which are to be placed on an elementary textbook. They are often studies, designs, compilations, that would be quite inappropriate in such, but can help to bring it about that once such a textbook would be. What was to require a holding together the investigation on certain points and summarize the results in definite directions, you will, I think, do not miss. Just as little from it as an elementary textbook, one has to look for here is a collection of all the material of psychophysics, but preferably only of that which belongs to the creation of the psychophysical measurement gauge and the applications thereof enters it. Myriad, which forms a subject of psychophysics, could not find a place here because it is not as advanced in order to find a record already in the same can. Like many things in this book already to be much, Much too little, one anyway has reason to be lenient in this regard, after formally almost nothing, material only very Airborne existed, which I are based and has called me, can a house But not build without stones to bring down, and where the plan is to build the house before, this can not be all equal right and have the right balance in the first attempts. Every subsequent attempt of this kind is of a certain page more complete, less of the other, and can be more precise. No less certainly than in regard to the formal objections I have to take the indulgence due to errors in the outlying claim that may be left over in this document, including treatment with so many fine, new and difficult questions of how such more in the following to offer than this part. I went in the long course of these studies, with fixed and always fixed deputy general state principles by so many wrong turns and ambiguities in detail - the whole area was but previously buried in obscurity - that I dare not hope they have at the present editors all to have behind me. But I would these tests can not give if I wanted to wait for a complete guarantee in this respect, and cherish but the confidence that, after already so much has gradually corrected and clarified in this doctrine, the same also further progress in this direction would be capable. Finally, it will only ask whether the what and how it is offered here, a durable and fruitful beginning is necessary. If you find it, so do not take it the missing and the errors on high and it will be at least their merit to have caused the better. And I am far from saying that what is in this book, is something absolutely new, and it would be a bad recommendation for when it would be so. Rather, to be fair priority claims inside just from the front, and also show that the signature is subject to something more than a subjective idea, I touch equal in the preface briefly some historical points on which I past in its place and finally in a special eingehe chapter. The experiential law, which forms the main base of the mental measurement gauge, has already been long ago established by various researchers in different areas, and notably pronounced in relative generality of EH Weber, I would like to even call the father of psychophysics and proven experimentally. The mathematical function on the

other hand, which is the most common and important case of application of our Maprinzips is also already long ago by various mathematicians, physicists and philosophers, such as Bernoulli (Laplace, Poisson), Euler (Herbart, Drobisch), Steinheil (Pogson) for special , psychophysics zuzueignende, founded cases on the law and reproduced by other researchers or accepted. Now all this happened not from the point of view of psychological measurement, and to draw attention to themselves without so far, so it is after the principle of this measure folgends (Chapter 7) have spoken, without apparent difficulty that it already the, established by those researchers who feature was present. Thereafter, our mental level is in fact only one side of the generalization of the other side of the clear statement of what was already present in its importance as a psychic level. The reference thereto should contribute something to lessen the mistrust, which may bring inside the announcement of such a measure from the front. The same problem is in fact not the problem of squaring the circle or perpetual motion, even after the fact rather solved by researchers, whose name is a guarantee of the validity of this solution. After I thought this merits previous researchers around the main subject of this book, I would miss a major requirement if I did not mention the equally essential support as promotion, which I found myself in my study by Volkmann. The willing entering this perceptive and fine researcher to the interests of this study, which has incidentally led him far beyond the first by established claims beyond his own tracks, and the growth that characterized the experiential material in this publication is grown, commit myself in the Indeed, to biggest Thank you. At the same time I venture to assert it as a favorable sign for the principle and character of the teaching of this document that they exhibit not only a prop in precise studies of the principal researchers, but also able to provide starting points for such. In fact, apart from those of theoretical and experimental studies on which it is based, and which have already been linked to it, enough initiative has evolved over this font often advised to refer to the future to alternate end or further continuing studies, which partly for the further development of psychophysical measurement gauge are necessary, some in the same applications into contact, and, notwithstanding some of them offer great interest, but would have without the aspect of this teaching is not presented. The psychophysical experiment, so far only a casual place soon finding in the physical, physiological experimentation room soon, now takes his own room, his own apparatus, its own methods to complete. It is also without question that the area of this investigation is expanding more and more, the more it is cultivated. And so I am looking for the main fruit of our investigation so far less in which it has been born, than that which they promise to wear once. What we have here is a meager beginning of a beginning. In regard to the way in which mathematics is introduced in this work and will engage in particular in the following parts of the same place, I wish mathematicians want to keep writing these elements for non-mathematicians and non-mathematicians for mathematicians, by my endeavor was to the effect that to be a course and enough

to do to others what was going on but not entirely without conflict. Especially like the mathematicians so excuse some little broad and popular struggle in the interest of the non-mathematician, and I had in mind, that this font is expected mainly interested physiologists, while at the same time she wishes to interest philosophers. In both, but of course also be seen mathematician, is nowadays not so permitted, as it would actually be required. Like the other, the non-mathematician derivatives, which they can not follow - if even only those of very low demands on mathematical understanding occur - as mathematical facts to accept, and here and there a chapter, a parenthesis or execution overturn that engage in something too deep. If I am not mistaken, it is in gear and find any content of this document in whole intelligible who only know what is a mathematical equation, and knows the properties of logarithms, or to those given in the introduction of the next part, brief recapitulation the same will hold. Of others I do not wish that they took care of this writing, but the least that they precipitated a judgment as to what could be a einsichtiges in any case. With diligence I am not permitted to enter into this sort of writing on the contrary, the mathematical conception of psychological conditions will provide the same against the Herbart'sche. Herbart will always be the merit of the possibility of a mathematical conception of these conditions not only to have first expressed, but also made the astute first attempt to implement such a view, and each will remain after him only a second in this respect. In fact, however, the following experiments are as much under from his own different basic aspects that as little of a particular highlighting the difference between the two needs, as it would be futile and inappropriate, here is a dispute between two to try, especially those without could take place a dispute over fundamental philosophical questions, which here is to avoid at all costs. The decision between the two, which is at the same time be a decision for these basic questions, I have to leave to the future. Perhaps you expect here anticipate a declaration on the position, which will take this scripture to materialism and idealism and the basic religious questions, so any study of the relationship of body and soul must necessarily come into contact. What is now the first is concerned, so this writing goes to the dispute about the basic relationship of body and soul, which divides the materialists and idealists, not one; also their designs and consequences neither side in a still lie in the other direction by the experiential relations between the two sides of the existence of a functional relationship is, which eliminates this bias by itself. As to the second, they would all conclusions that we hereby but the consequences of materialism as to the basic religious questions were forced to accept, be premature. It is obvious that especially those in points Introductory short pronounced, though rather the background fine as a starting point of the development of this specification, basic view can undergo a one-sided materialistic interpretation and exploitation, and in regard to the question of immortality seems at first lead to the same conclusion about need. But I want nothing more objected than that this whole writing on the basis of and in connection a completely opposite view and interpretation of that view adult that I have given the term in earlier writings, and on this I must refer, if one that concerns will give a result, since this is not the place to

go further into it. The present volume of this document contains the records of the psychological dimension, ie the establishment of his principle and explanation of the methods, laws and facts that belong to the experiential grounds of the same: the following is the mental measurement function itself with its overarching from the exterior to the interior , consequences develop. The present takes a more empirical hereafter, the following more a mathematical and philosophical interest in the claim, a mathematical, if the field of new applications, which opens up for the math in this Part, is taken in following up to certain limits, a philosophical, provided that arise with these applications belang rich aspects for the conception of the relationship between body and soul. Leipzig, 7 Dez. in 1889.

Preface by the editor.

After the present work was sold out in bookstores for several years, the need for a reprint of the same has always been urgent felt. Fechner himself could be as little as about an unchanged reissue decide the same to a new edition of his major work. He preferred, studies and critical discussions that would have in a new edition must find space to publish in specific journals. He therefore, I believe, objectively chosen the right thing. A work which, like the elements of psychophysics, entirely new avenues of research strikes, is always in the original form in which it exerted its effect, also preferably remain significant. The more I was so ready to meet after the passing of Fechner's prompt action and the publisher to take over the publication of a new edition. It was to me as a matter of course that this could only be an unchanged reprint of the first. I just thought that the use of the later psychophysical Fechner's work through at appropriate points in notes attached to facilitating evidence of the same. These notes of the editor are provided to distinguish it from the author's notes indicated by asterisks with numbers. The principal scriptures were to be considered here are: In terms of psychophysics. Leipzig in 1877. Abbreviated quotes: In matters. Review of the main points of psychophysics. Leipzig in 1882. Abbreviated revision. Furthermore, the recent psychophysical Fechner's work: On the psychological Maprinzipien and Weber's Law, in: Philosophical Studies, Edited. by W. Wundt, Vol IV p 161-230; Abbreviated: Mental Maprinzipien. The other rare works cited are given each under its full title. Of course, at the end of the second volume of the first edition as well as in other places (in the annex to "Add stuff") noticed misprints and corrections have been taken into account.Where, however, Fechner later was limited to general corrective or additional comments, their introduction would require the same engaging a makeover in the text, I thought I was in touch with an accompanying note on the subsequent

correction must be content. The correction of the sheet of the present edition has taken Dr. Oswald Klpe. Both have been examined by the same, the quotations given in the notes again, and completed more than once. The worshipers of Fechner's will, I hope, the first volume of the attached list of his numerous writings be a welcome addition. I was through the kindness of the family in the fortunate position of a production of this directory to 1880 and by then reaching almost complete "Annuarium the works and papers of Professor G. Fechner" Mr. Surgeon Dr. Rudolph Mller in Dresden, which is the same Fechner had given to his eightieth birthday, to put a basis. An absolute completeness, incidentally, was not achievable in this directory, as numerous smaller works, some anonymous, especially in literary journals, could not be determined with certainty. Leipzig, July 31, 1888. W. Wundt.
Nachdem das vorliegende Werk schon seit mehreren Jahren im Buchhandel vergriffen war, hat sich das Bedrfnis nach einem Neudruck desselben immer dringender fhlbar gemacht.

Text original
Contribuu a millorar la traducci

Introductory. I. More general consideration of the relationship of body and soul.

However, the doctrine of the body, in the various branches of natural science has progressed to a great development, and sharp principles and methods delighted that ensure their successful progress, however, the doctrine of the spirit in psychology and logic at least to a certain extent fixed fundamentals has won, the study of the relationships between body and mind or body and soul until now remained almost just a Field philosophical dispute without solid foundation and without safe principles and methods for the progress of the investigation. The most obvious reason this ratio is less favorable to seek my opinion in the following factual circumstances that can certainly ask again after his back lying further reason. The ratios of the physical world itself, we can pursue directly and in connection with experience, the ratios of the inner or spiritual world no less, that although only go so far our senses and their reinforcing aids, these so far of everyone's soul is sufficient; but so that we are able to basic facts, basic laws, basic conditions to win in each of the two areas, which can serve as starting points for secure documents and the conclusion and further progress. Not so, by only one occurs with the connexion of the physical and spiritual world of the two are directly associated factors of this relationship at a time into the immediate experience, while the other remains under the ceiling. Because, however, we our feelings and thoughts are us immediately conscious, we can not see any of the movements in the brain, which are bound and to which they are in turn tied, the physical remains here under the spiritual covering, and while we the bodies of other people , animals and all of

nature can be subjected to the anatomical and physiological, physical and chemical investigation immediately, we can do nothing directly of the souls to learn first, and the God which the second listening, the spiritual remains here in the physical ceiling. And thus remains the hypotheses and the denial large margin.Is there something in the one and the other cover, and what is to be found among them? The uncertainty, the hesitation, the argument on these questions of fact has so far had no fixed starting point and point for a theory of the conditions to which facts are largely's still arguing only allowed. And what can be the reason of this peculiar relationship be that we are body and spirit for himself, but never both, as it belongs together immediately each; also can watch together immediately, however, we had the usual, which is directly observe easiest together? After the inviolability in which there is this relationship between mental and physical areas, we may assume that there is a fundamental, in their basic relationship is justified itself. But there is no similar, giving us the same fact at least explain, if it can not lead to the bottom? Probably can point to this and that. for example, if someone is inside a circle, the convex side thereof is for it completely hidden below the concave ceiling and if it is outside, vice versa, the concave side of the convex ceiling. Both sides belong together inseparably as well as the mental and physical side of man, and this can take up relatively well as inner and outer side, but it is equally impossible to be seen from a point of view in the plane of the circle both sides of the circle at the same time than from a standpoint in the realm of human existence these two sides of man. Only as we change our perspective, the side of the circle, we see the changes, and hiding behind the saw. But the circle is just a picture, and it is the question of the cause. Now is not the role and intent to enter into this written in lower or somehow disruptive discussions on the basic question of the relationship of body and soul. Find Anyone see the puzzle, in that it appears to him as such, can resolve on its way. It will therefore be without any binding consequences for the following if I only order not to let a possible question as to the general view, which has formed the starting point for this work and even the background of the same forms for me without any answer, and also a clue in this field fluctuating ideas which perform, that such a search only rather than to have already found believe, would meet with a few words on this view, is nothing but contain essential for the pursuance of Governing. For very large lure in the introduction of a font like this to get lost in extensive and weitausholende discussions in this regard, and no small difficulty to avoid it at all here, it is at least the short exposure of the view to which I limit myself folgends excuse. Prior to a second illustrative example of the first. The solar system from the Sun offers represent a very different sight than from Earth. There is the Copernican, Ptolemaic here. It is impossible to remain around the same time for observers to observe both world systems together, despite both quite inseparably belong together, and just like the concave and convex side of the circle are basically just two different manifestations of the same thing from different viewpoints. But every now again it is enough to change the view so effective for the other world, a world in which

appearance. The whole world consists of such examples that prove to us that what is one thing, appears from two points of view than two, and not one from a point of view can have the same as the other. Anyone who does not admit that it is allwegs and so can not be otherwise. Only in Subject of the largest and durchschlagendsten example you do not give it to expire or is not it. But this gives us the ratio of the mental and physical world. What you think of as your views on inner spirit that you yourself are this spirit that appears on outside positions, however as this mental physical surface. There is a difference if you think with your brain, or see into the brain of the thinker. 1) Since all appears Different, but the view is quite different, where an inner, here is an external, unspeakably different even than in previous examples, and therefore give the difference in the modes unspeakably greater. Because the dual publication of the circle of the planetary system is, but only by two different external positions basically won, however, the middle of the circle on the sun remains the observers except the part of the district, except the planet. But the self-manifestation of the spirit of a true inner positions of the underlying system it against itself, the coincidence with itself, the appearance of the associated physicality of a real external point of view, however, won the non-coincidence of it.
1)

with the equivalent of looking into it, is an adequate presentation of conclusions, based on externally seen, summarize how the internal state would appear in clearing away the obstacles Into the vision.

This is now the same of course, what we first investigated the reason why no one mind and body together, as they are directly, also can immediately perceive together. It may just be outwardly and inwardly against the same thing at the same time nobody. Why not a spirit of another mind it immediately as the true mind, but regardless you should think he would perceive the easiest of the same nature, he has, if it does not coincide with it other than just the physical appearance of way. Why can not a ghost at all perceive the other as with the help of its physicality, for what seems to the outside of the spirit, whose physical appearance is just way. Therefore, the publication of the mind is always, however, every body appears only once on a different manifold, because there is only one internal point to the diversity against the outer positions and the diversity of the parties it. Thus, the previous mode of representation covers the fundamental relationships between body and soul, which should seek to cover every base view it. Still one: Body and soul go with each other, and the change in a corresponding change in the other one. Why? Leibniz says, you can have different views about it. Two clocks mounted on the same Brette direct their course through the medium of

a common attachment to each other (ie if they do not deviate too much from each other), that is the ordinary dualistic view of the relation between body and soul. It can also move the pointer Somebody both watches so that they will always harmoniously, which is the occasionalistische, according to which God creates the physical changes to the spiritual and vice versa in constant harmony. You can be completely set up from the outset that they require, without the tuition, go by yourself exactly with each other, that is the view of the same pre-established harmony. Leibniz has forgotten a view, and indeed the simplest. You can also go harmoniously with each other, so do not go out of each other because they are not two different clocks. Thus, the joint board, the constant tuition, the artificiality of the first device is spared. What the outside observer appears as the organic clock with an engine and wheels and levers or organic way as their most important and most essential part, it appears even internally quite different from their own mind with the passage of sensations, impulses and thoughts. It must not offend that man is here called a clock. If it is called in one respect as he is not mentioned in any way. The diversity of an appearance but it depends on not only by the difference of standpoint, but also from the diversity of the parties it. A blind man sees with equally favorable external positions as a seeing nothing from the outside, and so does a dead clock despite equally favorable position of the coincidence with itself like a brain inside of nothing, it is only the external appearance there. The science is consistently on the outer point of view of things, the science of the spirit on the inside and the views of life are based on the exchange of views, the natural philosophy on the identity of that which appears twice on double positions, a doctrine of the relationship between mind and body, the relations between the two modes of have to pursue a. These are the basic points of view, with which I will not explain both the last reason being of body and mind, as the same general factual relations seeking to combine under a single view. But it remains, as I said, each made freely through which others view it the same trying to make, or whether he will try to make at all. What Everyone is most appropriate in this regard will arrive on the context of his other views, and of course even reverse the possibility or impossibility to justify an appropriate general context to find the same. But here is a priori no matter whether he put heart and soul just as two different manifestations of the same essence, or as two externally matched nature, or the soul as a point in a nexus of other points of substantially equal or unequal nature, or want to miss a single basic view at all, only to the extent Everyone recognizes the experiential relationship between body and soul, and an experiential pursuit allows the same, he may try the same gezwungenste representation. Because only the experiential relationship between body and soul, we will be based in the following, and us also serve to describe the factual of the most common expressions which are a dualistic held rather in the sense as our monistic view if already allow easy translation into it. This is not to say that the lesson will develop here will ever believe, the reason for

the relationship between body and mind, and without influence be indifferent on counter-parts. But you confuse the consequences that may flow from it one day, and already begin to make some, not having a backing this theory. This document is purely empirical, in fact, and dismiss any condition of entering the front. If there is not, one may ask?, The possibility of such a document is in direct contradiction with the fact with which we started, that the relationship between body and soul were deprived of experienceability But they are not the perceptibility at all, but it is only the immediate relations of the immediate perceptibility withdrawn. Even our understanding of the general relationship between body and soul, based on experiences of the most general kind, which can be make about their relationship, they also do not like anyone who comes with fixed requirements for this document, as the necessary expressions appear the same. The result will show that we are not equally special experience at its disposal, which may partly serve to orient us in the areas of indirect relationships, are generally suitable to justify conclusions about the immediate. In fact, it could with that general view, even if they should be accepted, not be done. Ensuring fertility and depth of a general view at all does not depend on general, but the elementals. The law of gravitation and the molecular laws (including the common ground with the former) are elementary laws, they would be known thoroughly, and the whole scope has exhausted conclusions, the theory of the physical world in the greatest generality would be completed. Accordingly, it is considered, elementary laws of winning for the relationship between the physical world and spirit world to take a general view to gaining a durable and developed teaching them, and they shall be based only on elementary facts here and there. Psychophysics is a doctrine which has to be based on these considerations. The details of the next chapter.

II concept and role of psychophysics 1) .

Under psychophysics here is an exact science of the functional relations or dependence between body and soul, are generally understood between physical and mental, physical and psychological, World.
1)

pp. 1-17 revision.

For areas of the spiritual, mental, soul, we expect at all what is erfalich through inner perception or abstracted therefrom, to that of the physical, bodily, physical, material world, what is erfalich by external perception or abstracted therefrom. This should only the areas of the phenomenal world, with their relationship, psychophysics will have to deal be referred to, which presuppose that one knows to relate internal and external perception in the sense of ordinary language use on the activities, making their entire existence is manifested . All discussions and analysis of psychophysics refer at all only on the appearance side of the physical and spiritual world, on what appears either directly by internal or external perception, or from the Erscheinlichen deducible, or as a ratio, category,

context, apart consequence, the law of he-sham union is comprehensible; briefly on the physical in the sense of physics and chemistry, on the psychic in the sense of experience psychology without the nature of the body is decreased the soul behind the phenomenal world in terms of metaphysics somehow. In general, we call this the psychological function of the physical, dependent and vice versa, so far as such a constant or legal relationship between the two is that the can be a guide to the others of the existence of and changes. The fact of functional relationships between body and soul is generally undisputed, however, about the reasons, the interpretation and the extension of this fact, there is a still undecided dispute. Without regard to the metaphysical aspects of this dispute, which relate rather to the so-called nature as the phenomenon that psychophysics is trying to determine the actual functional relationship between the appearance of areas of the body and soul as accurately as possible. What is quantitatively and qualitatively, far and near, in physical world and the spiritual world together, according to which laws to follow their changes from one another or go with each other? Poses these questions generally speaking, psychophysics and seeks to answer them accurately. Unlike spoken, but only said the same thing so, what belongs together in the inner and outer appearance of things and what laws exist for their relative changes have? Respect, there is a functional relationship between body and soul, nothing would prevent them from that same just as to express in the one than in the other direction in the eye and keep track of what you can explain appropriate by the mathematical function ratio between the variables x and y is an equation where each variable can be regarded as a function of any other, and the same in their function of changes has. One reason but for the psychophysics to favor the pursuit of the side of the dependence of the soul from the body of the opposite, is that only the physical is the extent directly accessible, while the degree of the mental can be obtained only as a function of how will be shown later. This base is crucial and determines the direction of the Ganges below. The materialistic reasons for such a preference come in psychophysics not discussed or validity, and the dispute between materialism and idealism than on dependency relationships of the One from the Other in essence going, you remain as merely relating to appearance relations, foreign and indifferent. One can distinguish direct and indirect relationships of dependence or direct and mediated functional relationships between body and soul. Sensual feelings are a direct function of certain activities in our brains, provided with a are set to the other, or those who in the immediate result, but which produce only indirect by external stimuli, such activities only through the intermediary of a nerve conduction to our brains . All our mental activity is an activity in our brains directly dependent on them, leads directly to such or such moves immediately after, but then move on to the effects of the outside world through the medium of our nervous and musculoskeletal

system. The mediated functional relationships between body and soul, meet the definition of functional relationship only insofar completely than you think in the relationship with the mediation of detail as in case of failure of mediation, the constancy or legality omitted in the relation of body and soul, under the mediation consists of access. As a stimulus triggers sensation of law only insofar as it does not lack the living brains of living nerves, about which plants the effect of the stimulus to the brain. In this respect the psyche is seen as a direct function of the physical, the physical carrier of the base of the psyche may be called. Physical activities which support or backing of psychic are, therefore, have a direct functional relationship to what we call psycho-physical. The question of the nature of the psycho-physical activities, ie on the substrate and form thereof, is to be seen from the beginning in, and made no assumption about it. Namely, it initially be abstracted for two reasons, first because it is so bare act in determining the general foundations of psychophysics expressing quantitative relationships, as in physics, where the qualitative relationships are only made of the quantitative dependent and secondly because we are equal to the following classification of our teaching in the first part of the same will have to take on the psycho-physical activities at all no special consideration. The nature of the case is divided psychophysics into an outer and an inner, depending on the relationship of the spiritual to the physical external world or the physical inner world with which the spiritual is in close relationship, is taken into consideration, or otherwise, in a doctrine of indirect and direct functional relationship between soul and body. The basic experience for the whole psychophysics can be sought only in the realm of outer psychophysics, provided only that this is the immediate experience available, and the output is therefore necessary to take from the outer psychophysics, but can develop this to the inner without constant Mitrcksicht , in consideration of the fact that the physical operation outside world is linked only through the intermediary of the physical world with the inner soul. Also, as long as we are still only in the consideration of the legal relationships between the external stimulus and sensation, we must not forget that the stimulus but not directly feeling awakens in us, but by awakening any physical activities in us, in the sense of more direct standing relationship. Their nature may not be entirely unknown, the question of this nature are initially quite undecided how it shall be done by us avowedly, but their fact must statuiert and often recurs to this fact, when it comes to those legal relationships themselves to the it is for us to do in the outer psychophysics first cogent to envisage and pursue. Just as we are, though the physical activities that are subject to our will work immediately and follow, yet are entirely unknown, must not forget that what is wrought by the will in the outside world, yet only by means of such activities by him wrought will. And so throughout the thoughts unknown middle phalanx have to turn what is necessary to complete the

chain of effects. Psychology and physics already used the name has to be based psychophysics on the one hand, and psychology on the other hand promises to provide the same mathematical documents. From physics to outer psychophysics borrowed tools and methods, and the inner leans rather to the physiology and anatomy, especially of the nervous system, and puts forward some acquaintance with it. Unfortunately, however, is of the so laborious, accurate, and valuable research in this field, which has brought the newer term, as yet not an advantage for the inner psychophysics draw, which will undoubtedly one day to take it when those investigations and the of another attack points fro investigations, to which this script is based, will be progressed to the point of encounter where they are able to fertilize reciprocally. That this is so far little is the case, only refers to the imperfect state in which our teaching is not. The point from which we will take the attack on our teaching here is this. Before us are given the means to determine the nature of the physical activities which are directly related to our intellectual activities, but can leave the quantitative relationships of dependence between the two is determined up to certain limits. Sensation depends on the stimuli from, a stronger sensation depends on a stronger stimuli, the stimulus acts only through the intermediary of an inner sensation of physical activity. In this respect, let legal relations between the sensation and the stimuli to locate, they must include legal relations between the stimuli and the inner bodily activity, which in the general laws, such as physical activities cause apart, into contact and thus justify general conclusions on conditions this inner activity .In fact, the result will show that in spite of our ignorance of the detailed nature of the psychophysical activities but the same that come on the conditions for the more important conditions of general mental life into account, now up to certain limits, safe and zulngliche ideas on fundamental facts and laws that spread from the outer to the inner psychophysics, are justified. But apart from this the importance of inner psychophysics have the legal relationships that can be determined in the field of outer, their importance for themselves. Due to the same results, as will be seen, the physical, the mental dimension, and this dimension can be set up applications which are in turn of importance and interest.

III. A preliminary issue.

If all dark and disputed questions of internal psychophysics already - and almost the whole inner psychophysics currently consists only of such questions - should be postponed in their own souls, until the experiential program provides the means for its decision, but one that is the same that the prospects throughout the psychophysics is concerned, be vornweg to touch at least briefly, to answer them as far as they can be answered from general considerations, and to refer for the rest of the episode.

We call thinking, wanting the finer aesthetic feelings as a higher spiritual, sensual sensations and impulses than lower, so you can at any rate here below - the question of the afterlife we can openly - the higher mental activities as little of Equip go than the lower, without carry physical activities, or to be bound by psychophysical activities. No man can think with a frozen brains. Just as little doubt that a certain facial sensation, auditory sensation can only come into existence in accordance with held as certain activities of our nervous system, and indeed it is not doubted, probably founded in the concept of sensual side of the soul on that they stand in exact nexus with the physicality and go. The more but there is doubt whether any particular thought is tied to an equally specific movement in the brain, and not rather an active brain in general hinreiche for the thinking and higher mental activities at all without such a specific nature and direction of physical activities in the brain need to go in a certain direction and type of Equip. Yes it is the essential difference from the lower to the higher spiritual regions will probably (as distinguished from some, mind and soul in the strict sense) just wanted herein. Suppose now that the higher mental activities were really relieved a special relationship to physical activities, but so would it actually is to be recognized as the general relationship of the subject to the same consideration and investigation by the inner psychophysics. Because this general relationship will be in any case bound to general laws and include general conditions that will apply to determine it, yes this should ever always remain the most important task of the inner psychophysics. And already one of the next chapter (V) will lead us to such conditions. I want to take a picture like the thought involved in the rivers of physical activity itself and only by means of this activity really, or he likes the river only require, as the rowers in the boat for added control over it, and thereby indifferent to the rudder shaft to beat, if both the conditions and laws of the river will be considered when it comes to the flow or progress of thought, and both certainly very appropriate other aspects. Even the freest shipping is subject to laws relating to the nature of the element and the means which it uses to relate. So also in any case find the psychophysics to do with the relationship of the higher spiritual to physical support, but from what aspects and to what limits they will have one day to decide on their own territories. Every now may the spirit and scope of the inner psychophysics limited so far and so long as the coercion and the band of the facts do not compel him to give up the restriction.According to my faith, which is but for now only made as faith claims in this respect there is no limit.
Wenn schon alle dunklen und streitigen Fragen der inneren Psychophysik und fast die ganze innere Psychophysik besteht zur Zeit nur aus solchen Fragen mit ihr selbst zurckzustellen sind, bis der erfahrungsmige Gang die Mittel zu ihrer Entscheidung bietet, so wird doch eine derselben, welche die Aussichten der ganzen Psychophysik angeht, vornweg wenigstens kurz zu berhren sein, um sie so weit zu beantworten, als sie sich aus allgemeinem Gesichtspunkte beantworten lt, und im brigen auf die Folge zu verweisen.

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Contribuu a millorar la traducci

In fact, I consider that the sensation of harmony and melody that carries unquestionably a higher character than that of the individual tones, the ratios of the same frequencies needed as a base, the subject individual to individual feelings, and that only in close connection with the way that sound together in this and follow, can change, so it seems to me this as a hint for a higher, but not a lack of special relationship of dependence between higher spiritual and physical support to lie, and all comfortable with this, slightly more to run and to expanding hint to vote. But neither the design nor even claim the same here in the entrance of our cause.

IV Royal term on sensation and irritation.

When such a large yet incomplete previous psychophysical studies would an enumeration, definition and classification of all mental Zustndlichkeiten, the object can be the same again, have little benefit. First, and in the main we will deal with sensual sensations in the ordinary sense of the word sensation, which I will use the following distinctive nomenclature. I will differentiate intensive and extensive sensations, according as it is the sensuous apprehension of something whose size is grasped as intensive or extensive, eg to the intense feelings the sensation of brightness to the extensive sensations considers a spatial extent face expect or Getast, and will therefore also intensive and extensive quantity of a sensation differ. When an object appears brighter to us than the other, which we call the sensation which it grants, intense greater if it is larger than the other seems to us more extensively. This is just a matter of definition, and is so generally understood, yet a certain degree of sensation advance. In all sensations at all, such as extensive intensive, we can vary the size and shape, except that in the size of the intense strength and shape is often called the quality. In the notes, the amount, although comprehensible as a quality of sound, but also a quantitative side, if we can get a bigger and smaller height difference. EH Weber distinguishes indisputably very cogent, assets or mind, which provide us with extensive sensations after assumed here, use of language, or the sense of space as the general sense of the senses, which give us intense feelings when special senses, where former sensations do not like latter already can emerge in several of impression on individual independent of each nerve fibers or their respectively branching circles (circles of sensitivity), but only through a coordination of impressions, and not so much the strength and quality of impressions, as the number and arrangement thereof or circuits of nerve branches happen in which the same, is essential for the size and shape of extensive sensation. His arguments here about 1) are very likely to contribute to clarify the general conditions of the senses, where it may initially be sufficient to just noticed difference in the circumstances, which depend on intensive and extensive sensations, to have pointed, as in general this short preliminary discussions are merely intended to initiate a discussion about the legends of the sensitivity and sensation to dimensions, and therefore not included in the doctrine of the sensations as it requires this purpose.

1)

reports the schs Soc. In 1853. P. 83, the extracts in Fechner's Zentralbl. In 1853. No. 31,

In the different nature and different dependence relationships of extensive and intense sensations it requires a special study of their laws. One could imagine that the size of extensive sensation or extensive quantity of sensation in a corresponding manner, according to the same laws, irritated by the number of circles of sensitivity depended, as the intense feeling of the intensity of their irritation, but neither can this in from the front presuppose, nor is it proven until now. Our future investigations and demgemen information is preferably, if not exclusively, related to the intense sensations, and those sensations under par to understand, if not to the contrary is evident from the accompanying epithets extensively or from the context of itself. Next to distinguish the extensive and intensive sensations is the distinction of objective sensations and feelings of the community to commemorate the so-called positive and negative feelings. Objective sensations, such as the sensations of light and sound, are those which are based on the existence of the sense organs outside source of excitement, however, felt the modifications of the common feeling, such as pain, pleasure, hunger, thirst, just as Zustndlichkeiten our own body itself are. Also on this ratio, the classic Weber's investigations are to look in his treatise on touch and sense of community. As positive and negative feelings cultivates the sensations of heat and cold, pleasure and pain oppose themselves, which have this in common, that the way of her arousal, or reference to what they aroused an opposition including by feeling the cold by withdrawal of heat, as the heat through increased uptake of heat, evolve and grow, the sensation of pleasure with a striving for the exciting cause they like the pain is related to a quest counter. While you can leave those naming of positive and negative emotions are considered parlance, one has but not to be forgotten that the so-called negative feelings in themselves have taken mentally nothing negative, not a defect, a less of sensation, a distance of sensation represent, as they rather just be so hard, or even harder than the so-called positive, and even express such strong positive physical effects or may carry such as the sensation of a chill shock of the whole body, the cries of pain and lively else other physical can induce expression. The term stimulus is in the narrow sense to refer only to the physical resurrection means stimulant intense sensations. Insofar as they belong to our physical world outside, it is external stimuli, and as such belong to our internal physical world, there are internal stimuli. The term of the former is Aufzeigung by external stimuli such as light, sound, mainly to explain the concept of the latter has yet to further clarify and perhaps eventually to eliminate up to certain limits, be. A noise in the ears can be caused by external action of the air vibrations that sends a waterfall in our ear. A similar noise can arise from causes in our body without any external influence. They are generally unknown, but insofar as they produce the equivalent effect of an

external stimulus, they are also considered the equivalent of such be taken into account, and from this point the expression of inner stimulus is often us to be comfortable, the unknown, but according to their effect to be recognized as a de facto, internal physical causes of sensations with the outer under common terms, aspects to consider formulas. Should be moved by external and internal excitations only in accordance with the soul than their effects reach up to a certain point of the body, all the sensations would, to the extent a function thereof is granted by the body, just be knock-on effects of physical movements, and thereafter itself the physical conditions of the innermost feelings occur within the concept of stimuli. Whereas in the case of the Bound One of the sensations of substantially responsive, functionally related to standing, physical movements, it would not be permissible, even with below to include such simultaneous conditions of sensation with which the sensation is immediately set, the stimuli, but only those which serve only themselves to their evocation, Miscellaneous you do not want to mix. Meanwhile, we need between the two views is not yet to decide and it has then to different alternate end view internal stimuli to our factual considerations no effect as long as we, the existence and the size value of the internal stimuli just only by their equivalent effect with outer accept stimuli and take into account. You are our first one their places and their quality of unknown x , which yet. having a certain, the external stimuli comparable, quantitative effect in the appearance circle occurs, and receives its name and value to this Some of what one would hesitate in ordinary life, to understand under the name charm with, but we should not hesitate with to put under it, as, for example, weights, inasmuch as it oppressive sensation of pressure or elevated the sensation of causing serious. Other hand, had a transfer of the word stimulus on the causes, which caused extensive sensations in us, their Miliches, especially since this causes little clarity exists at all. Even without access to external causes, we have a full field of black with some expansion, and even without contact with compass points or the like, we can in fact directed attention to a certain extent be conscious of our body surface in the closed eye. What entree externally, some marked limitations in this already-given natural feeling field, it certainly forms part, there is some indication of relative size and distance estimates, but not to create the sensation of expansion itself only.This seems active in the assembly order and organic linking nerves, respektiv their central terminations to be innate as justified, although not yet come to nothing definite has been decided. If you ever wanted to speak to this a prerequisite of another stimulus, only the coordination of the internal excitations of these nerves could well be to bring in attack. But since there are probably simultaneous conditions of sensation, the expression would thus be inauthentic again. Also, after which put some weight involved, the experience with the help of movements to the extent estimation. But it would not be at places here where it only applies linguistic rules to enter into this still rather dark subject matter further. Regardless of this darkness and to the question of how the word somehow still finds charm a job here, you can say that the size of the stimulus during intense sensations extent by the number of active sensory circles contained between given

points is represented in extensive, as the perceived extension depending on and increasing, so as to quantitative relationships of dependency, this number can be taken with the size of the stimulus under a common, albeit very general point of view for both sensations, but without it can be claimed that it is that the law of a similar dependence was both necessary, or that it is not feeling the extensive size might be co-dependent on circumstances other than those numbers yet, which rather points are only a subject of important psychophysical investigation itself. Exposure to the most external powers, which depends on sensation, the sensation rises, after it has become noticeably at all, with continuous reinforcement of the power of acting in the same direction and decreases with the same weakness continued into the imperceptible. In regard but some, such as heat and pressure on the skin, the body is set up so that rather arises only in accordance with the difference of a given medium or habitual action, as the ordinary temperature, the ordinary atmospheric pressures, sensation, and this just as well, but with different characteristics, as sensation of heat or cold, pressure, or train, increases, depending on the effect to increase a certain degree, or lowered below this level. In this case we will match takes place as a stimulus rather than the absolute size of the caster, but its positive or negative difference of the degrees, which separates the sensations of opposite character, and in which no sensation, have to look at, and the first as positive, the last can be described as negative stimulus. In this respect the effect of relationships between stimulus and sensation are considered below, the stimuli are always assumed to be real and acting as though acting under similar circumstances, unless the contrary is expressly stated or evident from the context of itself. However, the comparability as well be repealed by a different attachment method of the stimuli, as a different state of the subject or organ in which the stimulus hits the same, making the term a different sensitivity is related more closely by their concept and measurement in the sixth chapter will be discussed. For brevity, we say of a stimulus which excites a sensation, as well as a stimulus differences, which carries a sensation difference, he was perceived, more or less, depending on the sensation of feeling the difference is more or less an expression, which we also to be able to get without misunderstandings can use.

Outer psychophysics. The psychophysical measurement gauge.

_____________________

V. measure of physical activity. Living force.

No stimulus acts as a carrier, but rather are some stimuli, such as light and sound, immediately comprehensible as movements, and if this is not true of others, such as

weights, smell and taste stimuli, we may still assume that they only elicit or produce alteration of any activities in our body sensation or change those according to their size and therefore representative of the physical size, standing with sensation in relationship, are activities which are related in some conditions of the dependency to it. Without us here now to deal with the special dimensions of the different stimuli and thereby excitable physical activities, but, if such exists, such as known presupposing of physics and chemistry, but we want on the general level of physical activity in some of the following belang rich , enter into discussions. Even in ordinary life puts you some scale to the size or intensity of physical activity, and looks for this part in the rapidity of the completed movements, sometimes the size of the continuous moving mass, but without having definite ideas about it. First, now it appears most natural as a measure of the magnitude of an activity. The product of the size of the continuously moving mass in the speed at which it is moved that is, the quantity of the movement, to take. In fact, the poking and generally in the notice of motion is the speed, which assumes the initiated body, or the size of the mass, which a given speed can be informed of the quantity of motion of the initiating body proportion, and so they wanted this View as decisive effect on the size of the business, it would, however, in the quantity of movement can find a measure of it. It is not disputed that comes to the definition of physical activity.Meanwhile, if you want to take such in the sense that they will be taken in the exact physics, mechanics, physiology and even in ordinary life, can not serve as a measure of physical activity, the quantity of motion, but only the living force. The living force of which is the question here is, in no way to be confused with the life force of the philosophers, but a sharp Mabegriff of the following significance. The kinetic energy of a material particle, whether or not atomistic atomistic taken is obtained by its mass is m with the squares of its velocity v multiplied so that the expression of the kinetic energy of the particles in question mv is 1) . The living force of a whole system is then the sum of the living forces of its particles, ie in a system of three or more particles with masses m , m ', m ".... and velocities v, v ', v ".. .. = mv + m 'v' + m 'v' .... , what is short for any number of particles mv express maintains, with only eight is to have that sum characters not a summation of several identical products mv means, but so many kinds of products as there are particles with different mass and velocity.
1)

Strictly speaking, only half in the mechanics of the product mv2 meant by kinetic energy of the particle, but some also apply the name to the whole product, also what I'm doing for the sake of convenience by this different use

understandably no effect on the situation has, depending on the living force, but merely changes the same unit.

Without wanting to here on the underlying reasons for introducing this Mabegriffes received may be some nearer headed for it. After the whole spirit of the mathematical theory of motion must be oppositely directed velocities denote opposite sign, and it shines hereafter a that if you wondered what sum activity has been developed within a given time in a system, conceived the particles in vivid vibrations are, this amount of work would find noticeably null if one wanted to make the quantity of motion to the scale of the activity, since the velocities of the reciprocating motion passed by their opposite sign with the always positive mass products in the compensated summation, what it would be not appropriate, subject to the go away movements as much force is needed as to the reciprocating; however contribute as a benchmark for both the back as reciprocating movements to increase the activity sum by applying the living force, since the square of a size of both negative is positive level, as the positive quantity. Secondly, do you, by measuring the physical activity through the living force, otherwise than they measure the physical performance or work that is enforceable by, yielding the concepts of daily life and the practical mechanics in context and relationship occurs. One man, one machine has worked twice or three times as much to the common notions of work, when he lifted a given weight to twice or three times the height, and he makes a different kind of work than lifting weights, so they can be but always reduced to this kind of work in order to have a comparable measure. Now grows according to known laws of the height, which reached a vertically upward thrown stone, apart from air resistance, not in proportion to the simple speed that you left him in the moments of the litter, but the square of the speed, and therefore the conditions of living force, which shall be issued at the moment of the throw. The same speed but that is granted to him while throwing at once (or rather, in a very rapid Zuwchsen) is issued to him during slow lifting in gradual Zuwchsen, and so as the union of the size of the living power of the stroke depends on just what the Stones, a general load, a weight, is implanted in the direction against the gravity or by itself dwells. A man has to climb a mountain, with the exception of adverse circumstances, generate as much vital force in continuous upward movement itself, as would be necessary to throw his weight at this height. And so represents in general the living force, which has a body of a given mass at a given moment, as did his speed was addressed, a certain amount that will achieve the same or an equal mass virtue same speed through a given point, if you would think planted at this point against the direction of gravity this same speed. And what well to note, under the assumption that the current application of force, which the mass of the implanted speed, stopped, and out of direct counteracting gravity constant zutrte no new force. At every point of the riser height of the body there is, which takes place at

this point living force make the demgeme representation by a reachable over this points level, without thereby coming into conflict with the first determination by the more and more diminishing living force also the above points in question still achievable level, more and more reduced. When upward-moving Litters or raising a load in empty space, it's just the opposite effect of gravity, which continued gehends deprives the body of the speed once produced something, until finally all the speed is withdrawn upon reaching a certain height, above which point, accordingly, the performance can not go. Instead of or in combination with the counteraction of the gravity, but can also be the resistance of the resiliency of friction, so-called resistance to the agents, or any other resistor - and applies to any service to overcome a resistance - expressed the same success as the counteraction of gravity, but precisely because each overcome a given resistance and consequently the lift or throw any power level of a given load by means of a given kinetic energy in empty space are comparable. Each performance is the same size, is equal to their effecting a living force used and consumed. We thought a body in empty space without a medium resistance and counter-action of a force is moving, he would have obtained by virtue of the speed once and therefore kinetic energy into infinity to fly away without reduction of speed, and no living power being consumed. Although this is called a movement, but no power, which always presupposes the overcoming of an opposite effect and consumption demgemen a living force. But there is still a living force of this body the amount of power that he would bring his wealthy, and such a counter-effect handles space. For many services, such as the uniform course of a carriage by the horse, is continuing the same size of the living force, but only because is always just used so much by the resistors than the increment through the effort of the horse to the carriage, whereby the kinetic energy of the car would continue to grow, if not just the resistors to increase continuously consumed. Living force can be in a systems develop through the interaction of its parts, as in planetary systems, in any organism, - transmitted and propagated by communication and propagation of the movement, so the litters of a stone, in the reproduction of movement by solid and liquid assets , - finally being generated internally modified by external influences, so the kinetic energy, the system generates each two world bodies through their interaction, through the action of a third, so the internal kinetic energy of a living body by any external stimulus. Finally, however, has, as far as we are able to pursue it, not only all creation, but also transmission, reproduction, modification of living force in their basic interaction of the parts.Raises a hand to the stone, the result is the living force that is implanted in him, by organic interactions, and propagates itself over to the stone by an interaction between its parts and those of the hand, and any reproduction of the movement is not based less on interaction of parts. The whole of nature is a single, coherent contained system of interacting parts, but in the different partial systems produce the kinetic energy of various forms, use, transmit to each other, with due respect of general laws, which dominates the

relationship and receive. In this respect the exact nature of teaching all physical processes, activities, processes, whatever name they may cause the chemical, the imponderabeln, the organic excluded, on motions, it was larger masses or small particles can be reduced, can all have a scale find their vitality or strength in the living force, which, if not all directly, but basically everywhere for dependent effects, if any, is measured. The uncertainty in which we find ourselves at the outset about the nature of physical processes, at the conclusion of our perception depends, and go along with our thoughts, short of psychophysical activities, ie leads in any case no uncertainty about the degree of what we have to create it. If you ever find even among the physical space, is also the measure by the living force behind this place and if they do not find place among them, they do not concern us here. This is important for double points, even if it us a basis of clarity, secondly, if it provides us with a basis of legality on which we can build. Without the special nature of the psycho-physical activities to know, we know what we have below size to understand them, to the psychophysics of physics, physiology, mechanics, ordinary life, to get in a clear relationship, and may in the general conditions and laws of the living force justify general conclusions. But insofar as may arise a doubt, but if not, the psycho-physical activities beyond this generality, the study itself has to conform with this. We therefore draw some of the most important general conditions and laws of kinetic energy into consideration here, which provide an indication to this investigation, or otherwise permit obvious applications in our area. A system may appear to be quiet, and yet develop a very large living force in imperceptibly small movements, by virtue of the transferability and applicability of the kinetic energy in various forms are often only the turnover of large powerful movements. When a heavy bell is struck, so you can not see their little Erzitterungen. And yet the living force of this Erzitterungen represented (including with heat generated vibrations) the whole living force of the blow that fell on them; thereby thrown and try to establish the reciprocating movements add up the same to the one direction, so it would be a good deal are. Apparently a very minor or no, but in reality unquestionably a very large, vibrant force is developed in the act of chemical compounds. We notice there no striking movements, but the light and heat phenomena that take place here, based on vibrations of the ether, can require us that the ponderable particles in the record of this compound fall into lively vibrations which announce the ether or of him be communicated. How then can the living force of the blow seemingly disappear into the invisible Erzitterungen the bell, it may turn out by appropriate mediations into powerful visual movements reversed the living force imperceptibly small Erzitterungen. Thus the whole living force of the then rolling steam car is just a form of sales of

the living power of imperceptibly small Erzitterungen which the by the combustion process in the heating material (including the ether, which the same penetrating) caused by there on the parts of the machine, and from then on car have been transferred. And what occurs here in the visible movements of living force to light disappears in the realm of the invisible movements of the heating material, which continued non-stop entertainment and stirring up the heating process is required by new material and constant train, he should even remain in motion. Even without the addition of the engine and the car would this be necessary, by the vibrations weaken by notice to the surroundings, radiating to the surrounding space, of themselves, but the mounting of the engine and the car makes the kinetic energy that would otherwise be useless would be lost for certain purposes subservient in a certain direction. So too is the living force of the visible movements which man performs outside with arms and legs, nothing more than a sales or a resultant of the kinetic energy of small internal movements, which are caused by the chemical composition of the diet process. To any external power man consumes some of that internally developed living force, for the living force, which take the set into motion the body, escapes him, and even without any visible movement, he continually loses it by notice to the outside world, excretions, charisma, Everything which makes necessary a continuous re-replacement by the diet process, the organic machine to remain in motion. And the kinetic energy of imperceptibly small Erzitterungen must not be neglected against the invisible movements, rather forms a major part of the living force in the world, the living force of the movements in the realm of imponderables must not be neglected against the areas of the ponderable, but is in turn a main part of the living force in the world, and has even a major portion of the operations and services which we perceive in the areas of ponderable, by virtue of the applicability and transferability of kinetic energy from one domain to another. For, although we have the mass of the ether particles than to assume almost vanishingly small, it is not nothing, and is compensated by a unspeakably great speed we have enclosed her from the other side with their vibrations, to the extent that it a great living developed force in these vibrations and in the transfer to the weighable a significant performance can be achieved by. The living force undergoes in the act of transfer from one body to another, from one part of a system to the other, whether ponderable or not, by shock, friction, resistance of the medium, as very well as the form in which it occurs characterized is changed, neither increase nor decrease. Apparently though disappears at each poking, any friction, through each resistor living force: the living force of all the stones that fall to the earth, seems to have disappeared, and the kinetic energy of a vibrating string decreases continuously gehends by the resistance of the air, one of in-aisle carriage would be able not to get unabated under the influence of friction on the ground its kinetic energy, if not the beast of burden always inflicted new Zuwchse which itself must grow through the progress of the nutrition process it. But all living force, which would be dropped for the apparent motion is found in

invisible Erzitterungen ponderable and imponderable parts. Latter corresponds to a degree of heat, so that the whole loss etc in the act of shock, friction is suffered to living force the part of the ponderable part, by a certain precisely determinable and certain equivalent of heat is covered by the fair use then just that quantity of living force in the territory of ponderable, the heat created by its disappearance, also able to be generated again. Yes, it is this one of the reasons bindendsten to dissipate the heat phenomena of vibrations of a substrate that is not ponderable incomparable with substrates that a given heat equivalent for each missing quantity of living force ponderable substances in the act of communication of motion occurs and vice versa. One, disputed many a welcome and popular account of the principles of the important teachings of the mechanical equivalent of heat contains the following discussion of Baumgartner. "The mechanical equivalent of heat and its importance in the Sciences A paper presented at the ceremonial meeting of the imperial Akad. of Sciences. on May 30, 1856 "in Grunert's Arch Math f 1858 p. 261, from which I borrow some points here. It is assumed as a working unit 1 foot pounds, ie the performance, which is raised by 1 pound 1 foot, and as a unit of heat, the heat quantity that Pf is able to bring water to 1 0 to 1 C.. "Through consumption of a heat Quantum also a certain job size is generated and vice versa, and it is correct to the results of numerous, with all the precautions Staff experiments in which some work into heat, some heat into work was implemented and where it with heat from the had to do most varied origins, the consumptions of a thermal unit in 1367 work units and vice versa. Austrian These dimensions and weights are the basis. " "Translated into the language of common life, is this: The tub that heats water 1 Pf from 0 to 1 , exerts the same mechanical strength as a weight of 1367 pounds, falling 1 foot high." "The conversion of heat into work and vice versa is not the whim and chance, but according to certain rules, which express the conditions under which the change takes place has. Namely, it can heat be turned in only if in work than they supplied a body is. but this happens in guided heat only in the direction from the hot body to the colder and only so far exist as temperature differences. the heat supplied is divided, but in this case in two parts. One of them is to increase the temperature at a constant volume, but the other performs work by hinschiebt eg a load before see. Where there is no such, since no forces change takes place. This explains why an air mass cools when it expands and thereby overcomes a pressure as their temperature remains unchanged if the expansion occurs without overcoming a resistance, as is the case when it flows over into an empty room. " "Each Gran coal, completely burns the boiler of the steam engine or air machine delivers a result of the chemical processes of combustion of 0,908 units of heat and 1241 foot pounds work when all the heat for generation of steam or for increasing the clamping force of the air used and complete work is reacted. " Meanwhile, it would be untriftig to say that the living force in the world was at all a constant size. Only through the act, at the moment of release and propagation of

motion changes is not the same if we take the equivalent of heat generated in consideration, but by the continuous and in the course of the movement continuously changing effect of forces. When a body encounters in its course to the other, so is under consideration for the shock of ponderable particles and allocation of generated during cold one equivalent of heat, the sum of kinetic energy in both after impact even be as large as before, whereas we see the kinetic energy of each planet grow according as he approaches the Sun, decrease according as he removed them, and a swinging pendulum in descending increase, decrease in upgrades. But if the vital force does not remain the same in these cases, it always turns out the same size back up so as the bodies of the system, the first case is made from sun and planet, the second case of the Sun and Earth, under the influence of internal forces take the system back to the same position each other. Now, in general is also used in many other systems under the influence of their own indwelling forces a circular or reciprocating movement of the type held in that the parts return to a given location after an interval repeatedly and in general for this case is sold under the name the law of conservation of living force known law that the kinetic energy is produced in one, according to some antecedent lugs his inner forces surrendered systems always return to the original size when parts of the system to return to its original position, by which internal may be mediations and the ways in which the decline occurs, which can not always take place in such a simple way to complicated systems, in fact, as in the above simplest systems. If we beat on a piece of steel, so the the steel particles implanted living force in the act of the shock is completely represent the kinetic energy that was lost the beating body together with the generated heat, and the body is perfectly elastic, so the particles are , from the moment of impact to under the influence of their own powers back and herschwingend, ever regain the passage through its initial equilibrium position the same kinetic energy, but not to keep for the duration of the vibration, by leaving the original position, and we have a little piece of steel rather than lead elastic, so it will remain permanently pressed together, and the impact generated in the act of living force with which the particles are removed from the equilibrium position, can not be restored. Rather disappears under these circumstances really living force, which, as you put it, used to produce a permanent change in position of the particles. The law of conservation of kinetic energy so does not prevent that the kinetic energy of a system or part of the infinite world system to change temporarily, increase, diminish, nor that it is changing constantly, it notes only that restores them when the parts the system to return to any antecedent impulses under the influence of internal forces to the original location, but it can not vouch for these generally return itself, and it does not take place in many cases. You will not even in the simple systems of three after the laws of gravity instead of appealing body, except under special conditions. And known to take the planets of our solar system because of the incommensurability of their orbital periods never exactly, but only approximately in larger periods, again the same position to each other and to the Sun a, which then indeed restores also the same living power of our planetary system nearly, but not

exactly. Common ground is now in the infinity of the world, the loss of kinetic energy that such formative part of this infinite system temporarily or permanently learns, can be compensated with the increase experienced by another part at the same time, more or less, but it is not a principle before which continued to decrease in a and increase in the other parts in such a relationship that would be expected in an accurate and consistent compensation, and it is all the more reason why such a presupposed, as another principle exists, which is a Another constant ratio of the kinetic energy states, but this is not the insistence on the same registry. Not the size of the newly available vital force, but the size of the available kinetic energy of the existing movement causes another to create is possible together with the size of the living force, in virtue of what we just potential force (the more common term is clamping force) want to call, for each, foreign influences revoked, System, hereby also disputed for the world, a constant size. Think swinging us to explain a string in empty space without resistance and no movement of the documents over which it is stretched, tampering, as would be the case if it were stretched between two fixed points easy to order one, foreign effects revoked to represent system of material particles. The kinetic energy of this string is variable. It is zero at the boundaries of the field trip, but the potential was greatest force at the same time. Because at every point, from there to the string passes through the equilibrium position, it creates a new quantity of kinetic energy, which adds to the previous, until it has reached the maximum kinetic energy during passage through the position of equilibrium. And when she was on the border of the excursion, these real, living force, was now their potential force, that is the living force, which was not produced, but by virtue of the existing motion causes could not be created. The motion of the boundary of the field trip to the middle position is all this potential power is converted into kinetic energy, but so much came of vis viva, was lost in the potential power: for what was already produced by living force, could not generate are to arrive at the center position all the potential strength was exhausted, and hereby no further increase in their cost of living force possible. From then on, but grows reversed by a corresponding way, the potential power at the expense of kinetic energy so on alternately until indefinitely, so that the sum of living and potential power of the string always remains the same, except that now one and now the other multiplies, at the expense of the other. What is true here of the string is of the world. The living force can only grow at the expense of potential and vice versa. Only that not all parts of the world take place in parallel swing their exchange between rising and falling, living and potential power, as the parts of the string, but rather can find different parts of the world in this regard in quite different circumstances; also only wear solidarity for the fulfillment of the law, if any, that what a body to lose by giving notice to the other of vis viva, even does not grow in the potential power to him, and vice versa, which it receives through communication, not gained at the expense of its potential strength of his is, only for the whole system is the constant sum of the two forces. A string may indeed be tied to

communicate their motion to the air every living force at the same time with all the potential power by coming into the equilibrium position at rest; bordered make you feel in connection with the air on, so is the sum of living and potential force for the system of string and air, remained the same. This is the great principle of the so-called conservation of energy, connected with the above, the conservation of living force, but of even more general meaning than this, a principle which, although rooted in long-known general principles of mechanics, but first of Helmholtz with clarity has been developed, highlighted in its full meaning and explained in its most important applications. Since then, it has found the most extensive consideration and application in the areas of inorganic as organic physics. It is generally only central forces that are not a function of time or speed, but until now it has found no reason to doubt its general validity in the areas of organic and inorganic nature. This may initially appear conspicuous. In the field of electricity and magnetism, so far, the same is attributable to electricity, there are forces that depend on W. Weber's studies of the velocity and acceleration. But it has every appearance that combine these elemental forces so that the law in all natural effects remains valid. For the magnetic and electric flow effects substitutable for one of the lights itself, if it really can be described as effects of central forces, which are independent of velocity and acceleration, represent. I also Prof. W. Weber communicated orally to my questioning, that he ever performed in all cases on its investigation, even beyond the borders of those effects beyond the law found in force, though its full generality for this area forces nor the strict proof BOTH COMMUNITY. According to this law can in its internal effects surrendered systems the kinetic energy generated by prior external stimuli or the previous internal force effect only at the expense of its potential force further grow, and the assets of this growth is exhausted, therefore in accordance with, as the potential force by the continued solid growth of the living power exhausted, and increases inversely with the reduction of kinetic energy, so that, although a change of kinetic energy between increase and decrease, and a transfer of a part of the system to the other, but neither continuous growth up to unlimited height, nor a decrease until a permanent void in its internal effects surrendered systems, and hereby is undisputed in world systems take place, thereby maintaining the activity of the world is secured within certain Oszillationsgrenzen from most general point of view. By contrast, the living force grow in a part of a system without loss of potential power increase and decrease without them, inasmuch as they respektiv decreases at the same time in another part of the system or increasing, by virtue of the transfer of kinetic energy from one part to the other. In so far as each finite field is part of the general world system, the law is definitely applicable only under this consideration, that it is the constant trade-off between potential and kinetic energy for him in particular only in regard to its internal effects, in regard to the external but only in connection with the larger systems to which he belongs, in the last instance the world. You know quite well that the principle or law of conservation of energy tells us

nothing about the course, the way of mutual turnover between living and potential power, nothing about in what condition a system must be in this regard at any one time, the depends rather with the specific conditions and circumstances of each system, which can be determined by any general principle, but only inferred from experience, together, the principle of conservation of energy tells us merely that, as well as sales between living and potential power successes in its internal effects surrendered systems, it could only be so but that the constant sum of the whole is maintained the same, but still the freedom which is that he hits on an infinite number of ways. It binds only some very general considerations, the complete determination of the course of symptoms is not to look at him. So free may be the man, there is his will and mind at all not only in coping with the outer but also the inner forces of nature facto barriers, which are pulled by the general laws of nature. Man can walk on the earth, where he wants him shift his focus to any arbitrary direction, no known law of nature binds and prevents him herein. But he can do it but only to the extent that the law of conservation of gravity is maintained, which is itself a consequence of the principle of equality of action and reaction. Falling down from a height or jumping he is with all the freedom of the will is not able to focus his hair to a broad shift from the fall line of gravity, except as provided air resistance constitutes a weak possibility. Because after that general Prinzipe no physical system can dislocate by pure focus its own inner activity. It belongs to an external help or an external resistor. So the free will can not resist the freedom of the aisle, but to speak only on the basis of that law. Otherwise it will be with the living force. The will, the thought, the whole spirit was so free he wants, but he will not back his freedom, but can express the kinetic energy only on the basis of the general laws. If his gait bound to the course of psycho-physical activity and this is bound to the law of conservation of energy, it will even be bound thereby. This is no accident, because the law of conservation of energy is a law of conservation of the world, and it is no accident that the spirit is bound to feel the purposes of this condition, to think, to want. A general and sharp proof of the extension of the validity of the Law on the psycho-physical activity is not yet out, but probably can be argued that all experience, as far as we can make them are in this sense, and without compulsion only by means of the Law are to be interpreted, and we will therefore have to stick to it as long as no evidence to the contrary is made. We draw some key relationships in this regard into account, our attention mainly on the teaching of what you would be most readily inclined to withdraw the validity of the law, ie the area of higher freer intellectual activities. From the front you could be in. meant that, if not the spiritual activities at all, but in any case that could go higher from Accessorize, without being tied to living force, the laws, increase and decrease at all. Everything speaks against this assumption. If we

also now asking whether such a special relationship between physical and higher mental activities taking place that a particular spiritual movement could arise and exist only on the basis of an equally specific physical, his admitting nevertheless has to be added and is always that here below as well generally require the higher mental activities of physical activity as a base, in the lower, but they also require the living power of this activity to go on Equip, and experience teaches, that they require adequate strength thereof; to itself powerfully to go from Accessorize. But you can continue to believe that the spirit of their own source of physical activity which, or for its passage or at least let grow the powerful preserving its passage required kinetic energy, ie the kinetic energy can absolutely increase in the world, without the vital force elsewhere the potential power of the body itself need to diminish therefore, that contrary to the law of conservation of energy, which calls for a general assessment of all existing and potential living force in this regard. in short, that he was a producer brand new living force within the body. We take into consideration some facts that give a clue to the explanation at the same time to decide this question. To psycho-physical game and consumption of kinetic energy in the brain and in other parts of psychophysical activities not in the ordinary way of life actually at the same time and with each other. We can think of and still drive Others with our bodily organs, and do it as a rule. But now the power of thought is to be increased. We immediately see how it held its own source of vital force to strengthen the psychophysical activity that needs it for his own gain, to create, robs those other physical activities, and ohnedem can not amplify. Even just someone was engaged in a heavy physical work, since it is a thought which occupied him more than usual, immediately arms drop and hang as long as the thought and therefore of the same psycho-physical activity works internally strong to their external work to begin again, when this inner subsides. Where was the living force of arm movements in one go? It served to fan the movements in the head. Just as an intense thought necessary to interrupt any external body performance, interrupts, conversely, a jump every thought. The living force, which takes the leap of the legs, escapes the progress of psycho-physical movements that needs thought, and the Spirit has to replace its own absolute power no power to continue as before, despite the loss of the aisle, yet the loss. We can provide the vital force, the arbitrariness is disposable for sharing, but it has its maximum at any time, and that can only take place for some kind of employment in accordance with, other than the rest. Quite simply must, as we do, to use greatest possible force in arms to rest, the other, we have to make all parts of the body rest to use greatest possible force in the head, and vice versa, let the work rest in the head as possible to possible to perform powerful movements with the limbs. And thus we see the deeply thoughtful sit as still as possible, and someone who runs, lifts burdens, never at the same time in deep thought. It contradicts itself, does not work. Even involuntary functions such as digestion, are in a situation of balance and the exchange of kinetic energy with those who need the thinking up to certain

limits. Although after a healing device, the fact we only recognize, do not have to explain that man is neither able to involuntary functions through the mind to steal so much kinetic energy that is the normal response of the organic machine thus falters even reverse the thinking of robbing by other wide functions as much force to put all the same to a standstill. Thinking is an example, but what is in this respect of the thinking applies to every intellectual activity. Intense emotions, passions, sensible intuitions behave in specified ways quite as as the intense thinking, except that the psychophysical activities of some of these mental processes through the organic system with certain external activities available in natural nexus, then to rise together with that and tend to fall, while they at the same time in antagonism to the other occurred. Prinzipe physical activities of this association will be discussed further below. The same ratio as between the psychophysical and not psycho-physical activities also takes place between the different areas of psycho-physical activities. Be completely absorbed in an outer intuition and at the same time think deeply, do not go. See also attentive and hear not. To sharper reflect on something, we must abstract from others more, and how to share the attention, it weakens the individual. Here one could, however, play a purely psychological laws to see if these facts alone objects. But they depend too much with the previous together at the same time not to see it as an extension of the law of conservation of energy to the purely psychophysical game. The mind does not need the psycho-physical activities not to withdraw its living force to gain if it can evade those other on-going psycho-physical activities. Thus, the existence of psychological laws is not denied or those reduced to physical, it is alleged, that the laws of the course of mental and physical activities related equally closely, as both relate themselves, and this has nothing strange, but the opposite would be disconcerting. Depending on the Nexus, where are the parts, some can only in a certain connexion or a certain sequence at all, and some easier in this than come into operation in that, and some activities at all only, or light through a given context of parts are as accomplished through individual, a principle that comes with the previous extent in conflict, as the distribution of kinetic energy between the cooperating to action parts then from one side of the performance of individual weakens, which the connection from the other side only possible makes or supports. Through the consideration of this principle, a lot of apparent contradictions explain the previous Prinzipe, where, instead of limiting by their respectively increase reciprocally, rather climb with each other and fall, and hold together in the height and steeped activities each other and tighten sees . In the Games of the machines, we find the whole Corresponding again, and there is nothing to see with the laws of conservation of energy infringement Running so here. In our organism such compounds may by habit, exercise partly fixed, partly be reformed or dissolved, and with the increasing exercise, isolated parts to put into action, increasing the ability to put them into more powerful activity. Again, this principle takes as easily expand on it in connection with the field of psycho-physical

and psycho-physical activities not by. And so is the generation of such use of the kinetic energy of the psychophysical activity in us, if we observe it irgends and can form a conclusion on observation, all under a common law with the living power of the non-psycho-physical activities in us and outside of us, and so free may be the Spirit, he can do nothing against the law, but all only because of this law. But how are facts to suggest the following kind? Suddenly, we now see a man in a row purely intellectual excitement accomplish a tremendous physical and mental performance after only just sat there quiet and indifferent, neither in psychophysical psychophysical activities are not yet a living force showed large stock available. Where the kinetic energy is to come from? And this strong activity can be resumed probably under the influence of a strong will longer. Where is the sustainable power source this look if it is not the will itself? But what the first is concerned, so we can have a sudden exertion in certain direction only take place, by the scattered before and just about anywhere potent force in one direction and focus all of a sudden take even the involuntary functions with in this claim. And if we are able to perform self-sustaining exceptional performance under the influence of a strong will that we not information such as to accomplish without this desire, yet is the production and consumption of the necessary kinetic energy does not contradict the law of conservation of energy; yet by the purely spiritual power of the will. In fact, we find that any arbitrary exertion us more so exhausted physically, ie the capability of distant manifestation of force decreases by more, the harder and longer it continues, proving that the arbitrary evolution of kinetic energy in our body as well only at the expense of potential force, is the force that is still possible to produce it, so it can according to the law of conservation of energy to happen, as the evolution of kinetic energy in areas where no will takes place. Thus, it is not disputed that under the influence of free will can really living force arise that would ohnedem not occurred, but only at the expense of potential force, ie from the source from which it arises otherwise, if no will participates. Common ground was in the will, or expressed psychophysically, the activities subject to the will itself, a reason that the conversion of the potential power gained in living place and time, only the will of itself may not be the vital force without the otherwise generally applicable create conditions to do so. The vital force of the organism is ever realized, depending on the variable state of nutrition, health, waking and sleeping in an up-and Abschwanken, so they can on the whole rise and sink deep, but seems under normal conditions, no sudden sharp amendments a whole, but only capable of sudden other distribution which is caused partly by stimuli, partly by voluntary direction of attention or transfer of business activity sphere. The idealist may also have the effect of stimuli on a spiritual reason, the materialist lead back to the arbitrariness and attention to a material, but we assume here the facts as they present themselves to the observation immediately, which soon the material as soon as the spiritual side or Publication of the reason the

modified mode of distribution confronts. It is in a sense like a steam engine, on which depends a composite engine. Depending on the condition of the heating their living force can rise up or sink deep, but in the normal way, neither the one nor the other occur suddenly, but well, by making it here on valve arbitrary or closes, this soon, soon that part of the new machine into gear and go for it on another in peace. It is only the difference that in our organic machine the engineer does not sit outside, but within it. Now, unquestionably really in the same time more vibrant force to be developed at the expense of potential force in excessive physical exertion, as the state of rest of the body, because where else the faster exhaustion and the need greater compensation, but it is then not so much the will, which this developed force in any moments of intellectual reason, as initiated by the increase of the chemical diet process. With rapid walking we breathe more rapidly, the blood runs faster, and has the same success as when we increase the train in the heaters of a steam engine, and thereby rapidly develop a given quantity of effective kinetic energy at the expense of the potential power of the heating material. The organic machine is not quite able or poorly supplied, so that those chemical processes do not effectively go from Accessorize, the strongest will can nothing. By previous I say not that the living force within the body really like the vapor dispersed in a steam engine, but only that the law of conservation of energy leads to corresponding successes. The last source of living Kraftentwickelung in our body is, after all, what we may suppose, in the processes of nutrition and by each part has its nutritional process in itself, he also has a source of kinetic energy in itself. But experience proves facts from the other side by the way we made it here contends that this process takes place in the whole organism in solidarity connexion, so that not only no part would be able to feed for themselves, but also quantitative ratios of the balance between the nutritional processes of the various parts occur, what are the purposes of the law of conservation of energy. Also explains the fact that all parts of the diet process is run under the influence of blood and nerve activity, which establish a connection through the body, easily to these general nexus of food process all parts. Notwithstanding, therefore, neither the kinetic energy nor a special carrier the same as the steam in the steam engine, really flows directly between the different parts, distributed, will and therefore there lured by stimuli, attention, will, we are always the brevity convenience we shall use the term distribution of the kinetic energy and corresponding pictorial expressions, after we know the valid notion of set. The specialty of all these conditions is still poorly understood, but the General is pretty clear and open before in the sense of what was here, and given the general hints may suffice for now, but another version of the same part would lead to unsafe, sometimes here at the entrance not be in the place. The living power that is used to cut wood, and the vibrant force for thinking, which is related to the underlying psycho-physical processes are not quantitatively comparable only on the previous, but even convertible into each other, and hereby

both services even after physical side by a common yardstick to measure. As good a certain amount of kinetic energy is used to split a log of wood to lift a given load up to a given height, a certain quantity of a thought with a given intensity to think so well, and that power can be transformed into this.This is not a profanation of thinking, his dignity depends on the way of direction, not the goals of his walk, to the extent or the incommensurability of physical exercise that needs it his way, and as the expedition of Columbus thereby losing value loses meaning that the kinetic energy of the ship that carried him, was measured as well as that of a randomly thrown stone, or the wind, and even the one in the other implement. The Physical receives any merit or demerit of the spiritual, which it is related, and therefore can just give nor take such neither the spiritual. It is certain that a silent feeling and thought have great value, and can still build on such weak movements that a completely worthless or no significant external physical performance would be to perform it when they should be implemented in such, but just as surely remains that when the emotional and intellectual life to flourish to greater intensity, the underlying physical movements must go from living Equip. Here is the dependency relation, in which the intensity of mental activity on the size of their underlying physical is to assert no less in the reverse direction. So a little thought can be thought of a given intensity, without a given vital force of the underlying motion is developed, so little can develop those without the thought is thought with this intensity. Not that every living force of a given size and a given intensity was thought of, but rather a living force of such a physical path, which is able to carry a thought. Now it is up to each, with us the reason each individual thoughtful movement in the world in a back-lying or general and finally to seek the reason of all the movements of the world in a system of movements, resulting in a highest and final thoughts unit and a highest and last will bears, and may be made only with, except that we have as little to go along with matters of faith as a measure of value. Also here is diligently avoided any taking on a dispute over free will, and just as unseemly would pull him here, as here, miss. Rather, through the explicit indication that the general laws of kinetic energy the free disposal of the same just restrict only very general aspects of the freedom granted any right which it receives is the reality. Neither the law may prescribe whether and how we implement potential force in lively, yet whether and in what direction those to be transferred. In this respect the will is completely free, unless it is the barriers which attracts the law, that is. In what ways but there are other barriers, our task is again not to investigate, and an answer to the last question in this regard exceeds the limits of our investigation at all.

VI. Maprinzip sensitivity. 1)

Even with the same attachment style can be felt more or less one and the same stimulus of a subjects or organs, as of another, or of the same subjects or organs at a time more or less than another; equal reversed stimuli of different size according to circumstances be strongly felt. Hereafter we measure the subjects or organs respektiv to a different time and a greater or lesser sensitivity.

1)

pp. 18-23 revision. Psych Maprinzipien pp. 179 ff

Where the senses are paralyzed even the strongest stimuli are no longer perceived, the sensitivity of this is zero, in some excited states of the eye or ear against calls itself nor the faintest light or sound stimulus a lively, probably even annoying sensation produced and the sensitivity this is increased tremendously. In between there are all intermediate degrees of sensitivity. It is hereafter sufficient grounds before, to distinguish degrees of the same and to compare, but the question is how to accurately how it can really happen measuring. Here, the following can be considered. Generally, the amount of size is that it will determine how many times one, taken as a basis as a unit, size of the same kind is contained therein. In this sense, the sensitivity of an abstract property has so little an amount as the abstract force. But instead of measuring yourself, you can measure something to notice regarding, of which dependent, which according to their terms with their starting and growing and what they reversed after their notions from and increases, and as an indirect measure gain the same, in the same sense, as it is the case with the motor. Rather than measure it yourself, we measure related to dependent, speeds that equal masses, and the masses, which like speeds are planted. And so we can either measure the size of sensation trying generated by equal stimuli, or the size of the stimuli which cause an equal sensation, and the first case say the sensitivity is twice as large when the same stimulus a twice as great sensation causes; latter case, it is twice as large as half as large stimulus elicits a sensation of equal size. However, the first route is impassable because we do not have the level of sensation, and to show later, such is to rely only on themselves otherwise reasonable degree of sensitivity.On the other hand, nothing prevents to abide by the second. The size of the stimuli is precise sizes available, and the equality of sensation we can the necessary measures, which will be discussed in more detail in the future, probably konstatieren. Accordingly, we set the sensitivity to stimuli of the size of the stimuli that arouse an equally strong, or, more generally, to understand with extensive sensations, an equal sensation inversely proportional to the reciprocal a short prints. One can admit that it is only last a matter of definition that we call the sensitivity just twice as large as half the stimulus arouses the same feeling. The sensitivity would be something to be Measurable, this freedom stands not open, but the ratio would be stated by experience or conclusions. But this is not the case, the statement is also arbitrary, and which allows for the easiest and simplest use is preferable. So taken this measure will be our help, and also has no other meaning than to orient ourselves in the areas of actual relations between stimulus and sensation and to make their connection through account possible without what the first thing about the size of the abstract sentience to can and should be. Certainly remains that in a subjects, at a time twice as great attraction to a part to the same extent in the sense to fall, other than in a subjects, at a different time. Instead of this in so many words to say, we

express it briefly with a few from, find it in a case half as much sensitivity to the stimulus rather than in the other case. Any other measure is another de facto relationship in this regard and shall designate no more than one such. The strength or vividness of physical activities, which brings us to the stimulus, and the sensation of which is directly dependent, short of psychophysical activities, this comes at the outer psychophysics nationals, dimensions not stop. The question of whether these activities of the strength of the stimuli are proportional or not is immaterial to its concept and its application, because as a measure of sensitivity to stimuli, it goes up even at a ratio of sensation to them, not that this creates the activities , and that question is indeed to raise, but to decide only on the basis of facts which presuppose this measure. It is still important to avoid following wrong conclusion. When not at twice the sensitivity is sufficient for a stimulus half the stimulus to elicit a sensation of equal size, but it follows that the same stimulus will trigger twice as much sensation. First place, we can choose to not judge, so long as we do not have the level of sensation, and later, when we will have to be seen that this ratio is not. It is the sensitivity to stimuli, to distinguish the sensitivity to stimulus amendments stimulus differences. The degree of the same subject but relevant aspects, except that the stimulus amendment, the stimulus difference, to the point of the stimulus occurs. In fact, as an equal, twice or three times as large stimulus may be required to raise an equal sensation can also equal, twice or three times as large a stimulus amendment, or an equivalent, twice or three times as big difference between two stimuli required to raise an equal amendment of sensation, or an equally large difference between two sensations. Here, the amendment of the stimulus can be taken as a stimulus difference in the time sequence with the differences of simultaneous stimuli under common viewpoint and name, as in the following should be done in general, without trying to say that it is indifferent whether the components of a difference simultaneously or successively conceive. Subcomponents of the difference here, as a result, we understand the stimuli between which there is the difference that makes itself felt in sensation. At first glance, one might be inclined to take the measure of sensitivity to stimuli and the stimulus for differences reducible to each other. Are two tones of different physical strength is given, one can think of a third, whose strength is the differences in the strength of those two the same, and one could now, for example, think of schwchstmgliche sound that can be heard even by itself, schwchstmgliche and the difference that can still be detected between two tones, have generally the same size. But this is actually untriftig. Rather, already teach casual experiences and later will be proved accurate, that the difference between two physical sounds, lights, etc must be all the more to be still recognizable, the larger the absolute strength is the same, however, the absolute strength, which can still provide can perceive, remains the same. This does, however, necessary to distinguish the sensitivity and Empfindlichkeitsma for stimuli and stimulus differences.

In this respect the same stimulus difference is recognized more or less easily, depending on it is between small and large stimuli, and generally there, later studies show that, as to the size of the feeling the difference which gives a stimulus difference, on its relationship to the stimuli or the order set ratio the stimuli to each essential point, the difference in sensitivity is not only changeable by the condition of individuals, but also on the size of the stimuli, generally lower for large than small. The determination of the law, according to which the difference in sensitivity wedge depends on the size of the stimuli, ie according to which the magnitude of the difference of the stimuli must vary with the size of the stimuli to have the same clearly fall into the sensation is one of the most important and most consequential tasks of the outer psychophysics. The qualifiers now will turn out by the following studies in different sensory domains that, at least within certain limits, a difference between given stimuli always equally noticeable for the sensation remains, if he as its components increases or decreases in the same proportion, therefore, when the relative stimulus difference and Its Environs, if the ratio of the stimuli remains the same, as also the absolute magnitude of stimulus difference and the stimuli change. Under relative stimulus differences is ever the difference in the ratios of the stimuli to the sum, or to the agent or to one of the stimuli understand what is here indifferent, provided with the constancy of a relationship, the constant is given by the other itself. No less the stimulus remained constant, the relative difference and the stimulus ratio depends always together in solidarity, so that it does not matter even if it refers to the constancy of the one or the other. For example, if the components 5 and 3, both doubled, while the ratio of both permanent and unchanged, the relative difference between the two, is that the latter as if or as or as summarize by respektiv after doubling is that fractures with the previous Convention. contrast, when changing the stimulus money, stimulus Although the relative difference changes always in the same direction, and vice versa, but not disproportionately so. For, for example, if the ratio between the components 5 and 3 characterized in transitions that component 5 is changed without the component 3, the relative attraction difference is in or in over which a change place in ratios of 5 : 6 instead of 3 : 4. So far now, the law is that the difference remains the same noticeably when he as its components increases or decreases in the same proportion, thus the relative stimulus difference and the stimulus money to stay the same, you will have to say that the difference in sensitivity to the size the stimuli in the inverse ratio stands where at twice the stimulus size is twice as big difference is necessary to produce the same sensation difference. However, it may hereafter appear useful to summarize the sensitivity to differences equal to a proportionate, ie set equal to, not when the same absolute, but provided

that the same relative stimulus difference or if that same stimulus ratio produces the same sensation difference and put them reciprocally to one or the other . Whether one or the other, is again just a matter of definition, and has on the results of the applications of the sensitivity measure no effect if you just above the level used in accordance with the definition. But it will show up later in the whole connexion formal reasons as appropriate to maintain the sensitivity to differences, unless it is to be taken as proportionate in its amendments rather by the reciprocal of the stimulus ratio as the relative stimulus difference, in which a similar sensation difference results must be regarded as measured, whereas the remaining constant the relative sensitivity can be obtained more precisely both the constancy of the relative stimulus difference as a stimulus ratio. Summarized the previous thing we have to do a double distinction in sensitivity. We have to be distinguished: 1) the sensitivity for absolute stimulus values and stimulus differences, short absolute sensitivity and contrast sensitivity, one of which is first measured by the reciprocal of the absolute stimulus variables which cause a sensation of the same size, but the second, depending on whether one understands it, is measured in one of two ways. We have 2) the difference in sensitivity to distinguish an absolute and a relative or relative difference in sensitivity, depending on the reciprocal value of the absolute difference or the ratio of the sizes of the stimulus serves as a benchmark. The first we are usually the simple difference in sensitivity, the last name the relative. These distinctions may appear meticulously and as idle divisions now. But it will be shown later, this means that they are, but rather depends on the clarity of this distinction in view of the key factual conditions, and depends on the current lack of a clear distinction for the same parts of the ambiguity, which has since still in the doctrine of irritability has prevailed. In general, namely the name suggests sensitivity nothing else than what is otherwise also known by the name of irritability, excitability, sensitivity, except that this name, not only with respect to the evocation of emotions, but also movements caused by external or internal stimuli are generally used. But insofar finally hang all sensations of internal movement, you could also take the concept of sensitivity related to the sensation of the psychophysical motion their subject, and therefore say, for example, the absolute sensitivity, it is the same size, twice or three times so great, depending on a equal, semi-double or large external or internal stimulus belongs to evoke the same mental and physical exercise, except that this term position is not practical because the psychophysical observation of the movement is not accessible. Those names irritability, excitability otherwise used partly synonymous, sometimes arbitrary distinction without such distinctions had ever gefut clarified on actual conditions. But it will be convenient to define the concept of the different sensitivities to introduce a distinctive use, and I will therefore continue irritability exclusively for the absolute, use the excitability of differential sensitivity, the former relating to sensations, the latter on perceived differences. In the previous regulations, we had primarily the intense sensations in the eye in

which, strictly speaking, the concept of the stimulus alone is applied, but the degree of sensitivity of the areas of intense feelings can be transferred to the extensive to the following facts. Known, it is necessary to EH Weber's experiments a certain span of a set with its tips on skin circle, so the distance just appears noticeably, and there is nothing to prevent, by a modification of his procedure, what I'm talking in future, also equal appearing distances on different determining skin, in which case shows that the real size of the distances that appear just noticeable, or more generally the same, is very different in different areas of skin. No less can be detected by methods to be specified later, that the differences of distances, which can still be recognized on different skin areas, are different in size. Analogous differences in the perception of spatial sizes and size differences as between different skin sites can be between different parts of the retina, especially to find more central and peripheral. So we can speak of a different sensitivity in the perception of extensive sizes as well as in the conception of intensive quantities speak, and both short as extensive and intensive sensitivity to face each other. The absolute degree and difference measure of the extensive sensitivity of different skin or retina will then be to seek as well as in the reciprocal values of the same size that appears next expansion, expansion differences, ratios of the dimensions, as the measure of the intense sensitivity in the same size appearing intense sizes or differences in size or proportions of the stimuli, and consequently taken absolutely for example, a skin site have an extensive sensitivity twice as large as the other, if one half as great circle distance on the same just seems so big. Notwithstanding the extensive sensitivity given parts is not disputed in any of these dependencies on the number of so-called sensory circles, the same are contained in a given distance, so it would still just be untriftig, the measure of the extensive sensitivity to these us unknown number of sensation circles refer to will, when the degree of the intense of the size of the unknown to us psychophysical movement. It is common ground at the back in a given distance much less sensation circuits contain, as at the fingertip, and the just reasons for the lower Extensive sensitivity of the back as the finger, but the concept of extensive sensitivity refers now to the fact that by virtue of the organic device and tuning an organ in this respect is designed differently than the other. They wanted to because of the different number of sensory circles consider a reduction in the sensitivity measurements, it would except that you do not have the data to it, and thus the whole amount would float in mere terms, the notion of a different sensitivity probably disappear by indisputably a universal , there is only us until now not known, dependency ratio in this regard, which would lead to the same value everywhere. Now measured data on the extensive sensitivity as the intense after the requirements herein for this measure Prinzipe have of course only the value of observational data still constitute no insight into the constitutional conditions of sensation to the physical document itself, but together with others to such a justification can contribute, if they really understood as pure observation data and used.

You can cherish the concern that in the large variability in sensitivity to diversity of individuals, time and countless internal and external circumstances it is quite fruitless to a measure seek the same, once because a constantly mutable sharp none From inception measurement is available, secondly, because the results have no constancy, and hereby no value if the observed in certain individuals to certain time, under certain circumstances, results would not find in other places and other times. In fact, is not to deny that there are, in this regard the measure on our psychophysical difficulties in areas that do not pass the measure on purely physical or astronomical sites. But rather that the degree or the ability to achieve fruitful results thereby, would hereby superseded, the circle of investigation will only be expanded and introduced considerations that do not exist for those other areas. In this respect, the sensitivity is a mutable, we have no measure of the same look as a solid, but we can 1) Limit values, 2) means the same visit, and 3) investigate the dependence of their change of circumstances, and 4) seek laws that obtained by the same variability. The latter are the most important. For exploration and investigation of all the offer but the sensitivity of the measurement methods to be discussed not only adequate resources but also sufficient sharpness dar. But an exhaustive investigation in this regard runs needed much further out than that of a solid object is immutable, unable to cope with the forces of a single person, and performed already required for a single sensory modality until now. Rather still has in this respect a rich field for future investigation especially for younger workers by means of the methods to be discussed folgends represents an investigation, which is not difficult in itself, but requires patience, attention, perseverance and loyalty.

VII Maprinzip of sensation.

The one discussed in the previous chapter measure of sensitivity to be confused as a measure of mere assets of sensation either with a degree of sensation itself, yet it is understood in the sense indicated, such forward-but only the observation of equality cases of sensation, partly under the same , partly under amended, stimulus conditions. We measure this in fact is not the sensation, but only the stimuli or the difference of the stimuli which cause an equal sensation or an equally large difference of sensation, and so the question is still whether and to what extent a measure of the sensation itself and the spiritual is possible at all. In fact until now no such exists or, more cautiously, recognized as such until now, been doubted or denied rather up to the latest time that such a finding at all. Even Herbart's attempt at a mathematical psychology has not been able to be based on such, the most important objection which has always been held against him, regardless of the measure of Herbart to say so in the hands had. However, the principle of this measurement is folgends set up, and the feasibility of the same are shown theoretically and experimentally. Initially, this will only happen for sensations, because although the applications of psychological Maprinzips much farther than on sensations, as we will see in the future is yet to take the output of this, because the conditions here the easiest and most accessible to direct observation represent.

From the outset and generally can not be denied that the spiritual at all subject to quantitative ratios. Not only can speak of a greater and lesser intensity of sensations, there is also a different level of instincts, there are greater and lesser degrees of attention, the vividness of memory and fantasy images, the brightness of consciousness as a whole, as the intensity of individual thoughts. In the sleeping human consciousness is ever extinguished, deeply thoughtful increased in the highest intensity, and the general rise in brightness and decrease again individual ideas and thoughts. Thus, the higher spiritual subject, no less than the sensual, the activity of the mind as a whole, no less than in detail quantitative determination. First and directly but we only have an opinion on a more or less or equal in all these respects, not a How many times what is required to maintain a degree, and which will apply to win it. Without even having a real measure of sensation - and it was enough henceforth to pursue the subject in relation to sensation - we are able to say that pain is stronger than that, this sensation of light is stronger than that, but belonged to the extent of feeling, that we could say that this sensation is twice, three times, ever so and so many times as strong as those who is able to say so far. Equality in the areas of sensation, we are able to judge well, our whole measurement methods, the sensitivity of which we will deal in detail later, our photometric measurement methods are based on, but with all that we have no measure of sensation. We thus have no degree, but that we have the support of the measure, which requires the How many times of the same, and hereby above all, the assessment of the same in sensation areas. In fact, to show how our mental dimension comes out to basically nothing more than the physical, the summation of Soundsovielmal of the match. Free of course we would try to make such a direct summation. The sensation is divided not by itself or in the same grade from customs tax, we could count and add. But let us remember that this is not different in physical size. We are for the time sections right at the time from when we measure time, the spatial sections directly from the space, if we measure the space? Rather, we create an external scale, namely at the time a standard which is not out of mere time, to the room a scale that. Not from mere space, to matter a scale that does not consist of mere matter The dimension of each of the three requires both with others. Why should it not be in accordance with mental, psychological areas? That you have been looking for the dimension of the psyche always in plain areas of the psyche, may be a major reason that it has been unable to find it. It seems that there is often confused in this regard something. Any size can be related only to a unit of its kind, and as such, we can say, however, can be only space by space, time measured only by time, weight only by weight, but it's something else with the Mamitteln and the measurement procedure. Insofar as the quantities to be measured not abstract are in the nature of things and not be abstracted from each other and abstract leave of each handle, one can therefore not find the abstract unit of measurement and a measurement procedure in the nature of things, and it just depends on , the practical measurement procedure with the specific dimensions of

reality set so that the size relationship to the measurement ends to the unit itself but put out clean. So we are when we think a measure of the psychological, as such the strength of feelings and impulses and, in another pursuit, the intensity of our attention, our consciousness will think the brightness etc, but it must also demand a unit of the same kind, but necessary to look not gauge means and the measurement procedure in pure areas of the psyche, ie the inner perception, but have only set up as such that a pure relationship to a mental unit is clear of it. It will never be possible, to create a feeling directly above the other, that a measure of a erwchse by the other, but it can be by concurrence of something else, what the sensations are so well linked, as the expansion of the ulna at the matter of the ulna, be possible to obtain a measure of sensations. What are we to think about this? Without going into indefinite possibilities, I develop the principle of equal measure itself Just as we to measure the space, matter Elle require, which is taken into the room, we are to measure the mental, the physical need, which is subject to the same, if we do that which it is subject directly, the psycho-physical activity, can not be directly observed, the stimulus by which it is excited with which it grows legally and decreases can take the place of Elle in the outer psychophysics, from which we may hope also to obtain the inner Elle to get into the inner psychophysics. Now this would be very easy if the size of the sensation of the size of the stimulus could be set proportionally. Then we would have to take twice as much sensation, which is twice as large stimulus acts. But this is not permitted. Neither is a prior authorization to adopt a proportionality between stimulus and sensation, as long as we do not have the level of sensation, which guaranteed us the validity of this proportionality, nor is the amount actually obtained confirm the same. So as simple as a physical Elle on physical expansion can not be applied to the perception of the stimulus, however. Meanwhile, a light that any other functional relationship between stimulus and sensation than that of the direct proportionality as well can provide a measure of sensation to the measure relations of the stimulus, if only such can be gained without already presupposing a measure of sensation. For if we live in an equationy as a function of x have expressed, we can y according to the values of x and find conversely, if the way they change with each other, a quite different than that of the other proportional progress is . So that's all that would come on, stimulus size and sensation size equally be expressed as a function of each other, irrespective of which would be this feature in order to find the different size of the one can, except that we need to have a well-founded in reality function to get back to make applications to the reality of it. This leads us back to the main problem, how can it be obtained, as proved to be well founded in reality, without having the sensation already measured to demonstrate to that sensation in this and any other conditions to the stimuli would progress as that which indicating function. In short, the degree of sensation, only to find what appears to be found, the same already presuppose, if it is to be founded on

this principle. You must make this perfectly clear difficulty to gain a clear insight into the meaning of their elevation. This improvement is based on the short connection of two circumstances. 1) That we, the function between stimulus and sensation of a function between the elemental, from which both can be regarded as a grown up, derive, and 2) that we referred to in the experience possible, backed by the feasibility of exact methods, evaluation of this function equality in the perceived support areas. This is explained in the qualifier as follows: The difference of a stimulus variable to another always can also be a positive or negative increment to one or the other stimulus size touch and it can be a whole stimulus in mathematical version as of positive Zuwchsen from zero are considered adult by getting an increment in one of the sum previous thinking together, until the full appeal is there. Just so, a sensation difference in mathematical version viewed as a positive or negative increment to one or other sensation and perception as a whole from positive Zuwchsen from zero are considered grown up to full strength. If one knows the functional relationship between the sum of Reizzuwchse from zero, and the sum of the corresponding Empfindungszuwchse, we have them eo ipso for all the charm and the whole sensation triggered thereby. The three measurement methods for the sensitivity differences, which are explained in the following chapter, now teach even, which is also in the 6th Has shown preliminary section that Reizzuwuchs which is needed to produce a given Empfindungszuwuchs or more to increase the sensation of the same amount does not remain the same, according to whether it is a weaker or stronger stimuli, but even with increasing stimuli growing. That is, a Reizzuwuchs must be a stronger stimuli more than to a weaker to more than just noticeable increment or at all to be equally noticeable. If 1 Lot are as increment to one pound a just noticeable Empfindungszuwuchs the sensation of gravity of the pound, so there will not be such more at two pounds, but it could be a more substantial size of the Gewichtszuwuchses needed at three pounds, & c again more detailed investigation by means the methods concerned now leads to early as the 6th Chapter outspoken general legal relationship between the size of the stimulus variables Reizzuwchsen, which always give the same Empfindungszuwuchs and the constant Empfindungszuwchsen, resulting in later to be indicated manner summed to derive the functional relationship between that of the variables Reizzuwchsen stimuli and the constant from the Empfindungszuwchsen can happen summed all sensation. Thus, the need to have a measure of the whole sensation already, to determine their functional relationship to the whole stimuli, thereby bypassing that we on the relationship between the elementary Zuwchsen from which stimulus and sensation can be considered as adult, go back, which not a measure of sensation, but merely cause us to bid standing and means of the measurement methods, the difference in sensitivity to great sharpness to be brought, assessing the equality of sensation differences Empfindungszuwchsen, belong to that given measurable variables Reizzuwchsen, demands, and that we, the functional relationship of the sums the

Zuwchse deduce from which we get the degree of sensation to the measured stimuli. In principle, therefore our measure of sensation is also coming out every sensation into equal divisions, ds the same increments, from which it was born from the zero state to, disassemble, and the number of these same departments as such by the customs tax of a scale by the number of associated variables Reizzuwchse determined to think, which are the same Empfindungszuwchse produce able, how do we measure a piece of cloth by the same by the number of Elle, we determine the number of same departments, which they are able to cover, only that instead of Decken here Father is. Shortly we determine the size of the sensation that we are not able to directly determine the same as How many times a contained therein, we are able to determine directly, but not read the number on the sensation, but the stimuli from which carries the sensation and they can be read easily. Finally, we replace, statuierte only Prinzipe count an infinite number of infinitely small Zuwchse that would in fact not be executed by an infinitesimal summation of the same, which gives us the result of the count without having to make them in detail. This difficult for the first sight but can be made to bring simple, clear aspects, methods and formulas. But before we go into the next chapters of the execution, may serve some general discussions to explain the principle of something more. The extent of the physical based closer Seen in its most general and final reason the fact that the same amount and the same great mental impressions by the same amount and the same great physical causes are generated whose How many times is determined by the How many times those mental impressions, the magnitude of the cause which produces the unique psychological impression or any sum thereof, is as one unit. How we can win the physical shape of such measures only based on the relationship of the physical to the psychical, we win according to our Prinzipe conversely, the psychological dimension to the same reason, pursued only in the reverse direction relationship. According to the general continuity Prinzipe no sensation is abruptly and suddenly the full amount, beyond which it does not flourish, but by running on the degree of imperceptibility all intermediate grades, often in such a short time, that seems to be suddenly because of course us the whole amount of sensation . An increase in the sensation of zero by getting new increments up to her full height so is not fiction, but due to the nature of the case and the reference to it, but also the trick that makes us the same measure alone possible. There is no measure can be applied at the grown-up sensation, inasmuch can be no quantitative differ in the majority. But probably offer in the growing feeling the increments, from which it was born, a particularly auffabare for our future methods applied to majority dar. Of certain side of this trick leads for the treatment of psychological variables with corresponding advantages than the corresponding trick for the treatment of room sizes. A curve on a surface is given, but the calculus, rather than to take as a given whole, they can grow out of their increments, and granted, for example, the most accurate insight into the whole circumstances of the passage of the curve by is a general expression for the continued gehends constant increments of the abscissa as

the variable increment of the ordinate, to continue gehends constant dx the variable dy behaves. Similarly, we will provide the most accurate insight into the relationship wise course of stimulus and sensation by giving a general expression for the continued gehends constant increments of sensation how does the variable increment of the stimulus, and establish hereafter a function between stimulus and sensation which no less by an equation between x and y will be represented directly expressible, and, if you will, by a curve. We will continue to be held only x and y , the letter and need.Meanwhile, this is for now only a prospect, no insight, we are opening. The psychological dimension is always less light and easy to stay in construction as in application than the physical, especially from the reason that correspond to the physical dimensions generally equal divisions of the scale the same departments of the measured object, whereas the in experience as generally out alternate end fact that with increasing size of the stimulus and the feeling more and more Reizzuwchse be necessary to still cover the same Empfindungszuwuchs, in a way the case is comparable to that unequal divisions of the scale the same departments of the measured object match. This now prevent Although as I said not at a known relationship between two of the total of one side to the other to conclude what is the essence of what is important. But the size of the stimulus and sensation are now no longer on the whole proportional, and the simplest relationship, which has made her think between the scale and object and actually takes place in physical space, time and weight measurements, that between the psychic objects and not his physical scale. This is a second reason, which has delayed the discovery of the psychological dimension. Meanwhile, the experimental study shows that the next simplest ratio is what was possible here. It is found that while the absolute size of the Reizzuwchse for equal Empfindungszuwchse itself grows more and more with increasing sensation, but assuming a constant speed and under normal or average conditions, the relative size of these Zuwchse continued gehends remains the same for the same Zuwchse of sensation; so that always the same relative Reizzuwchse same Empfindungszuwchsen match, if, as before, relative to the size of the absolute Zuwchse Zuwuchses, in proportion to the size of the stimulus or divided by the size of the stimulus to which it takes place, understand. To this is the fact that the absolute size of the Reizzuwchse for equal Empfindungszuwchse increases with the feeling more and more, even only one conclusion, except where the growing with the sensation of stimuli, the same ratio part of the appeal on the basis must fail absolutely larger than the stimulus is greater whose fraction it forms. Respect, we now want to ask on the analogy with the standards of the physical to the terms of a scale of the psychic that equal divisions of the scale equal divisions of the object to be measured correspond, we will also satisfy this requirement by as the actual customs tax or departments of mental consider the relative, rather than absolute scale Reizzuwchse. The determination and summation continues gehends same

relative Reizzuwchse in upgrades of the stimulus and sensation hereafter represents a summation just as many associated Empfindungszuwchse same, the sum of which we have only to refer to a unit of its kind to have a measure of the whole sensation. Strictly speaking, this summation is now carried out with Zuwchsen infinitely small, because only for infinitely small Empfindungszuwchse its relative Reizzuwchse have a precisely defined value. Unless we wish to consider the relative Reizzuwuchs for a finite Empfindungszuwuchs at once, it is to consider that the charm of this in the upgrade itself through various sizes of which makes any claim to act as a divisor for the increment to the relative increment to give. The difficulty thereof seems to grow, but will stand out in even more touched manner by a simple mathematical function can be set up, which without demanding the principle necessary identification and counting of an infinite number of infinitely small Reizzuwchse in detail, the result of a such determination and counting includes a function whose derivative is one of the simplest applications of calculus, however, their understanding and application requires only basic knowledge. And as a last resort member of the psychic dimension, finally resting in a function which can be regarded themselves as spiritual in nature, while the physical be a last resort member has in physical standards, not that even that middle link could be found either by motion in pure areas of intellectual nor permitted in its application, to be limited to this, as it rather simply as the physical dimension to the relationship between the physical and the mental is based. The law that larger Reizzuwchse are required in the higher parts of the stimulus scale, as in the lower to still produce an equal gain of sensation, has been long known by it's a matter of daily experience. The word of his neighbor you can hear very clearly in the silence or the sounds weak days, whereas you, as they say, can not hear yourself speak, so the increment is caused thereby imperceptibly, when a loud noise is present. The same difference in weight, which is very strongly felt in small weights, is imperceptibly with large weights. Strong light intensities photometrically very significantly different, but close to the eye appear equally bright So already a light appears in the mirror almost as bright as the light outside, regardless of taking place a strong light loss at the reflection. Analogous examples can easily be set up in all areas sensory sensations. But this general fact was not sufficient as a basis for the psychological dimension. The more accurate statement now that the size of the Reizzuwuchses just in proportion to the size of the already grown stimulus also has grow to be still the same to provide for the growth of sensation, was first done in some generality by EH Weber and proven by experiments, so it from me that Weber's law is named. For individual cases where it would be considered, however, it has been stated and proved earlier as closer to the 9th Seen chapter, where specially treated of this law. The mathematical function on the other hand, linking the size of the stimulus with

the size of sensation, is to particulate point of more than a hundred years ago Euler, later repeated by Herbart and Drobisch, the dependence of the perception of musical intervals of the ratios of the frequencies; something before Euler by Daniel Bernoulli, and later by Laplace and Poisson, the dependence of the fortune morale of the fortune physique, finally Steinheil and Pogson for the dependence of the star size differences that are nothing more than differences of sensation sizes of the photometric intensity the stars have been prepared, to which I partly in the 8th Chapter will mostly come back in a later historical chapter. If you would have recognized the public and the meaning of that Act and this function earlier, the psychological dimension would be recognized early. The Weber'sehe law that same relative Reizzuwchse correspond Empfindungszuwchsen same is to be considered as fundamental to the psychological measurement gauge because of the great generality and because of the size of borders, where it is strictly valid or approximative, but has its limitations and is subject to validity there are complications, which are to be discussed carefully later. Even where the law ceases to be valid or pure, but reserves but the principle discussed here, the mental dimension, and its pure full force, by each other, even if only empirically determinable and be expressed by an empirical formula, relationship between constant sensation and variables stimulus-increments up can serve both as a basis of the mental dimension and really has to serve in the parts of the stimulus scale where that law loses its validity. In fact, just as well, such as the Weber's law will provide a differential formula, which leads to an integral formula, containing the expression of the metric. This is a fundamental point of view, by the Weber's law with the limits of its validity does not occur hereafter the same as putting barriers to the mental level, but only as a limited resource, over which extends the general Maprinzip. This borrowed in fact, not its validity from Weber's law, but the application of Weber's law occurs only into the principle. Accordingly, the investigation in the interests of most possible generalization of the psychological dimension did not have much to go on to generalize the Weber's law as possible, which would easily carry a worrying tendency to generalize about his ambitious nature of borders or concerns would cause that it was generalized in that interest beyond, but you will be able to ask quite openly: how far does it go, how far it's not enough, because even then, where there's not enough rich but the three methods, the Dimensions are, and thus the measure. In short, Weber's law is only the base for the most numerous and important applications of psychological measurement, but not the general and necessary. The most common, further back lying surface of the psychic dimension lies rather in those very methods by which the relation between stimulus and Empfindungszuwchsen ever to determine within and outside the boundaries of Weber's law, and the training of these methods always greater focus and is therefore the perfection that matters above all in mental measurement gauge. With all the great benefits would be lost if the so-simple Weber's law might not

really be placed within wide limits exactly or with a satisfactory approximation in psychophysics is based. Similar benefits, as if we could not determine the reason for the simple lens refraction in astronomy Kepler's laws do not, in the doctrine of the dioptric instruments. Now, however, it behaves very similarly, as with these laws with that law. In Kepler's laws is of the disorders in which the simple lens refraction abstracts from the optical aberrations. Yes they can be quite valid if the basic conditions no longer exist, to which they apply. But they are always the main conditions to which it is in astronomy and dioptrics, remain relevant.And so also the Weber's law completely lose its validity if the average or normal conditions under which the stimulus acts sensation, are very exceeded or leave, but even for these there will always be authoritative. Also, we are no less than happens in physics and astronomy, in psychophysics to the general, the main conditions to which it is mainly to do to get to know and to overlook initially abstract from the disturbances and small deviations of the law may, without forgetting their existence, therefore, while a finer training and a further advancement of the theory with the acquired ability of the determination and calculation of the disturbance will also have the task of determining and calculating. The determination of the psychological dimension is a matter of outer psychophysics and its nearest applications fall into the same area, and its further applications and implications but need access to the area above the inner psychophysics, and its deeper significance lies in it. Let us recall the stimulus does not directly sensation, but only through the mediation of physical activities to which the sensation is more directly UPHOLSTERY. The quantitative relationships of dependence of the sensation of stimuli thus translate eventually into such of the physical activities that are subject to the sensation immediately release the psychophysical activities, and the degree of sensation by the size of the stimulus in such by the strength of these movements. To this translation is necessary to know the dependence of these internal movements of stimuli, but so far it is not an object of direct experience to develop in such a precise way. In fact, this whole investigation can be done in an exact way, and you can not miss one day - when the goal was not reached, see now - to have the success exact investigation. However, the Weber's law, based on the ratio of stimulus and sensation, shows only limited validity in the realm of outer psychophysics, it has transferred to the relationship of sensation to the living force or otherwise of a particular function of the underlying psycho-physical movement, probably an unlimited validity in the field of interior, by any deviation from this law that we observe in the production of sensation by the external stimulus may be due that the stimulus only under normal or average conditions, a living force of its size proportional internal flows that are subject to an immediate sensation. Thereafter, it is anticipated that this law after it will be able to complete the transfer to the psycho-physical movements in a precise way, will win an equally important general fundamental importance for the relations of soul and body field, as the law of gravity for the field of celestial motions.It responds very simple character we are accustomed to find in basic laws of reality.

So while the psychological dimension can be based on the areas of the outer psychophysics only up to certain limits on the Weber's law, it should find the unconditional support it in the field of interior. But these are for now, however, only views and prospects, ensuring their is only to be expected from the future. This is the principle of psychological measurement in general. To its more specific justification and execution will now include the following. First, the methods to be discussed, which even allow you to determine how large proportionate Reizzuwchse are needed in the ascending scale of stimulus and sensation, bring continued gehends same Empfindungszuwchse. Make these methods together with the differential sensitivity of the measurement methods, provided that the same level just consists only in accordance with the terms set out to determine the stimulus differences which correspond to the same sensation differences. In so far as is one such measure in itself of importance and interest to have these methods, apart from the support that they provide for a measure of sensation, its importance and interest, and are initially without regard to those later following application of the same are discussed. Second will be to show how, in which public and within what limits are justified by the experiments of these methods, the Weber's law, and the law itself be discussed. Also, this law has, apart from the support of mental health to the same degree, as one of the most common psychophysical laws, its great importance. Third, a fact (the fact of the threshold) and another law be discussed (the same Act), which, without being substantially included in Weber's law, in connection with this factual and interfere in the general support of the measure with. Fourth, as will be shown, how can justify the general mathematical function to those documents, which expresses the relationship between the stimulus size and sensation size without already presupposing a size comparison of the sensation, and take on a census of individual Empfindungszuwchse without decline. Fifth, this feature is even set up to discuss and need to be kept in their applications. Sixth, will be to show how even where the Weber's law ceases to be valid, but still a psychological level is possible. Seventh, finally will be looking for with this degree of the field of outer psychophysics to the interior of the transition. The first three of these tasks are covered in this, the rest of the gang following.

VIII measurement methods of sensitivity.

After the 6th Chapter established criteria is a measure of the absolute sensitivity to intense feelings of the reciprocal of the absolute stimulus sizes in extensive the reciprocal of the absolute dimensions which produce an equal sense as a measure of the simple difference in sensitivity is the reciprocal of the stimulus differences or differences in expansion, which has a produce the same feeling difference, as a measure of the relative difference in sensitivity is the reciprocal of the ratio of expansion or stimuli which produce an equal difference in sensation.

The measurement methods of simple and relative difference in sensitivity is not separate, as it both together it arrives to determine the two stimuli that give a sensation given difference. Only one can be either on the absolute size of the difference or the ratio of the stimuli eighth, and measure the sensitivity of the reciprocal values of the one or the other.Each of the two dimensions will maintain its importance, but here it will suffice to discuss the methods with respect to the first. The execution of the measure on the basis of these provisions requires that we are able to assess the equality of sensations and feeling differences under different circumstances really be stated precisely and what does not seem easy for the first sight. However, based, as already recalled earlier, the known photometric measure to assess the equality of sensations in the music you often enough, the agreement of two tones, such as the equality of two musical intervals, ie tonal differences to judge, and of very general Methods, to note the equality of sensation differences which will be discussed soon. Indeed, there are the measurement methods of sensitivity, which refers to differences that have trained far more than the absolute, and it is therefore here first and principally traded by them are. This should happen here in so far that a general insight into the nature and mutual relation of these methods and the common conditions of their accuracy is possible that the essence of what is important in the experiments and their calculation is called sufficient to also applications to make possible the methods, and that leading to the results in the following chapters are understood. But I wanted all the specialties of experimental and billing page of the methods, which may come into consideration for more detailed studies to explain here, all the rules that will give, theoretically justified and substantiated by test series, it would, contrary to the interests of those to whom it more a general insight into the methods, as their own use of the same is to be done, the course of the consideration to be so much delayed by the fact that I prefer to refer to a supplement to this document with regard to the more detailed description of the methods and then hired trials, I will intend to connect the same with the title "Mabestimmungen and measurement methods in the domain of psychophysics" and folgends quote briefly under the name "measurement methods". Much of what can be displayed and indicated only briefly here, you will be executed there and partly demonstrated theoretically more accurate, especially partly covered by tests find. l) Methods of Measurement of contrast sensitivity . a) General view. Until now, for the sake of brevity I have three measurement methods, the difference in sensitivity to bidding, as 1) method of just noticeable differences, 2) method of right and wrong cases, 3) method of average error denote. In order to give a first superficial insight into the nature and the mutual relationship

of these three methods, they may first place, short with respect to a and are explained in the same task, namely, that wants to explore the delicacy are detected with which differences in weight, though only the first two these methods have not really found this application. To apply the method of just noticeable differences in our task to lift a given load by two weights on a somewhat different total weight placed in vessels A, B comparatively on. Is the difference of the weights big enough so you will feel it, otherwise do not find significantly. The method of just noticeable differences now is to determine the size of the weight difference, which is needed to be recognized as just noticeably. The size of the weight differences of sensitivity to the size of the difference is found in this way reciprocal. In general, this method is convenient, just take the difference as much of a noticeable than on the level of just noticeable to bring down, as from an imperceptible to bring this up, and the average result. Taking the weight difference is very small so you will sometimes deceive with frequent repetition of the experiment on the direction of the difference by taking and vice versa in reality to light vessel for the heavier, larger but the excess weight or the sensitivity, the greater will be the number to the right or the wrong number for the total number of cases judgment. The method of right and wrong cases now is to determine the amount of excess weight that is under the various conditions under which the sensitivity is to be compared requires to produce the same ratio of correct and incorrect cases or real cases to the total number of cases . The size of the sensitivity under these various conditions, the size of the excess weight set reciprocal. Cases where one remains doubtful, are not to be set aside, but the right half and half be counted among the false cases. If one has only the weight of a vessel as a normal weight given by means of the balance, so you can try the other, incorrect weight, by the mere judgments of perception that make the same. Here, you will generally commit some error, mistake you find, when the second vessel after having it taxed the same as the first nachwiegt. If the experiment is repeated often, so you will get lots of errors, from which one can gain an average error by means contraction. The sensitivity to differences in weight will be to set the size of the mean error, which is obtained as reciprocal. This is the method of average error. Since the positive and negative errors depend in the same way by a lack of proper believes they are to be used in the same way to the extent, that is not to be deducted for absolute values of each other, but to add up. In a similar manner as in the field of weight sensations can be the same methods in the field of light sensations, the sensations of sound, etc, as extensive sentiments apply, by examining for example the latter case by the method of just noticeable differences, how big the difference of the ranges must be two held or placed on the skin from the eye circles to appear noticeably as indicated; according to the method of right and wrong cases, how often real and falls in two by a little different circle

distance a number of times a false judgment, if you are looking to appreciate, which is the greater, by the method of average error, how big is the average error that one commits when one tries to find the distance in a circle the same size with the other. These three methods lead to different and complementary ways to the same goal. In the first over the line between significant and noticeable difference is observed as just noticeable difference in the second bermerkliche differences are counted (that fail soon after accidents in proper, sometimes the wrong sense), the third untermerkliche differences are measured. All three methods make use of the sensitivity scale as relatively very small, some vanishingly small differences. It will be shown later that this is precisely the most advantageous when it is necessary to look at the extent of the sensitivity of a substrate for the measurement of sensation. So much can see, each of these methods is applicable to all sensory domains, but still lacks much in the execution of even one of these methods through all, and just as little have been fully performed by all three of the same one. The method of just noticeable differences 1) was probably used earlier in some cases, as of Delezenne to test the sensitivity to deviations from the purity of tone intervals, and in particularly large expansion and happiest successes but by EH Weber to study the sensitivity ratios in Areas of subjective weight, touch and sense of proportion *) . I myself have made some not very extensive experiments in the field of intense light sensation, sense of proportion and temperature measurement by this method.
1) *)

Revision p. 119 ff

Comp. here especially about his writing about touch and sense of community, and its Programmata collecta.

No previous attempts and others by the same, the method of right and wrong cases anlangend, as are known to me, than that of Hegel Mayer ** ) , stud. med in Tbingen in the field of proportion, and of Renz and Wolf *** ) in the field of sound measurement, both of young people under Vierordt's auspices, so one may well assume that Vierordt was the method at hand, although this is not explicitly is noticed. I myself have used it to very extensive experiments in the field of weight measurement 2) . **) Vierordt's Arch XI. P 844 *** ) Vierordt's Arch in 1856. 2 H. S. 185 or Pogg. Ann. Xcviii. P 600
2)

Revision pp. 84

The method of average error in a sense is as old as it hires observations, and determines their precision by the size of this errors made to my knowledge but also

simply from the point of view of the objective accuracy of the determination of physical and astronomical observations and for determining far Size thereby occurring errors ) , but has not been taken and used as a psychophysical measurement method to study the acuteness of the senses in the eye. It seems to me now to be one of the most excellent for this purpose, and I have used in conjunction with Volkmann to study the sharpness of eye and Tastmaes 3) .
)

This stone of salvation in its elements of brightness measurements p. 75, from Laugier in Compt. explanatory. XLIV. p. 841 etc
3)

revision p. 104 ff

In practical relationship, the method of just noticeable differences among the three measurement methods is the simplest, most direct, leads to the relatively fastest objectives and requires the least amount calculation means. However, one must observe only a large amount of correct and incorrect cases or errors in the other methods to cut down on the equality of feeling a difference a judgment and must communicate through an invoice surgery this judgment, one considers here the just noticeable difference directly as a for the sensation of the same immediately, and if you ever need a repeat and the accuracy of the assistance of an agent for the affirmation of individual judgment here, so this may still rely on much fewer cases, because each individual observation case, the result is in itself. For first general statement of fundamentals and where you do not have a long time to turn on observation, this method is therefore often appear to be the most appropriate. However, more detailed studies it seems less suitable and not so much definitive precision capable than the other two methods, which you should find therefore always driven in Track an investigation. Notably precludes her that the degree of the plane Merkl-self to the subjective discretion allowed more leeway take place than for the other methods. It is not absolute, neither the first point where a sensation difference is just noticeable, even when he disappears, can be determined exactly, one goes through a period of doubt whether he is noticeably or not. Will not the degree of the plane Merkl-self take something high, that only such a difference conceived as just noticeably, the exception and certainly appears in the repetitions of the experiment as significantly, then where but needed a slightly smaller difference often also must appear noticeably as the method of themselves reflected in that of right and wrong cases to by more cases are being run with then where you are mistaken about the direction of the difference or doubt remains, cases that will be taken in accordance with their greater number in consideration . However teaches but the experience that we say so with yourself about the feeling of a small, but still safe enough perceived, difference communicate, this, if not absolutely, but close to precisely replicate in different experiments and by duplication of attempts can get good result. Also, the previous remarks should in no way serve to reduce the value of this method, but only to provide the same advantages and disadvantages against other methods in the right light. It would tell her of

psychophysics as the handiest tool is lost. She has proven herself in the hands of their master by means of the same fundamental data received well, and others, I myself have had an adequate opportunity to convince themselves of their usefulness. The method of right and wrong cases is probably the most tedious, and it is better if you do not have a lot of time and patience, not to engage in same, as is done with a few right and wrong cases, as much as anything, however, we made many can elicit and konstatieren very good, that is well tuned to each other, get results, regulatory conditions in the areas of sensation. This requires the help of the bill, but can be easily traced back to executable operations. One principle, however, in the method of just noticeable differences at a single difference, the just noticeable, is rejected as a measure of the difference in sensitivity can be drawn with the method of right and wrong cases somewhat larger and smaller differences at will in the attempt, and the different number of correct and incorrect cases obtained here, specialize comparison. Also the method of average error requires great effort and a slight account numbers help. Both this latter methods have the great advantage to be based on the proven principles of probability and be able to contribute something to the probation itself. In fact, the interest is what I found in the long exercise of these methods has been maintained and increased by much with this point 4) .
4)

Using the method of average gradations: In terms of pp. 22, 178 f Mental Maprinzipien p 182 ff b) General considerations and precautions 5 ) . Seem so easy the vorstehends briefly discussed methods for the first sight, and in principle are, they require but in their design and implementation of many considerations and precautions, sometimes the observation part of the calculation that specialize in part by the method and the experimental field . More or less general but are following.
5)

Revision p 25-42.

In all three methods play irregular contingencies, which partly inherent in the manipulation, are justified partly in view of the subjective conditions of the compared sizes, a large role.Is the scope of contingencies considerably, thereby soon increased with the method of just noticeable differences of aufzufassende difference strong, soon greatly reduced, and to ensure as noticeably to explain it, must have a more substantial size, as ohnedem and the value that you record as a just noticeable difference, will therefore increase by large contingencies. Let the random influences that a weight soon more difficult, soon a lot easier with the method of right and wrong cases, than the other, so that the influence of the additional weight against this influence of contingencies not much comes into consideration, then in respect of which that the average random coincidences as often as augmenting effect of decreasing this or that side, the number of right and wrong cases substantially equal

in size, at least the proper cases to be reduced in the event that no or lesser contingencies would place. In the method of average error is finally over immediately sees that the error must fail on average greater, the more the compared sizes appear larger by contingencies soon, soon less against each other. Falls short, the more irregular contingencies act, the smaller for all three methods, the value of which is the measure of sensitivity, and there is absolutely no way to obtain a free of these contingencies degree, their average size is always a factor in the measure with. It now does not prevent to gain comparable degree of sensitivity, as long as this factor remains constant, ie as long as keep the irregular contingencies on the average of the same size, so it would be without these contingencies, the measurement methods of right and wrong cases and mean errors do not exist . But it builds on the previous consideration, the important consideration, just only to be regarded as comparable to such measures of sensitivity, where one can assume a similar game of the uncertain, which calls for a detailed comparison of external and internal circumstances attempt. If the manipulation changes in the tests somehow, also occurs immediately another game of randomness and listen to the dimensions to be comparable, just as you can not due to possible amendment of internal conditions in different individuals or at different times in the same individual the same room the contingencies require. Everywhere, where deviations between sensitivity measurements show, one must therefore always ask first if they are related to real differences in sensitivity, or lack of comparability of the circumstances under which they were tested. The tests shall be reproduced very generally and, as already noted, a very large number is necessary especially when the same method of right and wrong cases and mean error in order to obtain reliable results. The large number of observations here has in fact a much different meaning than in the physical and astronomical measurements. A physical or astronomical size can also be determined very accurately by a means less accurate measurements according to the usual methods of procedure. In contrast, in the method of average error and right and wrong cases the large number of experiments themselves essential condition of accuracy. The single observation here is as good as no meaning, and a small number even more accurate observations lead to any accuracy. The individual right and wrong cases, the individual errors fall, in fact, quite irregular, small experimental groups, but that they are hired externally under very similar circumstances, nor can give vastly different results, whereas they often amazed from these irregularities in the larger experimental groups indicating the bereinstimmendsten to see results. It is here that quite known in the probability theory under the name of the law of large numbers, the law which governs the random, provided that accumulates the same. One can in this respect hardly compare our methods with something more appropriate than using a Proteus, rather than the answer to the questions simply and eager to get wechselndsten shines through the forms that he attracts to withdraw any answer, but it is enough back, unperturbed by it only ever hold the same points, thus forcing you to him from a safe answer. I have, especially with the method of right and wrong cases, frherhin lost a lot of time, as I was about to pull out a few experimental

hours or days results without being able to get to something solid, until I decided that experiments always relative to the same point all the months, with about l hour test period to repeat every day, where I got results that I have cause to be satisfied. Apart from that can not be eliminated, influence which by (see above) is the size of the margin of the irregular contingencies on the size of the dimension values, the contingencies that as long as that room and have to compensate by frequent repetition of experiments in the way the sensitivity will remain the same, at various times employed in experiments finds matching dimension values, ie the single random loses its influence, and the definitive results so far are independent of coincidences. To be sure that this is the case, you will continue each test series as long or have to be repeated until the major political groups or the repeats match them in the results in question, while permitting of course deviations as small order, as we must also allow the observation error in physical observations, for the absolutely not compensable accidents represented in our methods, the observation error. If a match is smaller fractions one must not calm by itself may rest on chance. Moreover, the probability given the means, on the one hand the level of accuracy that you would expect to obtain observations with a given probability of a given number to determine ahead, on the other hand, the degree of acquired accuracy of the number of observations and the degree of agreement, which the individual observations or fractions of a series of observations show to be calculated. The experiments are indeed from the outset in relation to a particular purpose set schedule as possible, but may issue a provisional Tatonnement often be of great benefit to be determined for the measurement favorable conditions and to be considered incidental circumstances to determine the plan of the experiments then, also where it is not co-research on the Ganges, the exercise takes apart, have the advantage that they are already pass through the first stage of the exercise and hereby to bring a part of the dependent changes in the main investigation into disappearance. Meanwhile, the influence of exercise is always to be considered an element, and it is therefore useful to take the same in the first preliminary experiments on the recognition and pursuit of the same advisedly because subsequent experiments where the practice already partially occurred or progressed to the border is , this only imperfectly or not at all allow. To not one-sided and to obtain valid results only for particulate conditions, is a broad methodological possible amendment of circumstances to bring in application. I have often had the experience that what appeared quite legally under certain conditions, under other circumstances turned out quite differently 6) , that I have become very cautious, results that have not proven under very different circumstances, to speak as a general . Now, however, a conflict occurs. Depending mehrerlei circumstances in connection subjecting the experiments, the fewer tests you can apply to each individual, with less accuracy so as a whole to determine the degree with respect to it. One must, therefore, just as much care not to want to examine all at once, so to speak, which is quite accomplished nothing but to keep to one side, the method to certain retained circumstances.

6)

This is particularly true of the ratios of the constant errors continue to be mentioned. To illustrate it on examples of weight tests so you can study how changes the sensitivity to differences in weight depending on the size of the main weights. But suppose you have the situation in this respect identified in raising the standard of weights with one hand, you will again find the same results when you lift the weights with your other hand, or if instead both with one and the same hand, the a, the other one stands with the other hand? Or if you change the handle or the way of attacking the vessels or the position of the weights in the vessels? Is not the rate of uplift of each vessel, the interval between the elevation of both the consequence that the heavier is the first or second repealed, carry the amount of elevation differences? If you also get the same results when the experiments with the main weight of the smaller to the larger ascending and if you hiring in reverse order? What influence has it when you doing with fatigued and not fatigued arms? How does the ratio of right and wrong cases with the size of the additional weight? etc For an exhaustive study of the sensitivity to differences in weight is really a determination of all these influences, and in other experimental fields of sensitivity occur only other influences on it, which is to examine it. But any such influence requires to be established with certainty by its size, direction, depending on Mitumstnden, a large number of experiments referring thereto. Where it is necessary to compare the influence of different circumstances, the tests also are alternating and alternating ascending and descending to discuss with the larger and smaller values, be it on the same days or the changing of the days to the influence which the sequence of experiments has on the success by changing the sensitivity or for other reasons, partly seen, partly compensate, partly to take into account. This occurs in the example of the weight applied to the number of different experiments main weights, different additional weights, different time intervals, etc. of the elevation, which is subjected to the tests. Be such as to provide the experiments with a variety of emphases, one can proceed by you on the same day the series first ascending, then descending passes, the next day the same first descending, then passes through ascending, or even so that they merely ascending, descending through the following only at one days, what changes are methodically through the entire series of days, which takes to complete the test series to continue. In some trials I have, instead of always starting with the smallest or largest values and close, started after the series with each of the tested values and closed the series backwards and forwards as continuous, as if they would be scheduled in a circle where the starting point, go through the loop, can be taken arbitrarily. But perhaps weighs the expected benefit thereof for a full compensation of the influence of the order of the experiments the disadvantage of reduced simplicity of the method is not at or above weighs only under special circumstances.

Generally come from the influence of the timing of the various tests, some are counteracting circumstances in consideration, partially in conflict, and can now in this, now predominate in that sense. On one hand, come, especially with lack of exercise, attention and activity of the sense organs by a certain duration of the experiments to tell only so to train and begin to act with a certain uniformity, on the other hand they are braced by a longer continuation, tired or after circumstances overwrought; finally makes from the beginning, and often enter through a long series of experiments, the influence of increasing experience up to certain limits law. All of these influences can be made the subject of special investigation, and as such but in each study by itself come into play, is to pay particular attention to. They are not even the subject of the investigation, we have strong, which is dependent to avoid amendments as far as possible, so do not continue the attempts to severe fatigue or irritation, and preferable experiments with slow or After completion of exercise progress those with rapid exercise progress. But since a certain ongoing continuation of the experiments on the other hand beneficial equally for uniformity as to the feasibility of which is part of every day, sometimes in the end of days in a given time, we have a, for individuality and ratios closer determining, looking measure in this regard, which must be left to their own cycles of everyone, but in any case not to put the bill on the exclusion, but the exact determination and compensation of those influences which do not exclude yourself completely, including a demgeme methodical arrangement of the experiments is, and what the more information is to look at the discussion of each method. As useful and necessary to a methodological change of circumstances is to investigate the influence of their differences, yet understandable greatest possible constancy of the same, or not to get in so far as such, their greatest possible compensation for variations in all the experiments is necessary, which for given circumstances to unite in a common results. You now have the external circumstances in this regard in his power, at least not the inner, just as by the sensitivity of the subject itself as some measure of the same secondary Participatory internal affairs of a not insignificant variability by neither predictable nor causes to be eliminated. This makes two considerations needed once that it takes Mabestimmungen from different eras, when employed already under identical external conditions, not easily to be comparable, if you are not convinced by the fact itself of the comparability, and secondly, that a long series of experiments not merely divides into groups according to the different experimental conditions, but also on the time to investigate such special, and generally prefer the result of the calculation fractions prolonged trials clubbed together as the result of the total unfractionated series draws at once. In general, the fractionation has the advantage to assure us of the greater or lesser consistency of the results to prosecute the possible progress of the exercise and what is the main thing, the one with longer trials often in the opposite direction itself feltmaking, influence of internal disturbances to eliminate safe way to account as if treating the observations as a whole, as is clear from the discussion of special methods.

However, the calculation result of each fraction due to the lower number of observations that enter it, only less security than the totality. But the probability calculation shows that recovered by combining the results of the fractions of safety, which it has not lost by the fractionation at the individual, given that the benefits of fractionation still exist. From other side, however, increases with fractionation, the fussiness of the treatment and representation of attempts and the number of times that one puts into a political group has one, only with large number of experiments disappearing in the method of right and wrong cases and mean error, to be rendered harmless in the event to be considered by a small correction, or by applying an always the same test number, can influence the size of the dimension values as theoretically show and prove through experience. While each requires a somewhat more extensive test series continued for several days or even weeks and months, the attempts at regular time intervals as possible and regularly divided, containing much the same attempts as possible to provide equal or symmetrical predisposed departments. The strict adherence to a fixed order in these relationships not only contributes to making the attempts of various days comparable to each other to move in and get to prevent confusion and mistake in the arrangement of the experimental conditions but also to simplify the calculations and any at all to facilitate use of the observations. Whereas if you soon as soon as much observations, now in this soon in that episode, soon under these circumstances soon hires those without fixed rule suffers the usefulness of observations in each respect. The general advantage, the order is everywhere, in our method makes just about as sensible contends the more details will be given to it will generally arrange and preserve in order. In general, I make the experiments of the same series of observations that pass through a series of days, always around the same time of day, possibly because the distance from the time of sleep and food intake may influence the to be examined sensitivity ratios. Perhaps such an influence is often negligible, more so if it ever hits the circumstances raised in comparison to the same conditions, however, this is only to examine more particularly, and always be advisable before such investigation this caution, which incidentally only in the general rule, maintain a fixed order in the circumstances of the time of the experiments, enters it. In this respect, the judgment is to be based at our methods to the mere statement of feeling, great care must be taken that it is not by an influence of the idea of expecting to be received results, just by what you mention the influence of the imagination maintains, would also determined. From other side, but we must not, for the avoidance of an imaginary influence of the imagination, the process to do so blindly say. These two parts offer an opportunity to dar. in our methods The arrangement of the experimental conditions, recording the observed values, aggregation of errors or right and wrong cases, as all to be founded on bills are set up and controlled by repetition or otherwise, that in the quantity of recorded, Zusammenzuzhlenden and to be calculated otherwise inevitable mistake be avoided

if possible, and to watch the recording and use of self unswerving loyalty. Compliance with the rules of the latter is more important and more difficult than you would think for the first sight. After the experiences I made to myself and my coobservers, I do not trust a totalization and statements that are not otherwise controlled by repetition or. Also, even if we overlook a repeated By counting, by calculation, especially if it is done soon after the other in the same form, but faults as easily as a writing error correction. Care and caution in this regard is not recommended enough, and so annoying repetition or other control can be in itself boring operations, so it is necessary in order not to interfere with the advantage of careful observation by providing in their use. A controlling See therefore you are in, even before the recording but can when necessary in general methodological modification of the circumstances quite easily mistake committed by confusing a fact to the other in the arrangement, or continuing obtained by several test departments without the required exchange this relationship has to make the rule. As far as the fidelity of the recording, one feels only too often tempted to try to distort, even without the results, some unusual observation values, eg the method of average error unusually large debt by about a discount of attention, exclude errors. But that has neither principle nor limit and leads to an arbitrariness that has to rely only on a vague aperfu. Such cases must indeed be avoided, but if they occur, seek to compensate only by the large number of trials. In the probability laws of chance itself, on which have to be based methods of right and wrong cases and mean error, the rare occurrence of extra-vulgar cases is justified, and one would find no advantage to exclude them from invoices to be on these laws have support. The attention may at long-continued series of tests at all impossible to keep exactly the same strength if one has been looking for such to receive as much as possible. Now include the accidental variations of the same even to the randomness of these methods, and you must the law of this randomness, which emerges in large numbers, not disturbed by arbitrary interference. Note the date of the observations in the same, not only in the general interest of the order important, but also especially because periodic or progressive alterations in sensitivity, which can take place in the course of the experiments, only be detected and in the compilation and use of tests may be considered necessary. In addition, you will probably do all the attendant circumstances, which may potentially have an impact on the success or the comparability of the experiments, as for example the temperature, even where such an effect has not been established, recorded, and in this respect rather something to to do much than too little. Of particularly great advantages, it is in our field of observation, when multiple observers unite for the purpose of joint investigation to thereby partly to complete, partly to support, partly to control. Not easy, an observer can perform on their own examination of a single sense of territory or a more important side of it on their own successfully and exhaustively, in part because of the extent of the task that the same makes a pitch just as necessary as by others to link the same necessary is, in part,

because of various attempts, the direct interaction of two observers or at least an observer and an assistant, one for external reasons, some finite because an inspection of the obtained by an observer results by one or more other more important in our area than anywhere else is, because of the risk that the result depends only on the essential individuality of the observer. Thus, under some circumstances a division of labor between the observers by dividing the observation area, a part of the same joint participation in the same experiments, sometimes quite grasp the independent repetition of the same experiments both with advantage court. Perhaps we may generally express that in our field, no matter how obtained by a reliable observer result may be viewed as a protected, if it does not know its control by other reliable observers, because the reliability of the observer only a guarantee for the faithfulness and accuracy his records, but not for the general validity of what he has observed in itself, is, although some conditions and the laws of nature, that one may assume from the very beginning that they were not merely a matter of special individualities. As important aspects of the interaction given by different observers is a joint investigation, but would very untriftig keep the possibility of psychophysical Maversuche at all to the assistance of an Mitbeobachters or agents is limited. Rather, as important as the control of any observations in this field through which independent observations is so important it is any kind observations in this area as undisturbed as possible, as uniformly as possible, with full private control of the time, the circumstances of the trials and the order in which they are taken in the attempt to carry out, so far only the risk can be excluded that the experimental knowledge of the circumstances whose influence is to be studied, the imagination give an indication as to distort the results. Where therefore not an assistant from this or other reasons, it is necessary, it is also generally not be useful as a complication of each machine is harmful, not necessary. The specific discussion of the measurement methods is repeatedly given the opportunity, come back to this subject with special reference to the participating nature of the circumstances and the experience discussions as a general aperfu not sufficient to support regulations in particular it. c) Subject to considerations of time and space conditions of the experiments, constant errors. 7) Insofar as it applies to the comparison of two quantities with our methods, the successive view is the preferable simultaneous, and the latter basically hardly possible, by turning the attention away from himself and turns of a different size. The experiment is thus set equal to it, but every little disturbance as possible to the observed comparative sizes it quickly one after the other, through the intervention of others, and to make the superposition of the same only in memory. The ability to compare sizes in this way is very strange, as already EH Weber has pointed out, and to await his education once in the future on the progress of inner psychophysics. For now must be gefut on his fact.
7)

pp. 130-138 revision.

That the conception of the compared variables not directly coincide in time, but now leads just the way that it does not directly coincide in space and thereby enter into a different relationship to the apprehending organs successes brought about participating the measure. Such conditions, I'll just call this the conditions of time and space location of the compared variables. The principal difficulties of an accurate measure of comparable sensitivity based on the fact and the training methods has mainly to the determination and elimination to be addressed by the same method and calculation, but which one is able to do more than it first for the sight may appear to be possible, then what but so far the attention has been directed less than it deserves the subject. In general, it should be noted in regard to the relations of time that it takes into account: 1) the time during which one conceives of a size such as shaking a weight if it is weight tests, a distance which envisioned when it Augenmaversuche applies, etc 2) The split, which is allowed to elapse between the conception of the one and the other size, and 3) the timing, whether one or the other conceives first, and 4) the more or less frequent repetition of the comparative view before you chooses. In general, the habit leads a certain uniformity in these circumstances, and the influence of small differences that occur in individual experiments, evens out at a large number of them. But it can be useful in methodological employment of attempts to establish a counter by consultation complete uniformity or comparability in these relationships, and through deliberate amendments thereof to investigate the influence of the same self, which until now very little has happened. The considerations of my weight experiments by the method of right and wrong cases but I have strictly adhered to this consideration. I want to get involved here, no generalities about to just as carefully considered ratios of the spatial position of the compared variables, since they are much more varied modify the method and proving ground than the timing and just remember preliminary in that the double-sidedness of our sense organs in this respect, special consideration requires, even if it gives rise to compare the sensitivity level of duplicate organs partly for itself, partly in cooperation, on the other hand, if the interaction of mutual institutions both can not easily apply the same ratio to the compared sizes. So it makes with the weight try a difference in the assessment of the severity of the vessels, and the number of correct cases in that method varies, depending on the extra weight is in the left or right vessels, not because of a mystical property of the left and right, but when using one hand to lift the one hand, the other to lift the other vessel, possibly because both hands behave not quite equal in sensitivity when using the same hand to lift both vessels proven, because the hand in the transitions from one the other of itself takes a different position, and the way of attacking both vessels thereby fails something different, which I can prove by positive tests, is not indifferent to success. In the Augenmaversuchen it makes using the method of average error a difference if the normal distance, which one looks the other to make the same,, up or down to the same, is the right or left of that. In corresponding experiments on the Tastma the skin it is when you hiring the experiments on

himself, even using pedicled circle, not indifferent to whether one of the circles, which determines the normal distance to the right, the other handled with the left hand or, conversely, by the application somehow, the circle will change after usf In this respect remain constant, the circumstances of a particular, different for the different sizes compared, time and spatial position by a series of experiments, they obtained justify the extent of what we can generally call a constant error. In the method of right and wrong cases in the field of weight tests, the constant error shows is that if I have a large number of cases where the vessel with the additional weight was the erstaufgehobene, with a large number, where it was the second repealed, putting together at in the way, no matter retained circumstances, the ratio of the right to the wrong cases, a case very different than otherwise, as if I have a large number of cases where the additional weight on the left and where it was in the right vessels together imagine. 8 ) In the method of average error in the field of judgment and gropings, the constant error shows is that the average of the distances that I have a given normal distance estimated equal, after ever so many trials not significantly agrees with the normal distance, but an often considerable, of the space and time location of the compared variables related law, size deviates into positives or negatives thereof, and that goes with it, that the sum of the positive deviations from the normal distance, the positive error sum, instead of negative with the Fail equal in absolute values, often very different from that fails, incomparably more than can be written on bill is not balanced contingencies.
8)

Also Renz and Wolf noted in their sound experiments by the method of right and wrong cases that one of them was inclined in general, the erstgehrten, the other regarded the two were sound as the stronger, which proves that the influence of different timing of the effects here too, in, makes for circumstances variably claimed. One can in this information possibly put distrust, and believe that much of the soObserved based on influences of the imagination, however, only so long as one has not even made experiments using the methods in question, where you will soon be convinced that , you would start as you want, the constant errors can not escape. Was an influence of the imagination but so little with what I observed in this respect, in the games that I rather the unexpected occurrence of the constant error in these experiments has been that which most struck me at first, and before I their elimination came, most has placed in embarrassment, and still today, after I have in the areas, including the weight and Tastmaes, experimented over the same long, is the ultimate reason of the same largely unclear to me, and just the fact the same safe. Also has very same with other observers, I caused to repeat my experiments, found again. The existence of the constant error brings the way only a complication, not a lack of precision in the measure of our methods in that they be eliminated in real consistency through appropriate measures and at the same time can be determined exactly by size, as I show with special consideration of the methods.

Unfortunately, the constancy of the constant error does not occur in the strict sense. I am one day not just as inclined as the other day, the erstaufgehobene or leftvessel to interpret the right-or linksbefindliche distance in a certain sense as a larger or smaller: but at the same held outer circumstances, the interior dispositions change in this regard in an often most striking degree. Our methods can easily track these changes, but also when it comes to ultimate accuracy, difficulties therein, provided that the variations of the mixing constant error in the method of average error with the pure variable errors and defile him, in the method of right and wrong cases but involved the measure in other ways, so the chief concern must go there, such variations partly by the appointing way, some way of treatment of observations (fractionation) or exclude possible to render them harmless. You must Apart from this, the complication of our methods by the constant error no disadvantage to see the same, but an important advantage if the determination of the constant error is a part of the thus obtainable psychophysical measure yourself, by just the influence that the sensation of participative circumstances by is represented and measured, but at the same time there is the possibility to eliminate him from the measurements of varying sensitivity to it, however, is now only us to do. The constant error is therefore not at all as an idle waste to throw away, but carefully excrete only to this extent, to examine the way even after his circumstances, legalities, dependency ratios in each experiment and after every test areas manner. Yes it should our methods of observation in this regard the art of observation ever come to Outfit by this not only such a common occurrence constant error, as we would not be thought, but are also sources of the same, to which one has hardly thought revealed, what However, I'd rather refer to my "measurement methods" as this font. At the same time is the sensitivity, which show the influence of the experimental methods for the circumstances on the constant error, a proof of their fineness. The previous thing is far from exhausting all what is said to know and to note of the need of the above methods will even try to use it. While I'm compelled to reserve more designs here about the "measurement methods", I will limit myself to folgends still regards the last two methods to identify the most essential part special points, partly to explain in a short survey, which will be discussed in more detail in the future. I attach for the method of right and wrong cases the weight experiments, concerning the method of average error, the judgment and gropings under, over which are mine alone own experiences bids. The names that I need below, will be used later when referring to all the methods in question again. d ) Special method for correct and incorrect instances using the weight experiments. 9) The (begun in 1855) Experiments on the basis of the following statements are based on the method of right and wrong cases were first made only in the simple purpose of a more detailed examination of Weber's Law, then in the interest of the training method itself continued and expanded after it had been shown that the test that I had in mind, a FUJIFILM's prior investigation of the conditions of the accuracy

of the method, an experimental and training their account page until asked which was not available at the time. For several years, I regarded it as a kind of daily work, for about 1 hour to make experiments in this interest, and those pushing ahead with respect to the determination of any specific ratio, a greater number of days passed. This is not to exhaustively in this work by far, material from experiments grown, of which, in some of the following chapters occurring, large experimental numbers, and the multiple repetition of trials to identify important points at different times and under modified circumstances, testimony enter, is also characterized a great exercise in handling the method developed.
9)

pp. 42-104 Revision, 358 ff . using the method of right and wrong cases, as applied to the sense of space. Dep of kgl, schs Ges d W. XXII, No. II, 1884. In terms of the sense of time and method of call Phil Stud F. III, pp. 12 In this respect it matters in our method to determine the ratio of the number of correct cases for the number of false cases or for the total number of cases, I will be giving, preferably wise application of the last ratio, the number of correct cases with r, the the wrong cases with f , the total number of cases with n denote the ratio with which we have to deal mainly be with paragraph, however, that if a test number is divided with respect to an observation value in equal fractions, and this especially in accounting be, r and n to the number of correct and total cases of each fraction in particular goes, however, with v the number of fractions is called, then where vn is the total number of cases for the observation value in question.Does the whole series of observations, as is the case usually, several to be compared with each observation values, we must of course vn nor the same be multiplied by the number to get the total number of cases for the whole series. Where the judgment is doubtful such a case is bemerktermaen the right half and half be counted among the false cases. However, to avoid from this company resulting half cases, I reckon, because in the formation of the fraction depends only on conditions, each correct judgment case as two correct every wrong than two false cases, and every where the judgment remains doubtful, as a proper a false. With P is the main weight, ie the weight of each of the comparatively sophisticated vessels, including load without D, with D are referred to the additional weight (the weight), which is applied in experiments with h , a value which is directly proportional to the difference in sensitivity, and therefore the additional weights D, the same one is able to deliver, is inversely proportional, or in short, the measure of differential sensitivity to it to do. The method can be carried out in two ways: by a first process so that you decide only after repeated round-Herwiegen of loaded vessels, which is heavier or lighter, and after a second so that you are inviolable for each comparative repeal both vessels

decides or if in doubt, the judgment of the undecided specifies what the right and half wrong to be half beige one. Frherhin I have always used the first method, but later all so employed trials discarded and only stuck to the second, after I have convinced myself of that of the far greater excellence. Not only can it be uniform manufacture than the first, but it can also be an accurate elimination and the determination of which is dependent on the time and spatial location Miteinflsse which substantiate a constant error, only the second method, by appropriate antithesis of these factors against each other are achieved, as will appear below. Of course, one commits to the second method easier an error relative to the direction of the difference as a first rate, and the number of undecided and wrong cases covered by application of the same D with the same total number of cases greater than for the first method, but the method does not inaccurate, if this is indeed to be based on the commission of errors, and that by using a larger D can be compensated, not to small proportions to obtain, which are as little as too much beneficial for the measure indicated. From other side, the second method in the same time provides many more cases than the first, and it can double uplift each other are made with the same or very similar. A lack of knowledge of the location of the additional weight and thus assistance of an assistant to determine each occasion location the same to avoid any influence of the imagination on the judgment, is essential in the first method, in the second after to be described below execution manner thereof is not only not necessary, but not even applicable. This is certain to be motivated more detailed explanation of the whole situation of the method. According to the remark (above) the raising of the vessels is carried out always successively, and a double lift of the second method, which justified a verdict therefore is seen as unique success raising of the one and the other vessel, thus includes two simple elevations. Respect, but after the (above) stated, each judgment is expected in two cases, the total number of cases by the number of simple uplift, not the double uplift is determined. If I raise both vessels with the same hand, as I call it as a one-handed method, if I the one with the one and the other lift with the other hand, as a two-handed. Evenhanded but has been always done by me with both hands, in that the left and right were applied in alternating test departments. One-handed method but not at all insignificant more sensitive than the two handed; Here's rights has in every major series of experiments somewhat, but less sensitive than the left shown. The effects of constant time and space location of the vessels are after-handed, two-handed, lefthanded, right-handed methods to very different. However, it is not here at the place to enter the specialties that can command me about it. Special considerations necessitated the establishment of the vessels, which together with the With lay-th load weights the brunt P type, and only after I lost a lot of time

by experiments with imperfect devices, I'm at the bottom briefly describing device with a rotatable handle roller and fixed , with the vessels, so to speak a coherent solid body forming, stopped loading weights, which was enough. Maybe it has some interest if I, as an example - and in fact it is just an example - by how much little things can be set and stopped in experiments of this kind in embarrassment, before mentioning some of those imperfect institutions. At first I turned as vessels of simple hollow wooden cylinder, which I covered with the hand from above. But in the main heavy weights the hand had to be strong geknippen together, so that the vessels do not slipped out of his hand, while with the weak hand was inclined by itself, softly access. Also, the uniformity of the text was probably not vouch.Then I let the vessels fitted with brass brackets, which revolved around pins that were attached to the opposite ends of a Diameters of the vessel, so that the vessels would be based on the severity of the lifting itself. But this device was soon schlottrig. Then I let the straps tight rivets, but since it not to hard to make the vessels by themselves, were of thin brass sheet, they moved when I went to larger main weights and could not apply for comparable. After I had more substituted, I have need to consider rejection of all previous attempts made with this apparatus for almost a year careful and laborious efforts, and these last all also, if not outright rejected, but when the repetition and control, that since I'm so far from done that all those previous attempts thus can be considered superfluous or turn only as a casual inspection of the results of recent relevant, is also quite abstracted below it.This was due to the following circumstances. The previously used by me, taken from the traffic and controlled only by load-weighing different weights according to their severity were also different size. Now that the vessels had to be wide enough that even the greatest place in had were small and even large not secured against displacement during lifting of the vessels. I presumed that the pressure always had to fall on the same points of the comprehensive the strap hand with the full weight of the vessel, that could emerge no disadvantage from a possible shift in the balance in the vessels, but failed in the amount otherwise to be examined and In addition to the other investigated factors which may be of influence in the process to make this the object of special investigation. This neglect has been seriously avenged. Because when I finally but for the sake of safety the investigation it taught, as I was doing intentionally comparatively trials in the middle and all the side in vessels fixed ballast weights showed indeed that virtue is not a different size, but other mode of distribution of the pressure, the successes both if very turn decided differently, namely the vessel appears hardest when the weight occupies the center of the Gelasses, and that the difference is insignificant even when comparing extreme positions in this regard. Now, however, could in my experiments only much smaller, and have occurred after chance by the large amount tests in the main compensating displacements, which is also partly by the extent to which each major political groups in the recovered numbers, has partly confirmed by the fact that the later experiments with the fuller establishment have led much to all the same results, however, I made those earlier attempts no more joy, and the sharpness and binding force was the same, if not the whole, but in the individual provisions, has become

precarious, not the difficulty of resuming the same preferable with a new apparatus of reassurance in the previous. All attempts that I'll have to refer me folgends are (as) performed by the second method under very uniform conditions, which I describe as normal conditions or normal conditions, addition of points while passing over that I must be completed during the "measurement methods" reserving me . Of these normal conditions was only deviated so far as the success of such amendments should be made the object of the investigation itself. The vessels passed by the means in which I stayed last stand, just in a kind of racks, with 4 vertical, connected at the bottom by a horizontal cross Messingst samples, between which the exactly einpassenden rectangular, different only in the thickness dimension weights (partly lead, partly zinc) were placed so that they had a fixed position and it could not move in italics. The vessel containing the loaded weights placed thereon and a lid on the center a small open box was soldered together formed the main weight P, which was carefully made the same for both vessels. Then was in the box the lid of one of the two vessels, the additional weight D set, the shape also such a firm place on the center of the main weight retained.The handle of the vessels was about a horizontal rotary axis, wooden roll 1 par. Inches in diameter, which was covered with the whole hand. Each vessel had ever after application of a lighter or heavier cover, together with it, 300 or 400 grams weight, so 300 grams is the smallest main weight P was what could be applied, namely when using the light cover any additional loading weights were added. As the largest main weight 3000 grams I have used, a heavier load would have the apparatus may not be tolerated in the long run. Where it was not to examine the success of the application of different emphases, I've usually used as the main weight 1000 grams. In addition, weights were usually the sizes 0.04 P and 0.08 P. Nevertheless, both vessels were constructed matter, however, was to compensate for the influence of some unobserved differences remaining in each test series E as often mounted just in a vessel other than under the same circumstances. The elevation height was limited by a, at some height above the test table mounted horizontal board, so that they 2 inch 9 Lin. paris. , respectively. The elevations occurred with unbekleidetem arms, in his shirt sleeves. The mode of uplift was that if, in a first double uplift for example the left vessel was first released, this was the second to the right, and so on alternately. 32 of these shape changes in consecutive applications led double uplift or 64 simple elevations, which are considered as much cases, I summarize the experimental department, during which D was always lie in the same vessels. In the center of each section, ie by 32 simple elevations, but the position of the vessels of links to law was changed each time. On the 4-fold different time and spatial position, which the additional weight D , this gives, involve the so-called to be discussed in more detail below 4 main cases of the method, each of which was thus represented with 16 cases in

simple italics or any attempt department. Such departments of 64 cases were under the amendment to be examined conditions (P, D to 12 days at each test employed, etc) usually 8 in a row and continue in the larger trials usually by one months. The regulated by a counter time each raising a vessel was 1 second, each low ratio 1 second, the interval between the low setting one and raising the other vessel and 1 seconds, ie the time each double uplift, which establishes a comparison or two cases exactly 5 seconds. As much meantime, di 5 seconds I had between one and the next double each elevation, which took place during the recording of the result. When handed the recording process is always done with the idle hand, the two-handed after the test days alternating with one or the other. Practicing soon on a very mechanical execution of these operations on the counter, and also the application of the attention will soon be completely mechanically and uniformly, so that they know how I can prove from my test numbers themselves, not noticeable to the end of the day trying hour weakened shows, which, by the additional weight of D, together determined the constant Miteinflsse of time and position in space, and the irregular contingencies in the direction irregularly changing judgments: right heavier, left heavier, ambiguous, falling so to speak, with an objective character at the Double elevations, which in the first method, however, is the case in hand, without that you need choice and deliberation. Manner as the recording was set up so as not to confuse, and to the obtained in the 4 main cases right cases are easily together separately, is given in more detail in the "Methods of Measurement." So much for the time being of the external conditions of the experiments. After this I go over to the more general conditions of the method. The general object of the method is under the different circumstances in which the difference in sensitivity for weights to be comparatively examined for each of the compared conditions by a sufficient number of trials a value , or, in dividing the

number of trials in v fraction v values to win, and to derive the measure of the difference in sensitivity, which even the secondary task may be related to the size and direction of participating in the experiments constant side effects. Now seems a priori fundamental difficulty of presenting a panel. We know that other things being equal, the ratio of the sensitivity for the weight

difference grows, but is twice the size does not correspond to a twice as large difference in sensitivity when we said prepared by us Mabegriffe same will be true, but half as large allowance weight D , what a like there is twice the sensitivity, and already from the following general points can be noted.

Also like the sensitivity to be very small, and they shall supplement the D always so great in proportion to P can be assumed that all or almost all cases are really true, and it is clear that even the strongest increase in sensitivity will not increase the ratio can carry: that therefore, in this situation, since it can remain at very altered sensitivity near or quite constant, no appropriate general measure of sensitivity would be to look for; whereas it is now sufficient for the highly enhanced sensitivity with a much lower allowance weights, the ratio in the same approximation to bring, and thereafter to assess the gain in sensitivity, so that one is already evidenced by the nature of the case to the measure established by us. But how to find space in our approach? Suppose I want for example to compare the sensitivity of the left and right hands for weight differences, and ask for the same main weights P and the same additional weights D once elevations of both vessels with the left (L) and another time with the right (R) that so I get a different but initially only for L. and R., which lets me connect to the greater or lesser sensitivity of either hand, but that no comparable measure of this sensitivity, and the question is, how do I get to the different sizes of the supplement D to find that the same money would you give for L. and R..

Similarly, if I have the sensitivity of the same hand, or both hands, on the average, at different P wants to investigate. The same supplement D is to experience at small P , a higher ratio than larger, but it was rather about the various D to find

which is the same for the various P's are to the reciprocal values of D the degree of sensitivity to differences in the various values of P to have. The method of right and wrong cases in the application since then known was only appropriate to give an indication of more and less, but not a comparable measure of the sensitivity of this point, in fact. However, the method can then train to grant such. First, the path of the Tatonnements offers dar. You can change the weight allowance under the compared conditions until the same is thus obtained. But since only a large amount of tests at all a sure result even for one and the same D can be drawn, this method, which is a large amount of trials for each of the sampled is D's demands, not only unspeakably tedious, but also leads to mhsamstem Try to any accuracy. However, one can interpolate between nearby values, and a long time I have wanted to help me in this way, but the evil state of awkwardness and uncertainty as to raise only very incomplete. Fortunately, it is easy to lift and completely. After an in principle exact and to be translated by tests of me probably best, although based on mathematical analysis, but slightly to the practical, generally can

be calculated from each

, which at a certain D has been obtained, find that D at the to

same P and by the way the same would have been held may require any other

give, so also what you want as inferior to solid, provided only that , after you close, from a sufficiently large n is won. Yes you can directly, without calculation, from any , where a sufficiently large n subject 10) , the measure of the difference in sensitivity to it is to do, so find for a table that corresponds to the established by us terms of this measure, and it should immediately be shown, as to cause, after only a few words above are premised on the path that has led to it.
10)

Going through fractionation of a large number of experiments to small n descends in the individual fractions, one looses in the individual fractions of accuracy, but those wins again by merging the results of the fractions. In a study of probability theory, to which I always anew our methods found myself driven by the interest of education, I was offered the observation represents 1) that in the circumstances of our method, the degree of sensitivity to differences by, usually with h designated value can be represented, which provides the measure of the precision of observations by Gauss, provided with comparable holding the modality of the method the precision only by the sensitivity with which the difference is taken, dependent, and 2) that offered between the experiments dimension h in the allowance weight D, in which and the products of that and h

is found, ie, between

D, must take place a mathematical relationship, which is a derivative of hD from , and thereafter by dividing by D the degree of differential sensitivity h must be found. It was only this relationship theoretically determine first place, secondly to prove by trying to third, to exploit convenient for our measurement method. These three tasks I seem to have been satisfactorily resolved, thus the method of right and wrong cases is likely to have only been given the attention of a real measurement method. As far as the mathematical deduction, I give it, since it is not necessary for the practical application of the method to inspect them, in the following activation. The experimental probation out it is essential to demonstrate experimentally that when at constant speed a certain value at a certain value D is obtained, the calculated value

according to our mathematical relationship for another D, which contradicts that in certain circumstances to correctly finds by experiments, while permitting of course

the smaller deviations than to write on unmatched contingencies, or - what is but another form of the same probation that, with the same sensitivity but different D obtained by the experimental conditions after, mathematical relationship based on our table values of hD give, which is proportional to D are. 11) For evidence thereof but are very extensive series of observations to the commandments which I will tell in the "measurement methods" to me. Also, we will look at some of the same in the 9th and 12 Chapters are run by itself.
11)

Since the differential sensitivity to it is here, with P (but not D, as long as D remains small) is variable, a constant will to try with constant sensitivity P requires. Hereafter, the item will be purely practical represent so that everyone in the reasons to be given rules and even without mathematical background, the measuring method can operate even without insight. Also, you will be able to do this with confidence, after the theoretical derivation of the same control had to please by a famous mathematical authority and control through the experience is also been crucial. Mathematical preparation, and deduction of account usually the method of right and wrong cases. 12) However, until now there is no aprioristisches principle, as depending on the size of the main weight P , the ratio at constant additional weights D must change, but this is only to be regarded as a matter of too constative by experiment law, it, however, is possible according to the principles of probability a priori specify how the relationship itself must change (a large n provided) when at constant main weights P and any constant difference in sensitivity h the additional weight changes, or even the influence of changes, which determines the apparent obesity, and here once and for all by D may be represented. Namely, in this case, the same principles prevail, after which you provided also, constant precision of observation, the change in the relative number of errors of observation can be determined according to the changes of their size. The relationship between and words, but with which we are dealing here is not a finite expression, but only represented by an integral expression that needs to be represented in tabular form in the practice of the relationship, as is done below.
12), pp.

84-104 revision.

The folgends with to be designated integral term, which here comes into play is the same, by which the relative number or probability of error given limits the size is determined only that, usually the place of with designated fault half the extra

weight

occurs, namely

where Ludolf'sche the number e , the base number of natural logarithms, t = h= , h is the measure of precision in the Gaussian sense. The value of t, which is a given value of belongs, is found in many places in tabular represents, as in Berlin. astronomer. Jahrb f 1834 p 305 ff to t = 2.0, and in a particularly appeared, now no longer in the book trade to be had lithographed table to t = 3.0, so that if after hold given. being given herewith at the same time t or can

Now immediately following, fundamental for our method, equations will be proved by means of the out is derived.

and thereafter

From these relations it down enough that between

and as follows to draw in value to the to on, and divided

consideration and application. It derives from the observed equation , finds a table in the integral value

him to h to obtain, or D, if, as is done by us, which h the method of right and wrong cases takes only half as large as the theory of errors. To not only from the found by observing only the value of every having to form particularly, I and t ,

have the table of the integral , where the relationship between implemented is given in one where it is equal between the following fundamental table below.

and t is given. This gives

The mathematical derivation of the above relation between and , the Examination of Prof. Mobius, which I presented, passed, after which they can be:

math matic hand as a singular free. But he has had the kindness, my somewhat unwieldy derivation a shorter and more precise, by the way leading to the same goal to substitute, which I prefer are telling instead of mine below. The derivation Mbius'sche sets as an example instead of the deviation of two weights of equality under the deviation of two parts of a straight line of equality. The principle is but one and the same otherwise. It is generally

the probability that the error made on a measurement of a size within the limits of error - and + falls in which prints h above the level of precision of the measurement the number Ludolf'sche Are now, for example: ACB three points in a straight line, C but not completely close but in the middle between A and B located. For n observations by the method of right and wrong cases I think a times to ensure that the C A is closer than B, therefore CB> CA, n - a = b times to ensure that C to B is closer than the A, thus CB < CA . Thereafter, the probabilities for behavioral CA <CB and CB <CA, as a and b , and these two probabilities are themselves Whether in the line A CM B M is the real center of AB, and C lie on M Few things something to A , so is a time my judgment was a real and b times I was wrong. I have, b times the point C between M and B are believed, therefore have in each of these b estimates point to more than the small line CM erroneous, via M addition to B to assume therefore have always an error> CM , no matter by side, committed. The probability of this is on the one hand = , on the other hand, where CM is to be regarded as a positive quantity. Now + So consequently . So finally: and .

These two formulas and also so you could explain: When n times the line examination ACMB, of which only the points but A and B are visible, one believes in a case that Mbetween C and B is somewhere (like the truth is) in b cases (incorrectly) that M somewhere between A and C is located. On the same two sections CB and AC but relate also the limits of integration, which as of - h CM and , for - and - h CM are. Namely, the direction ACMB for the positive and M taken as the starting point, the abscissa of are C and B = CM and MB, the abscissas of A and C = - AM and - CM, AM and MB are but against CM as infinite look at. As far as the Mbius'sche dissipation. In order to reduce the sample lines to the example of the weights, it is the weight of a P with AC, the other P + D with BC, the length piece ofCM to be compared, that is of P + , thus the

to CM in previous formulas have to our equal , resulting in

substituie acids. Furthermore, it is our right and the formulas for the direct application of our method:

or if we have the integral briefly with denote . That we, as noted above, the precision or Empfindlichkeitsrma our method h equal to take the half-precision measurements of the error theory, has the applications within our method, no effect, since it only on ratios of t or h arrives, but would come into consideration if you wanted to compare the results about the method of right and wrong cases to absolute values with those obtained by the method of

average error, for which the integral provides the mediation, as well as in the a priori calculation of the probable error or the uncertainty of concern us here. Let us now turn to the practical: The rule to which it is, just come back to it at the given by the experiments carrying amounts in the following table, which I call the fundamental table the method of right and wrong cases, the corresponding value t = hD visit (by consultation interpolation if the value is not found exactly in the table) and dividing this value by D the value of h to determine which is the required Empfindlichkeitsma, or at constant D value thus found t = hD even be used immediately for measurements which is convenient in many cases. This rule is sufficient if in addition to the constant weight surpluses D no other constant factors are present which can the judgment, where the excess weight falls determine or, if such by the arrangement of the experiments already in income the value could be considered as compensated. If not, go to the value t , the constant Miteinflsse with one, it no longer depends only on h and D when on D always only the additional weight is to be understood, but also of those Miteinflssen with from and the simple division of the value of t withD can then of course hours can no longer see properly, and the value of t , even at constant D, no longer take hours to be related to the extent comparable, if not with D the Miteinflsse are also constant. But provides a method duly furnished with suitable application of the fundamental table here represents a simple way of remedy, of which most will be discussed below. or t , so we do not

Fundamental table the method of right and wrong cases 13) .

t = hD 0.50 0.51 0.52 0.53 0.54 0.55 0.56

diff. 0.71 0.72 0.73 0.74 0.75 0.76 0.77

t = hD 0.3913 0.4121 0.4333 0.4549 0.4769 0.4994 0.5224

diff. 208 212 216 220 225 230 236 0 , 91 0.92 0.93 0.94 0.95 0.96 0.97

t = hD 0.9481 0.9936 1.0436 1.0994 1.1631 1.2379 1.3297

diff. 455 500 358 637 748 918 1234

0.0000 177 0.0177 178 0.0355 177 0.0532 178 0.0710 180 0.0890 178 0.1068 179

0.57 0.58 0.59 0.60 0.61 0.62 0.63 0.64 0.65 0.66 0.67 0.68 0.69 0.70
13)

0.1247 181 0.1428 181 0.1609 182 0.1791 183 0.1974 186 0.2160 187 0.2347 188 0.2535 190 0.2725 192 0,2917 194 0.3111 196 0.3307 199 0.3506 202 0.3708 205

0.78 0.79 0.80 0.81 0.82 0.83 0.84 0.85 0.86 0.87 0.88 0.89 0.90

0.5460 0.5702 0.5951 0.6208 0.6473 0.6747 0.7032 0.7329 0.7639 0.7965 0.8308 0.8673 0.9062

242 249 257 265 274 285 297 310 326, 343 365 389 419

0.98 0.99 1.00

1.4531 1.6438

1907

S. 66 f fundamental revision tables for extensive efforts, see: About the Mabestimmungen sense of space, Abh dks W. Ges d XX, pp. 204 ff Remarks. 1) So it only on ratios of t or h arrives, I take care of the digits in the values of t the table instead of using as decimal fractions as whole numbers. So it will always happen in the future leadership of the calculated values according to the table. 2) It is only necessary values from the table to draw about 0.5. Come as often not under given circumstances at trial to big D takes place for one or another of the main cases to be discussed below, values of less than 0.5 before, we have

held rather in the column visit the table, and the corresponding value of t with a negative sign in the later leading to equations for the determination of hD, hp, hq introduce. 3) The table shows, for = 1, ie for the case that all cases turn out right, an infinite value for t. , but this is not strictly an infinite number of observations required. In general, one must D sufficiently small and n large enough to take in that case, that does not occur. The most convenient way is to use the previous table, if you once and for all with his observations n = 100 takes, ie each r determined for 100 cases, and larger trials in fractions of 100 shares to after the individual received from t-values to total or average values to combine, because the treatment is fractionally from other points

necessary or useful anyway. In fact, one has then in the column only the zero and the decimal point wegzustreichen forward to the figures obtained by the experimental r to find it immediately, and not just the Division for the formation of values it will save you , but also no need for interpolation, because then you try all numbers r just place immediately in the table. Wofern one another s selected as 100, it is always to values of encounter that are not found exactly in the previous table. Then one can use the differences in the corresponding column of the difference t easily be determined by simple interpolation values, wherein one to about 0.85 = maximum of 1 to 2 units in the last decimal t values can be omitted, which is irrelevant, since the 4th Decimal in observations of this kind incurring anyway can be considered as a luxury. At higher values , however, one would thus be more wrong with this interpolation, the higher these values are, and I add, therefore, to complete the last part of the table a few additional tables in which the values are close to each other, and one with the concurrence will be sufficient for all cases as a base of another interpolation. Additional Table I.

t = hD 0.8300 0.6747 0.8325 0.6817 0.8350 0.6888 0.8375 0.6960 0.8400 0.7032 0.8425 0.7105 0.8450 0.7179 0.8475 0.7253 0.8500 0.7329 0.8525 0.7405 0.8550 0.7482 0.8575 0.7560

diff. 70 71 72 72 73 74 75 76

t = hD diff. 0.8825 0.8397 91 0.8850 0.8488 0.8875 0.8580 92

t = hD diff. 0.9300 1.0436 133 0.9325 1.0569 0.9350 1.0706 137

0.8900 0.8673 93 0.8925 0.8768 95 0.8950 0.8864 96 0.8975 0.8962 0.9000 0.9062 98 0.9025 0.9164 0.9050 0.9267 0.9100 0.9481 100

0.9375 1.0848 142 0.9400 1.0994 146 0.9425 1.1145 151 0.9450 1.1301 0.9475 1.1463 156 0.9800 1.1631 0.9525 1.1806 0.9575 1.2179 162

0.9075 0.9373 102

0.9880 1.1988 168

0.8600 0.7639 0.8625 0.7719 0.8650 0.7800 0.8675 0.7882 0.8700 0.7965 0.8725 0.8049 0.8750 0.8134 0.8775 0.8221 0.8800 0.8308

77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 89

0.9125 0.9591 103 0.9150 0.9703 0.9175 0.9818 106

0.9600 1.2379 175 0.9625 1.2590 0.9650 1.2812 182

0.9200 0.9936 108 0.9225 1.0056 110 0.9250 1.0179 112 0.9275 1.0306 115 118 120 123 127 130

0.0675 1.3048 191 0.9700 1.3297 200 0.9725 1.3569 211 0.9750 1.3859 0.9775 1.4175 222 236 249 272 290 316

Additional Table II

t = hD 0,970 0,971 0,972 0,973 0,974 0,975 0,976 0,977 0,978 1.3297 1.3404 1.3513 1.3625 1.3740 1.3859 1.3982 1.4110 1.4242

diff. 107 109 112 115 119 123 0,980 0,981 0,982 0,983 0,984 0,985 0,986 0,987 0,988

t = hD diff. 1.4522 150 1.4672 1,4828 156 0,990 0,991 0,992 0,993 0,994 0,995 0,996 0,997 0,998

t = hD diff. 1.6450 278 1.6738 1.7032 304

1.4991 163 1.5164 173 1.5345 181 1.5337 1.5742 192 1.5961

1.7375 343 1.7764 389 1.8214 450 1.8753 1.9430 539 2.0352

0,979

4.4380

128 132 138 142

0,989

1.6195 205 219 234 260

0,999 1,000

2.1851 677 922 1499

On the number has n = and I have held; 100 no particular preference n = 100 always n = down 64 to basically all of my larger series of experiments in fractions with n particularly calculated from the fractions divided = 64, t -values after added together and this sum akin values or the conclusions drawn from mean values. The reason was that 64, as a power of 2, a major sub-division with 2 is capable of over 100, and I wanted to keep this initially open to any fractionation. Later, I stopped going to keep all the trials in this respect comparable as to notice as afterwards, the size of n, which is defined in terms, has a certain influence on the size of the dimension, which can hold anywhere comparable must. The commonly used by me fundamental table, therefore, is the translation of the break just to spare to a decimal and interpolation so as was specified for the table above, the same for r belonging to n = 64, set up, and I will add to this directory nor if Other is the same base number will operate. Fundamental table for n = 64

r 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45

t = hD 0.0277 0.0555 0.0833 0.1112 0.1394 0.1677 0.1964 0.2253 0.2547 0.2844 0.3147 0.3456 0.3772 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61

t = hD 0.5123 0.5490 0.5873 0.6273 0.6695 0.7143 0.7619 0.8134 0.8696 0.9320 1.0026 1.0848 1.1851

46 47 48

0,4095 0.4427 0.4769

62 63 64

1.3172 1.5231

To be able to handle my larger series, which always contain Multipla of 64 cases, comparatively with the fractional point treatment, but also in whole or in larger departments the same comfort, I have a larger table for n = 512, where 64 is 8 times included, constructed, from which also tables for immediate n = 64, = 2 . leave draw 64 = 4.64. Due to the decline, (see above) indicated, Table of and concurrence of the integral (see above) indicated equation between and is the way the experts easily (using interpolation) tables for arbitrary cardinal numbers n can design. In any case, you will probably do what basic number n one may choose to maintain always the same for all trials, always go back with a greater number of experiments by fractionation on it, and once and for all set up on his table. Prominent Fundamental tables you can now use to get out of what is, for a given D and P has obtained, to the D to close what at the same sensitivity h and therefore the same P(since h with P, but not with D changes) would be required, any any other to give by having only necessary to the other in the table the

corresponding t to seek and to set the following proportions: As the t = hD both acts, so does that relate D same . Conversely, you can go to the table given D ' s their values are, if such a D is given, as long as hremains constant. However, it is not easy in practice led to these applications by means of our method by way of the above provision hour or circumstances after just t remains, after all last arrives. One must not forget that the specified simple use of the table takes place only under the specified condition that the apparent obesity, apart from the accidents, only of D depends, but in reality it depends more of constant influences of time and space location from , and after the table to be derived value t in this case is not merely = hD, but = h (D + M), where Mis the algebraic sum of all constant Miteinflsse that still except D determine the apparent obesity. Bearing in mind the practical task is to combine the tests and their calculation such thatM is compensated, and one to the same value hD comes back, which would be obtained without the existence of the above simple Miteinflsse to many other particulars of the table. Now what regards the way of trial, as is our normal execution manner of the above, the speech was calculated the same for this purpose. 2) where it is in the left-vessels, and where this lifted zuzweit, where the opposite temporal and spatial location of the additional weight is for a very regular mode between 4 main cases changed, namely, 1) where the same is located in the left-vessels, and where this is first removed is, 3)

and 4) in the right vessels, so in order to keep the 4 major events clearly from each other, where there is: 1) in the first left-repealed vessels, 2) - left-zuzweit 3) - first right-wing 4) - right-wing zuzweit I call this short 4 main cases after previous order with I> II> I <II <. The thereby obtained, together counted for each major case in particular, with the right numbers r1,r2,r3,r4 and their quotient by n corresponding values t of the fundamental table (which no longer simply = hD are to be set) with t1,t2,t3,t4 where for all major events a same n is provided. The path of complete compensation of M based then how easy to show is that you obtained the t's of the i added and divided by 4 major events by having

which division with D as before the pure value of h is, instead, you turn hD or 4 hD can use the dimensions even when D is kept constant. This way the complete compensation of Miteinflsse M based on the following points. After (above) is a place of the timing of uplift and a dependent of the spatial position of the vessels Miteinfluss to the determination of the apparent excess weight. Dependent on the timing of uplift influence I will p, which are dependent on the spatial position q call. At the opposite time and spatial position have p and q of opposite sign. What is the sign we want to use for a given situation, is arbitrary, except that we use the opposite for the opposite. Thus we are in the first main case p and q with a positive sign, so taking M at the first main case, the value of + p + q, the second - p + q, the third + p - q, for the fourth - p - q where So we get in the 4 main cases the following values for t=h(D+M) t 1 = h (D + p + q) t 2 = h (D - p + q) t 3 = h (D + p - q) t 4 = h (D - p - q )

The addition of these four values and dividing by four is hD , and the addition ranges of the first and fourth, as the second and third equations, with subsequent division by 2, by itself through hD to be found. The same equations are capable of using additive and subtractive combination of the values of hp and hq and in consequence of p and q to enter. Namely, first we obtain:

. Dividing the obtained values of hp, hq with the values obtained earlier we obtain the ratio of p, q to D , and multiplying this ratio by D the value of p, q in grams, if Dis expressed themselves in grams . Can also hp, hq just as hD each in two ways already by the t's are determined two major events, and a check will be sought in accordance of the obtained values. Depending on the direction of the influences p, q may be the same just as well emerge with a negative than a positive sign in this determination manner, so that its direction at the same time will surely find the size by this path, wherein the sign with respect to the way to understand is as p and q are inserted in the basic equations. The final solution of the whole task of side quests so leads to the determination of h , p, q by the following equations:

But it often is for the assistants to be employed comparisons of measures in the values hD, hp, hq or 4 Hd , 4 hp , 4 hq, or, in the case of a merger of the results of several only getting the same amount, fractions at any major Multiplis those values can stand as the expert easily overlooked. In this way, yielding at the same time a complete elimination and accurate determination of the influences p, q obtained, all my later (in the 9th and 12th chapters) are following the Mabestimmungen on the sensitivity to differences in the field of weight tests won, and it can results performed there in many respects, for explanation and supporting documents which are what is said about the subject in general. More complete and more coherent in this regard will provide the "Mass Terms." If I continue to refer to it, I will take in accordance with the (then) made choice of

the signs, which are dependent on the timing of uplift influence p as positive if virtue thereof the erstaufgehobene as negative if the second repealed vessel independent of D appears as the heavier, the dependent influence of the spatial position q to be positive when the left by virtue of the same standing as negative if the right-wing vessel appears to be the heavier. I say so, for example, the influence of p +10 grams weighed, then this means, apart from the added weights erstaufgehobene the vessel appeared around 10 grams heavier than the second repealed. The 12th Chapter will provide the opportunity to lead such provisions. Even with constant conditions of time and space location of the vessels can be p and q, but change by internal reasons as those objective conditions only come by way of their subjective opinion into consideration, which is highly variable for unknown reasons. Are so changeable but the influences p and q according to external and internal conditions, so has it from all my, employed under multiple amendments, exposed experiments consistently that the influence of p by increased severity of the main weights or prior fatigue of the arms at one handed as two-handed method has the tendency to change in a negative sense, ie less positive or more negative values to accept or turn over from positive to negative values, furthermore, that p and q with one handed method and under the same circumstances, larger positive or smaller negative have values in the right than the left, and finally, that the size and direction of these effects is not substantially dependent on the size of D. More details on is not here to enter. One could compensation Miteinflsse p q, and characterized want to achieve in that the r the four main events before the calculation of t's together would take, and from the resulting joint , a joint according to the fundamental table T derived which is = hD sat. This process can sometimes provide services, but is referred to by me as the incomplete compensation by can be as follows to show that you do not really hereby exactly on the value of hD and therefore h comes back, that would have been obtained without the existence of Miteinflsse . For example, let the influence of p in favor of the second repealed vessel, and we assume exaggerating, he was exceedingly large, is infinitely large, so it is obvious that the addition of a finite D for a two vessels would be entirely without influence, the verdict to determine, and appear always and every time the second repealed vessel than the heavier would, therefore that when the vessel D is as often first released as a couple, is as in our experiments, and when the cases of these two time slots are taken together that one might be tempted to be accessible to the elimination of p to keep the number of correct cases and false cases will just be as the same as if the sensitivity for the weight difference would be zero, where also an equal number of correct and incorrect cases receives. The sensitivity of D appears to say so deafened by the Miteinflu. Whereas, when the influence of the timing of uplift available would not, D make his overweight asserted the same highly in both time slots, and would establish a of its size and the available sensitivity fair preponderance

of the right cases for the vessel in which it is located. So the combined company the right cases can not be set at equivalent time slots opposite the event that no effect of time have been able to exist at all.Because understand one approaches that assumed extremes more so the stronger the Miteinflu is. And what in this respect from p applies just as true of q and the simultaneous existence of both. However, it is our procedure the complete compensation, where the numbers r for the different main events separately for deriving t be used actually in the same result with respect to hD recycled than if no Miteinflu p and q were present, by, the same thereby eliminated. How easy to consider, must give way to the influence of D against p or q may disappear, may also take place the reverse. If D is very large, so neither the influence of the successive cancellation nor the influence of the position of the hand are more noticeable, but the judgment is based only on the location of D, and if D equally often takes the opposite time and space layers, as in our experiment, the case, the number of first and second cases, the right and left cases must be the same size, but with increasing or D closer and closer to this equality. Although all this easily results theoretically, I confess, however, only through the experience themselves to have been made out because of the Heavy Main weights the influence of psometimes so great was that the kind bertubung the influence of D , even without accounting for the experiments noticeable and was the legal relations of dependence of sensitivity to differences appeared significantly altered after the calculation, as I always used to correct cases of various time and spatial position before calculating t -values took together. How easy to deem the method with repeated round-Herwiegen the vessels (see above), which does not allow the separation of the four major events that at all and only provides this success to the incomplete compensation. By the way, you will be by the method of full compensation then can foresee when it does not depend on an actual measure of the difference in sensitivity, but only on assessment of more, less and equal, and if you do not or no strong variations of the factors p, q over the has to presuppose investigation. Then you will, however, not only collect the numbers of all four major events, but also can keep it unnecessary by the right numbers to the t -values only proceed by an equal, larger or smaller number r for a given n , using a given D , then proves an equal, larger or smaller difference in sensitivity. But one must not forget that this is the condition of constancy of the factors p, q is made. However, it has regularly (see above), the more substantial size irregularly changing contingencies, ie on the previous one more considerable size in the opposite direction alternating constant influences the same success as to the correct numbers r to decrease so that with the same or even greater difference in sensitivity the combined real numbers r the 4 main cases can be reduced if the constant Miteinflsse are larger, thus may prove wrong relationships in this way, which disappear only in the way of full compensation. You certainly can totally vouch for it now with the great variability that influences internal reasons (see above) even when carefully comparable external conditions never held that they go really

comparable to the values to be compared, of course, is the cumbersome way of full compensation , hereby the separation of the 4 major events on the decline and t values always give greater security, and the comparison of mere numbers r can only serve to more superficial and temporary regulations. The methodological compliance with the same number of observations and the regular change of the 4 major events, without which the exact elimination and determination of the constant factors p and q can not be reached, is a periodic variation of the position of the additional weight and thus constant knowledge of this situation requires. This knowledge would at the specified first method, where every decision that contribute to the number r is, as a species is taken only after repeated definitive way Herwiegen the vessels necessary to win a decisive influence on the judgment, in which they second, where the failure of any single detached raising a contribution to r supplies, loses, because you know that this failure in non-predictable manner of contingencies and of the spatial and temporal location of the vessels is determined, the imagination so in the knowledge of the position of D is no evidence to take a certain success of each double heave then anticipated, but can only hold to the testimony of feelings as something objective. The sight of my tables confirms this observation. The failure of the individual judgments reflected in the fact quite irregular and the value and conditions of p, q, as a whole as much and often more than by the position of D determines the number of false cases yes, contrary to what the known position of D would require many trials in some major cases mainly on the proper. Thereafter, the concurrence of, in the first method indispensable, revising the position of the additional weight without our knowledge, agents can be dispensed even with the second method, and is even not allowed here, as rather a constant own control over the location of the additional weight and a very undisturbed uniform tension of attention during the run of the continued uplift of this process is essential. After I few months, hired by attempts after the first procedure, with careful adherence to the lack of knowledge of the location of the excess weight before I have knowledge of the location of the same was transferred to the second, I am well able to assess the situation of both Verfahrungsarten comparatively, and would not have remained standing in the second, if I had failed to convince me that it required knowledge of the position of the additional weight is also safe. Should not these explanations are sufficient, employed the suspected involvement of the imagination to think that by this process, exclude attempts, I must also here on refer to the "measurement methods", where mostly the more detailed description of the issue this way of trial, some of the way yourself how to face their results, the same is likely to encounter even more effective. In any case, I would allow objections on this point only because of its own careful examination of the process. In the calculation I use the test series not just for the 4 main cases but bemerktermaen in fractions of the time and other circumstances in the manner divide that each t -values, a fraction of 64 simple uplift or cases are being laid, and from the fractions obtained t to combine values to sum or average values, rather than

the derivative of t each main case from the total n , what is the number for it to carry out, for reasons that are already repeatedly indicated in general and in the "Methods of Measurement "are discussed in detail. However, the calculation in this way, especially in larger trials, pretty awkward, but the variations are constant influences therefore less harmful. It should be noted that the value of hD will get something greater than from the totality to derive from political groups in the averages, the more so the smaller the fractions are taken, what the reasons may be theoretically specify, but what I'm going for now. Thus, one must always derive from the fractions with the same attitude compared to the values of n make, and n specify to which has been fractionated. This s is therefore in the future be leading by me results where otherwise expressly stated, always been 64, with respect to simple elevations. There is practically useful remarks about the size of the tests applicable to D , that we may take appropriate neither too small nor too big to worry about the safety provisions of the results and some of the side points, the discussion of which I verspare on the measurement methods. e) Special to the method of average error, as applied to the eye and gropings 14) . The experimental side on, I notice that one uses in Augenmaversuchen better parallel threads or tips or distanter points as circle distances using leg circles, for the production of the distances over which the estimation is applied in order not to estimate the angular width of the game to get, unless, that such should be done even as the subject of observation.
14) Revision

S. 104-119.

I use to Tastversuchen stalked leg circles with embedded English Nhnadelspitzen, and summarize the circle in the experiments on the stems 15) . The tips are not or hardly dulled noticeably in order to determine the distances on a scale exactly with transversals can be but very quietly placed and not continue the attempts to irritation. I have most of gropings on myself, but also those made with comparatively application of the circle by a mate, with less constant, but, because of the ungleichfrmigeren application of the circle by a stranger's hand, causing the game to the randomness is increased much more variable errors were obtained from the distinction and separation will be discussed immediately.
15)

The application ungestielter circle with the circle version to the legs and self-application are the same for comparative experiments which I have made, both more constant than variable error. I call normal distance the distance, which is placed underneath the comparisons in the eye and Tastversuchen constant, the error distance, generally with an error-prone, distance, which is equal to their estimated. The difference between an incorrect distance from the normal distance is what I call the raw errors and call, to

distinguish it from the pure to be considered equal error . As already noted, differs derived from many observations average error distance generally from the normal distance to an often considerable size from, and are the positive and negative sum of unadjusted errors in the absolute values are not equal, but usually outweigh the considerably over the other . To take this into account is required, I consider the deviation of the average error distance from the normal distance as constant error and the deviation of a single incorrect distance from the middle variables as pure errors and substitute the consideration of both error considering the raw error. By the raw error algebraically composed of the variables constant and pure error, I call both the components of the raw error.The constant error I denote by c , the pure variable error with , and the sum of those obtained by a given set of observations or fraction pure error with . Only the pure error to be used for measurements of varying sensitivity, and only them, not the raw to consider errors of serving this mean error measurements. The constant error is the constant influences of time and spatial position of the compared variables and the codetermined by subjective conditions in which the judgment is affected by it. The need to resolve the raw error into its components, rests equally on mathematical and experimental reasons that I discuss in the "measurement methods", also there is error between the raw and its components, mathematical relationships, it is useful in handling the method to know what will also be a subject of specific discussions in the "measurement methods" by myself everywhere here confine it to discuss the essentials of the method. Of fundamental importance for the method is the essential independence of the pure variable error from constant which has been found by the experiments, so that at the opposite spatial and temporal location of the compared distances, thus the constant error varies in the opposite sense and the raw error sum often very different fails, gets noticeably the same pure error sum; wofern not the opposite constant spatial and temporal location also carries a game irregular contingencies of other average size, which is not easy to experience but the case. Thereafter, it appears also for determination of the conditions of the pure variable error often not necessary to repeat the above experiments with opposite spatial and temporal location of the compared distances, but rather when it is a question to determine the constant of the error. By the same combined the values obtained in the opposite space and time position in a suitable way, you can separate it into different components according to their dependency relations, as I detail show in the "measurement methods" and the experts overlooked by itself, a process, which significantly with which agrees with the method of right and wrong cases for the separate determination of the influences of p, q served. In the Augenmaversuchen, one would (depending on it is horizontal or vertical distances) have to distinguish right and left position or top and bottom layers of the normal distance to the fault distance, at the Tastversuchen version of the Normal Circle Right, the error circle with the left hand and vice versa or, if tests on the other you do with one hand, and, therefore both circle bordered in the same hand version of

a circle with the top, the other with the lower parts of the hand and vice versa. I have also made a contrast with the Tastversuchen to time, depending on the normal compass or compass error is applied at each comparisons first. In the formation of the mean error of the pure variable error you have the choice between two types of mean error. The one, which I call simply mean error or the specific distinction from the following simple mean error and will denote, by simple means drawing from the pure error sum, according to the equation

won if m is the number of errors, which to contribute. The other, which the name mean error per se leads to astronomers, but meanwhile here are called square error and q will be referred to, is obtained by one single error rises to the squares, the sum of these squares ( 2 ) with the same number of m divided, and taking the square root of the quotient, that is according to the equation . In a word, it is the root mean square error. Both agents have errors, if they are obtained from a large number of errors, taken theoretically, according to the theory of probability, a constant ratio to each other, which is

if Ludolf'sche the number, after which the mean square error noticeably exactly 5 / 4 is the simple. By studying a large number of test series I have convinced myself that the experience corresponding to this situation very closely, so that only random, and for sufficiently large number of trials very low, normal fluctuations around this relationship held.Evidence on this point in the measurement methods, and it may be those from the 9th Chapter cited results on the Augenmaversuche derived. After this it would seem immaterial whether you stick to or q holds. However, is a choice then held that much less cumbersome in the derivation, q is somewhat safer in the provision of an equal number of observations, so that (according to the principles of probability theory) 114 observations are required to to the same degree of certainty when q is determined from 100 observations.After in-depth discussions in the "measurement methods" I do believe that the practical consideration at some large number of observations, as is required in our method everywhere, mainly for speaks without the relatively small, and large m quite negligible preponderance of Security for q compensates the practical advantage. But the choice is left to each one.Where you always hiring the same number of observations to obtain an outcome, one can equally valid with the pure error sum used immediately for measurements, so the division by m spare.

A special consideration deserves the fact that the pure error sum as the pure means error, either or q , obtained a slightly different size, according as the average error distance, against which one expects the pure error, the average of the totality of a number of errors determined or the number of errors in factions divided, especially designed for each group, the mean error distance, however, the pure error in particular expects, and then folds up the results to total or average values, which the noted for the method of right and wrong cases circumstance is analog and analog grounds has. In general, other things being equal, the pure error sum and the pure mean error falls the greater from the less far you drove the fractionation; greater say, for example, if one derives a pure error sum of 100 raw errors at once, as when you share these 100 mistakes in 2 fractions of 50, derived from each of these fractions in particular the pure error sum, and puts together these two error sums. But this sum will be bigger again, as if he had been the result of pooled fractions 4 of 25, and so on.But the difference is very insignificant if you do not go down with the fractionation at very small fractions. The reason is twofold. One is that the average error distance and consequently the contrast calculated pure errors by a small number of observations deviating obtain from the true values, what are to be regarded, that would be obtained observations under the same observation conditions of an infinite number, and it can be prove out the theory of probability, and is confirmed in the experience that the quadratic mean error thereby required, the simple average (also necessary for normal error distribution) fails too small. The other reason lies in the case of longer trials never completely exclude variations of the constant error, whereby the pure error sums contaminated and increases when observations which include such variations, summarizing, and used to derive the average error distance and pure error. Because of the first of these causes can be attach a correction that I the correction due to the finite m call, which causes the error sum or the average error is returned to the case that the true mean error distance determined from an infinite number of observations, and here against the pure error be expected. This correction has been long since used the mean square error when it served to accuracy requirements for physical and astronomical observations, and is that you q instead of = =

rather takes, from which we already have seen that it is so insignificant, and can be more easily neglected, the larger m is. For the simple mean error demgeme the correction has not been developed yet, because has not yet offered the same of no practical use. I find that they are subject to an analogous way as the derivation of the correction of the root mean square error, then lets take that one factor with the

multiplied when Ludolf'sche the number Simple and lets just enough

contact for it PERFORMING

16)

, which something more than the initially approximated how to find the execution itself 16) .

Also, the correction is only approximate, which is not representable in finite form an integral term, but very imperceptibly deviates from it. An expert mathematician has had the kindness to control, to be communicated to the measurement methods, derivation of this correction. Same correction factor one has to correct errors of sums of finite m apply if you stop at the error sums, without the mean error to draw therefrom. Treatment of a series of observations in fractions, ie determines the pure error, especially after the average false distances of the respective fractions, so is the correction due to the finite m in each fraction especially after the m of the fractions, not to bring the whole to the total number of observations of all fractions . For examples, see the 5th Section 9 of the Section Because where it counts only on ratio rules, you will be the correction due to the finite m can avoid the fact that you always have the same m sets to reason, or if one hires a different number of observations, always on the same m fractionated by then from the finiteness of m company resulting reduction of average error or error sums all hits to the same conditions. Because of the second reason, no correction can install, but probably the same by sufficiently strong fractionation eliminate noticeably. Now that the first cause by a correction or an always equal m can be made harmless, so I prefer to also make the second harmless, generally a strong fractionation of unfractionated treatment of larger trials before. In my Tastversuchen I always up to m = 10 fractional (what and the correction factor 31 / 30 is), and the 10 observations because each fraction, where it could happen without strong irritation, and always employed in immediate succession. Some parts, such as in particular the forehead, but as many attempts in a row is not tolerated in the same place. Anyway, it will hereafter be specified in the current method, according as the method of right and wrong cases, necessary for the results, whether and up to which m one has fractionated at the same derivation. In this regard, I will use the method of average error m and just use like n and v in the method of right and wrong cases, ie if there has been fractionated, m is the number of observations that go into a fraction , for the number of fractions need, so that m is the total number of observations that contribute to a result concerning one and the same observation value, which from then will be merged individual results. On error sums, which give a very small error means, it may be necessary to consider two other corrections, which I call the correction due to the size of the intervals and for estimation of classification. The first relates to the fact that it only

records errors, which are to some finite intervals apart, which are the greater, the less far the graduation of the scale, thus measuring the error, and the subdivision is driven into decimals by estimating that infinitely many errors between falling but reduced to the neighborly this scale. This has an influence on the mean error. The second refers to the fact that you yourself again making errors in the measurement error on the scale. The correction due to the first circumstance rests on purely mathematical principles of the theory of errors, and can be a priori determined, and the second asks experimental studies, the behavior of the estimation error of the classification of the various fractions of a degree of classification, what an interesting investigation Volkmann's in the reports Saxony's Soc. Year of birth 1858 S. 173 is present.However, the more I abstract here from responding to these corrections, as they are almost always negligible. Of greater importance are formulas and rules, by means of which it is possible to determine the uncertainty of the mean error and error sums on the size of the number of observations, such as rules, according to which the individual results obtained can be connected to the most probable results. All that is needed to know in this regard, can be draw from the theory of probability and represent practical for use, however, would be to make it happen adequately, can make some necessary preliminary discussions, which should lead to far here. A judicious use of the method of average error requires a general knowledge of the main points of the mathematical theory of errors, which is a part of probability theory. I think the essence in this regard in the "measurement methods" to provide for the course, does not want to deepen yourself in this doctrine, but this may understandably not happen here.

f) Mathematical relationship of the three methods. One can raise the question of what relationship have obtained the means of the three methods measure values to each other. Set at the same differential sensitivity in a given sensory domains of the just noticeable difference, the mean error, the ratio should be and hereby t = hD been determined. The question is how they will behave to each other? The answer has to be based on the following criteria: Strictly speaking, one will have to say that the just noticeable difference in size is that which, when applied to comparative sizes of the difference in the method of right and wrong cases, no cases are wrong, but should not be reduced to those without give, for the fact that he is still noticeably, the occurrence of the same, and therefore excluded any false case, and the fact that he is only just noticeable, is told that he can no longer be felt at the slightest reduction. But in reality, if you want to have any false cases at a given differences, you have to take him high enough that it is not accidental depress him under the noticeability, and how high it is, or how many false cases among a vast majority is correct even will allow to touch him at all as a just noticeable, comes in part on the average size of zutretenden contingencies, some

subjective judgment. The mean error on the other hand is necessarily smaller than the just noticeable difference, if this is to allow no or only exceptional cases wrong. For if in the method of average error, for example, a difference of two circle distances is still noticeable, so the distance is changed until it is unnoticeable, and generally contribute to the determination of the mean error of all errors at zero, which is less than the just noticeable difference. A fixed ratio of just noticeable difference to the average error will not also be specified from specify reasons. However there is one, knotted by the main integral of probability theory, such a mathematical relationship between the method of right and wrong cases and the method of average error, that it is possible to specify which ratio correct and incorrect cases will arise when the size of the simple or mean square error as a difference value D used in the method of right and wrong cases held under otherwise similar circumstances. And is indeed, as I will show in the "measurement methods", using the simple average error as the difference between size (more weight in the weight experiments) the ratio noticeably 2 / 3 0.658032 accurate.

This theoretical relationship is now yet to prove by testing, which should have some difficulty in so far as it is going to produce comparable circumstances for the methods to be compared in the way that the same contingencies win influence there. 2) Methods of Measurement of absolute sensitivity. The field of these methods is about the intense feelings yet almost broke, and out of a provision of Schafhutl still just audible above the absolute sound intensity, the provisions of EH Weber, and those of Kammler still just noticeable pressure variables, which provisions of the 11th Chapter treats in detail, I did not know what we could move here. In the field of light sensation even a pure determination of the absolute sensitivity is not even possible because an internal source of light sensation of which I in the 9th Chapter speak, can not eliminate. Against this, the absolute sensitivity of the measurement methods have found extensive application in a very extensive areas sensations, if one has often busy, or just noticeable sizes to determine distances on the retina or skin. In the last analysis are especially the well-known and groundbreaking for the whole psychophysics experiments EH Weber's on the just noticeable distances on the skin, thus a mode of proceeding is called, you can apply for the absolute Empfindlichkeitsma, a mode of proceeding which the method of just significant differences for the measure of the difference in sensitivity is analogous. The two other methods but this measure can sign in via analogue to the absolute Empfindlichkeitsma. Volkmann has gefut on the easy-to-constative Note that the width of the compass points, which is a just noticeable distance, nothing absolutely feast is but varies within certain limits by the same width not in succession experiments made once the distance, another time can be perceived as such, as long as an upper limit is not exceeded, it is always felt by the width as distance, or lower, under which they will

never be recognized as such, which limits itself but not absolutely precise determination can do. This does now not as the experience itself has taught on the previous method by a majority of touches the skin with the compass points under modified length a falling to the upper border near coincident, or between the upper and lower limit distance as just noticeable average distance so similar in different experiments to gain that a measure is to establish it. Would it not be the case, Weber's experiments and confirmed by other results would not have been possible. But it can be based on a modification of remark that Weber's method, which is an analogue of the same method of right and wrong cases is, and has been founded in fact by Volkmann it, consisting in the fact that 1) in repeated experiments at a given circle distance between the specified upper and lower limits of the result of each circle application listed, and the number of cases is one where noticeability and imperceptibility of the distance takes place, that 2) repeated this procedure for different circle sizes within those limits. The greater the extensive sensitivity of application site, the greater for a given circle length, the number of cases that here the right represent, ie where the really existing distance is actually perceived as noticeably, and the less may be the distance to another to provide the same number of correct cases. Now you would be able to use any ratio of right to total number of cases as a comparison of the sensitivity, by sought for the various skin sites, the compass width, where they give the same ratio, but perhaps advisable to most to the von Volkmann preferred in this regard relationship where the noticeability as often occurs as the Nichtmerklichkeit. Since the corresponding circle sizes are not to make absolutely accurate, you will by interpolating the neighboring distances, which were subject to the tests, you can get accurate enough to do so. By this method over the course of the exercise of tactile sensitivity employed by Volkmann attempts are included in the reports of schs Societt 1858 p 47 ff, and have proven by their interesting results, the applicability of the method well. Another modification of Weber's method, which I call the method of equivalents has been in Tastgebiete with the method of average error, the analogue it is applied and trained by me in connection, and after the meantime EH Weber same earlier to has applied experiments on the absolute sensitivity of different parts with respect to the pressure sensation 17) . Essentially, it consists in applying to the Tastma therein that, instead of a circle on a skin site which two respektiv A, B, two different skin sites A, B, alternately touches the extensive sensitivity to be compared, and the solid A distance of A -circle at the A site, the B -distance of the B -circle on the B site so long modifies, according to the feeling of the skin, the distance to two points appear the same size, although they may vary according to the different sensitivity of the skin in reality may be exceptionally different. We obtain equivalents equal distances estimated for both skin sites, the reciprocal value, determined as the average of a larger number of experiments can serve as a measure of the extensive sensitivity 18) .
17) Program 18)

coll p. 97th

About the Mabestimmungen sense of space, etc., of the Royal Abh schs

Ges d W. XXII, pp. 273 ff

You will be able to easily convince himself that this method is very fine and exactly by as far as the sensitivity of the skin maintains a constant ratio, are very constant and afflicted with vanishing uncertainty results, of which the former by the comparison of the different experimental groups, the latter is easily proved to be calculated probable error of the mean outcome, but so far this relation varies, permitted to pursue these variations to fine. In fact, I have the most consistent relationship to see continued get yourself in experiments which were continued for months on the same parts, if each day a few attempts have been made, just as decided but also several times where every day many attempts have been made whereby a substantial exercise influence arose, see gradual changes occur the equivalent, which consisted in general is that the less sensitive part of the more sensitive came closer by the exercise apparently that was more than this stead. For this purpose comes as an advantage of this method before the previous two in that it is not limited to compare the sensitivity of the skin within the limits of just noticeable distance, but they can be compared at any distances, while it is at a disadvantage against the same in the fact that they just are only comparative data of the absolute sensitivity, however, the value of a just noticeable, or an equal number of cases providing noticeable and not noticeable distance as a date can be considered, which characterizes the absolute sensitivity of a given skin in an absolute way. It will therefore have to be considered in their own way each of these methods. How easy to overlook, is the method which to hammer in the method of equivalents, substantially the same as in the method of average error, only that one causes the adjustment of the two circle distances for the sensation not the same, but on different skin sites, and has not the difference, but the ratio of the compared sizes Eight. But there is nothing to prevent, in the method of average error on the ratio of the comparison variables, di normal distance and failure distance, and wherein the method of equivalents to the deviations of the individual B-distance from the center B -distance as such in as much pure Error to take into consideration, and by consultation of this consideration is the method of equivalents basically only the more general the method of average error, and this is a special case of the method of equivalents, the fact where you from among all the possible locations that you a given A -site to B -site can make the A -body itself to make, so that the A -distance in the normal distance, the B -distance in the distance goes wrong. This is apparent because even the fact that the return conditions of constant error and pure error variables of the method of average error in the method of equivalents only in a more general way. In the same way as the method of average error therefore requires also the method of equivalents various considerations and precautions that that method are related with them. It is quite essential especially the reversal of each comparison. Has the equivalent of, for example, B -lip against A -determined chin, we must counter the equivalent of

an equal number of attempts by B -chin against A determine-lip, although both results particularly note, but eventually take the means not to receive a one-sided error-prone with a constant result. My "measurement methods" will give sufficient evidence and explanations as to how much this caution. The magnitude of the constant error can be found by a simple calculation here.

Fundamental laws and facts. IX. Weber's Law 1) .

The 7th Chapter only just generally pronounced as a main base of the mental law degree, which I give the name of Max Weber, will be discussed in more detail by pages of its sense, its justification and its limits now, as far as the above now to present a guide to investigations grant. One can express the same thing in different forms that come in on the same thing, but of which circumstances it may be for reference one or the other more appropriate.
1)

In terms of S. 42 ff revision p. 146 ff

First place, one can say a difference of two stimuli, also grasped as a positive or negative increment to one or the other stimuli, is always equal perceived as large, or are the same feelings difference Empfindungszuwuchs when his relationship to the stimuli between which it is, or if it is conceived as an increment, when his relationship with the stimuli to which it accrues, remains the same, as well as to change its absolute value. So that, for example, is an increment of 1, just felt so strongly to stimuli whose strength is expressed by 100, as an increment of 2 to stimuli on the strength of 200, of 3 to a stimulation of the 300-usf Equivalent to the previous saying of the following shorter utterances: the sensation difference, Empfindungszuwuchs remains the same when the relative stimulus difference or relative Reizzuwuchs remains the same: and, of sensation difference, Empfindungszuwuchs remains the same if the ratio of the stimuli remains the same, which is to remember is (see Section VI.) that the constancy of the relative stimulus difference or Reizzuwuchses the constancy of the ratio of the stimuli, and conversely, is given by itself, allowing the last expression of the law of the place of the first to set. Finally can be with regard to the conceptual discussion of the difference in sensitivity in the 6th Chapter, the law also stated thus: the simple difference in sensitivity is in inverse ratio to the size of the components of the difference, the relative remains the same the same for all sizes. (In tones so far is in the height of a quantitative quality given moment) can be the law in areas of intensive and extensive sensations, and in the former pages to the strength and amount envisaged, without being allowed to hold a priori entitled to the probation thereof in any special areas of sensation at the same time be regarded as valid for another, but in every area it requires a special investigation. On the question of whether the law in areas of extensive sensations confirmed you

for stimulus and stimulus difference in the saying of the Act to substitute the size of the extension and expansion of the difference, which can be interpreted by eye or touch organs. It will be found confirmed the law, eg if two lines twice as long, the difference must be twice as large to even just noticeable, or more generally, to appear the same size. Regarding the amount of the notes, it is the number of vibrations which is responsible for the size of the stimulus. With the accuracy of the law is of itself the correctness of some inferences set, and the proof that these conclusions are confirmed in the experience, to be regarded as part of the probation of the law. But instead to take on this in the abstract, I prefer to be out at the special probation of the law in the various areas it and refer in this regard especially to the field of perception of light. In regard to the historical I've noticed that EH Weber, while not the first, the law has ever spoken and proven, but the first who pronounced it in a certain community, proven and shown from one point of view of general interest has . He relies on experiments on just noticeable differences of weights, lines, pitches, which, as one can see, examples of the three main pages of sensation, intensity, extension, height are that can ever come into question, which are so longer justifies that we call the law after his name. Although he has subjected the same no very thorough investigation by the merely casual interest in what so far tied to the law, but to say so all the points further investigation by his own given. I therefore ask his information about progress literally, before I proceed to further investigations about the law, which were necessary after it made the claim to be considered as base of the mental dimension, have since filed strengthen and expand, according as is heavier and has several things to support it. At the fundamental importance which the law has in this relationship for us, I will Anything that I have been known from earlier and newer, foreign and own facts, which have reference to the probation as to the limits of the law, as fully communicate. After a preliminary, overviews about it is to admit that's missing in much of a thorough self-examination of the law and probation. The most in this respect has been made with respect to intensive light perception, sensation of sound intensity and pitch, sensation of heaviness of weights, and in the field of the eye measurement. Sure, the law is everywhere here in more or less wide limits. In relation to temperature sensations, it is still regarded as problematic; tactile sensations in areas of extensive experiments speak rather against than for its validity. With respect to other areas of sensation are currently no trials. The Weber's own statements. In general, Weber speaks as to the fact of the law in his treatise on the sense of touch and the sense of community p. 559, under the heading: "On the smallest differences of weights that we associate with the sense of touch, the length of the lines that we, with his face and the sounds that we can distinguish the hearings, "according to some special rules as follows:" I have shown that the success is the same in weight terms, one might assume ounces or solders, because what matters is

not the number of Grane , which form the overweight, but whether the preponderance of the 30th or the 50th of the weight makes, which is compared with a second weights. Just so it is with the comparison of the length of two lines and the height of two tones 2 ) . It makes no difference if you are comparing lines that are about 2 inches or 1 inch long when first one and then the other and not both considered can see both side by side, and yet the piece to which a line the other dominates, in the former case again as large as the latter. course, if both lines next to each other and each other are close to parallel, so if one compares only the ends of lines, and analyzed how much the one line the other overlooked, and this is it, then just depends on how big the superior of the line is, and how close the two lines facing each other -. too, in comparing the height of two tones is nothing on whether both tones are higher by 7 levels or lower if they are not just at the end of the tone row, then where the distinction is less precise tonal differences is difficult. therefore it is also not on the number of vibrations, which has a tone more than the other, but to the ratio of the number of vibrations of the sounds that we compare "......
2) Delezenne

in Recueil des travaux de la soc. the sc de Lille in 1827 in Hons. in Bull the sc. XI, p. 275 and in Fechner's Repertor. of experimental physics. Leipzig 1832. Vol I. p. 341 "The conception of the relations of whole sizes without one, the sizes are measured by a smaller scale, and learned all the difference to know both, is a very interesting psychological phenomenon. In music we summarize the tonal on, without knowing the frequencies in architecture of the spatial relationships sizes without having them determined by inches, and just as we summarize the sensitivity sizes or force sizes so on in comparing the weights. " The general records anlangend, the weaver bases its law, is subject to the tonal and linear relationships only general information on the same, however, one must weight the observed facts surfaces enclose with the unconditional loyalty of the observer. In regard to the weight ratios of his attempts are in s collect program. p. 81st 86 to find f. Weber distinguishes two test modes, the one where only the feeling of the skin is taken from the pressure of stronger and weaker weights on the resting launched on the table hand to complete, the other, where the feeling of the applicable muscle strength in lifting the weights at the same time having taken advantage of is by the hand is lifted with the weights. Now want 32 ounces or larger than 32 drachmas be applied weight, there remained nevertheless in two experimental methods are still just noticeable difference relative to the smaller weights close to equal, and averaged for 4 people and both weights at the first Tentatively 10.1 ( ounces or drachmas), in the second 3.0. The detailed description of his attempts (. Progr coll p 86) is this: "In piurimorum hominum Manibus, mensa quiescentibus, pondera duarum librarum collocavi, tabulamque papyraceam interposui. Postea, insciis illis, pondus

alterutrum imminui, manusque pondera ferentes mutavi, Levius nimirum pondus nunc ad Dextram nunc ad sinistram transferendo. Saepe etiam pondera a Manibus ablata Denuo iisdem Manibus imposui, ita quidem, ut homo non suspicari potuerit, sed tantum tactu percipere, eat in quonam latere pondus gravius collocatum. Turn si homo iteratis periculis et mutatis Saepe Manibus gravius pondus a leviori recte discernebat, notavi. " Postea eadem experimenta in iisdem hominibus iterabantur, modo hoc tamen, ut manus, et simul Manibus pondera, extollerent, et pondera Manibus pensitarent. Quo facto inventum si est a me, in quanta ponderum differentia diversitas eorum certe cognita fuerit, iterum notavi, numerosque, differentiam ponderum exprimentes, comparavi inter se. " After release of various test series, which relate to other conditions, as his law, then moves Weber p. 91 continued: "Non sunt alia experimenta praetereunda silentio, quibus probatur, TACTUM coenaesthesin et etiam in observandis ponderibus multo minoribus eadem ratione inter se esse, quam si librae duae seu. Triginta duae unciae cuilibet Manui imponuntur. Eorundem enim hominum Manibus, quibus antea duo pondera Triginta diiarum unciarum imposueram, nuno pondera Triginta duarum drachmarum he octavam ponderis Illius partem imposui. Etiamsi suspicatus eram, fore, ut difierentiam ponderis duorum corporum octies minorum non tam clare sentirent, experimentis probatum est differentiam minorum ponderum tactu non camouflage minus subtiliter distingui, quam differentiam eandem majorum ponderum. Quatuor afferam experiinenta hoc probantia. Postquam nimirum Quattuor homines, quos numeri signare Lubet, pondera majora, Triginta duabus unciis Constantia, aequalia, Manibus immotis imposita, comparaverant, alterutrum pondus magis magisque imminuere coepi, usquedum bomines illi differentiam ponderum animadverterent. Qua differentia notata experimentum idem hoc modo repetii, ut pondera Manibus tollerentur, adeoque simulated operational tactus et coenaestheseos musculorum aestimarentur. Quo facto differentia ponderum, quae illorum observationem fugiebat, iterum notata est. " Nunc loco majorum ponderum minora pondera, Triginta duabus drachmis Constantia, Same date plan modo adhibui, differentiasque ponderum in experimentis non observatas, sensum scilicet fugientes, annotavi." Si lam differentias ponderum graviorum et leviorum observationi nostrae subtractas comparas, easdem paene observabis eat." Numismatics hominum, differentia minimal unoiarum vel quibus in experimental drachmarum, Manibus impositamenta instituta around in diversitas ponderis qua sunt. percipiebatur.

1 tactu. ....... 32 unc. 17 unc. differt 15 unc. tactu et coenaesthesi 32-30 1 / 2 - 1 1 / 2 tactu. ....... 32 drachm. 24 drachm. - 8 drachm. tactu et coenaesthesi 32-30 - 2 2 tactu. ....... 32 unc. 22 unc. - 10 unc. tactu et coenaesthesi 32-30 1 / 2 - 1 1 / 2 tactu. ....... 32 drachm. 22 drachm. - 10 drachm. tactu et coenaesthesi 32-30 - 2 3 tactu. ....... 32 unc. 20 unc. - 12 unc. tactu et coenaesthesi 32-26 - 6 tactu et coenaesthesi 32 drachm. 26 drachm. - 6 drachm. 4 tactu. ....... 32 unc. 26 unc. - 6 unc. tactu et coenaesthesi 32-30 - 2 tactu et coenaesthesi 32 drachm. 29 drachm. - 3 drachm. 1) light. 3) A detailed description of the probation areas in our law to the intensive light feeling I have in the treatises of the Saxonian Society of sciences, math.-phys. Cl. Vol IV p 457 ff under the title: "On a psychophysical Basic Law, and its relationship to estimate the star-sizing" is given, with a night Rage to reports in the same company in 1859. Pp. 58 ff, for whatever papers I reproduce here the essentials with a few additions.
3) In

terms of p 149-160, 178-186. Revision S. 152-168. Psych Maprinzipien, pp.

181 ff The law is occasionally the sensation of light in areas already by previous experiments of Bouguer, Arago, Masson, Steinheil in connection with other studies, has been recently, noted by myself and Volkmann, however, to have been taken without much frherhin. All previous confirmations of the law is based on the method of just noticeable differences, apart from the by Steinheil, which is based on to the principle of the method of average error, and the indirect probation, which the law has been found in the estimated the star sizes. As my own experiments, though not offer the sharpest, but easiest probation of the law, and the first experiential knowledge of the law has attached to me because I will also start with it and make the general explanation of the law on it. In halbbedecktem sky are usually found easily a few neighboring clouds nuances that offer only a trace point difference to the eye, or a cloud, which only just noticeably differs basically from the sky. After I combined two such components of only just noticeable light difference in the sky in the eye, I took a few gray glasses to his eyes, as they are now to have for the use for people with light-shy eyes at opticians, each of which, just before the eye removed, but only after superficial

photometric testing, about 1 / 3 , both merged at most 1 / 7 by leaving the light. We will take just taken before the eye glasses the light of each component on 1 / 7 reduced, so the difference was hereby the same on both 1 / 3 reduced, and it was natural to assume that the so strongly weakened difference, since he previously was only just noticeable, imperceptibly by the weakening, or, if the border about the noticeability was not reached before the application of glasses, would be at least strikingly distinct. But it did not show up. The difference remained even the least noticeable than before, and Other, which I did try the experiment explained in the same sense. The same experiment was repeated with only the folded glasses using an eye at the other end, where the components together with their differences to a maximum of 1 / 7 came down, the difference still remained at least as noticeable. Finally were also weakened by colored glasses, with whom I went down to the part still significantly greater darkness, the same result. Here, of course, may not be combined in different colors or shades of a cloud clouds against the blue sky in the eye as color glasses express a different relative absorption of different colors. , We recognize that but the ratio of the components and herewith the relative difference of the same remained unchanged by the weakening of the absolute difference of the components in the previous experiments, we will have to see in the unattenuated lasting noticeability of the difference a confirmation of our law. For the first sight it might indeed seem very flashy and conflict with everyday experience that one to 1 / 3 , 1 / 7 , so much more disheveled photometric difference at least just to be on the sensation as noticeably as no attenuation , as we see every day but reduce differences in light attenuation through and disappear. But one must the condition of the law does not see under which it alone contribute to the success, and under which it occurs alone, namely, that the light difference in its weakening an unchanged as compared to his, in the same proportion with the attenuated components reserves. Hot the case of the fulfillment of this condition, the first major event. However, it can not weaken the difference in a different way, characterized in that the increased attenuation by the sole component or is received through the weaker sole increase in others. In this case, which name the second main event, experiencing the difference with its absolute attenuation at the same time a weakening in proportion to its components, and then takes in fact, as can be by later experimental methods easily turn into beinstimmung with the general experience that noticeability the difference from, and shrinks as sufficient approximation of the components to each other completely. To these two main cases still can be a third major event paste, which is able to provide for direct probation of our law by the first indirect confirmation: that two components, rather than to change in the same proportion, added an equal increase or the same amount deducted will. In this third case, the absolute difference remains in opposition to the first, is equal to the relative change. It decreases when we add the

components plus an equal, increases when we subtract the same amount of it. In so far as the law does not link the same noticeability in the equality of the absolute but the relative difference, we will have to expect under the assumption that it is correct that in our third main event of the noticeability of the difference is not the same, despite that the difference absolutely taken remains the same, that they rather decrease or increase depending on the same plus added or subtracted is the same. To prove now that this is really behaving so, it requires not only a particularly thought-out experiment, when light falls also been confirmed by experiments. But it gives us the same field of observation, which has served us so far, constitutes a sufficient acknowledgment in an everyday experience Everyone can see the stars at night, with full light of day, he does not even stars like Sirius and Jupiter. However, the absolute difference in brightness between the points of the sky, where the stars are, and the surrounding places is still as great as at night. It's just the intensity of both inflicted by daylight a similar increase. Maybe you had the success of our first experiments with the clouds nuances so indicate: the difference through the dark glasses was the same was, however, weakened in very strong conditions, but still have been absolutely present, and so he had absolute also still considering its existence must be recognized without you have need to make the continuous continuous visibility of a continuance of the same relative size dependent. But you can see from the above experience that the absolute existence of a light difference not suffice to make him perceptible, so that even very substantial absolute differences completely disappear to the eye when they have a very low relative size. No one will keep the difference in brightness of the stars Sirius and Jupiter from the surrounding sky at night low, and no one will be able to discover these stars during the day with sharpened most attention, so that the claim may appear striking, the difference in brightness is the same of the area during the day or just as great as at night. In fact, he is physically, while he is on the sensation completely zero, less than zero so far as the same until a certain magnification is needed before it reaches the point where he is at markedly. Do not think about the way you just points of light on the phenomenon limited. Leading to the further experiments with shadows rather give the most convenient opportunity to observe the same phenomenon to light areas of any significant expansion in absolute differences, but also experiences of daily life, we can mention in this relationship. Known figures on the varnished oil paintings on daguerreotypes, painted plates, varnished tables, etc. by specular lights are quite unrecognizable. Well depends, as we know, the intensity of the specularly reflected light not of the color or darkness of the surface from which it is thrown back from, but at the same substance only on the smoothness of it and the angle of incidence, so adding the darker and lighter areas the figures and the reason for an equal increase, and thereby makes the differences between unknowable. The previous thing will suffice already to probation of law in general. But can it really apply to exactly?

With diligence I have said that the difference nuances of clouds appeared at least as noticeable when viewed with the darkening glasses than with the naked eye. Because some of those I had to repeat the experiment, found him with glasses even slightly sharper than without glasses, and myself will often, though not always do so. You can be sure hereafter in any case that a light difference is not, as one might have expected most easily, lose by weakening its absolute magnitude at a constant relative size of noticeability. But also a gain in noticeability this would be at least a deviation from the law, which builds a consistent noticeability to the remaining constant of the relative difference. Apart now from the fact that this might amended Irradiationsverhltnisse could come into play, also could be a subjective illusion here think the way that one might be inclined to keep a same significant difference for noticeable if he but in proportion to the weakened impression of the components. To now a, independent of subjective illusions as to achieve result, I combine the following counter experiment with the previous attempts. I'm looking for while I have the glasses in front of the eyes, schwchstmglichen, only just noticeably prized, on difference, which I find in the sky, and then take the glasses away from the eyes. If the noticeability been raised through the lenses irgends considerably, so the one with the glasses only just noticeable difference should disappear upon removal of the glasses. But I have been able in several repetitions of the experiment, with the simple and double folded glasses, never find a still so weak difference I was unable to recognize even after removal of the glasses even if only the first impression of a momentary glare had passed, of which is suddenly struck by the stronger light incident upon removal of the eye glasses. And even when making the same I know the sudden change of light a momentary Undeutlicherwerden the difference, but what if both passes quickly. In all the above experiments is essential to use only very minor differences, which have the character of the just noticeable. Because, though the law as continue to show an extension to allow larger differences, it is still not easy to prove it directly in such. The judgment as to whether such are substantially the same with and without glasses, is very uncertain and vacillating, and is undoubtedly influenced by a majority of circumstances. Can also even when using only just noticeable differences, as noted earlier, subject to the judgment of the equality of the same illusions, though they absolutely can not be taken as significant as when applying greater differences. But the main advantage is in use quite minor differences is that the combination of the experiment allows the counter attempts going to do regardless of the judgments about equality or inequality, and to found the conclusion merely on the existence of the difference for the feeling what one can not so easily fooled as the equality. If the schwchstmgliche difference which is still recognized without glasses, is still recognized with the strong darkening glasses, and conversely, if the schwchstmgliche difference, which is recognized with a strong darkening glasses, is still recognized, is that a kind of objective evidence, that the difference may win or lose the glasses in any irgends significant levels of noticeability.

In any case, the combination of the experiment with the counter tests the possibility of a deviation from the cogency of the law within the limits of the light intensity in which probation has been held that went neither to the approaching total darkness, even to very dazzling lights even enclosed in a very narrow limits. Meanwhile, it is still not unrestricted validity of the law asserted or established, but rather a deviation from it, at least for the trial, both upwards and downwards, of course. And before we go on further probation, it will be useful to refer to these limits of the law, the probation itself only with regard to the limits and instead have to be understood. Certainly no one would be able, even if the observation could hire safe, the spots in the sun can be seen (at least at the same high professional) with the naked eye, however, they each perceive with darkening glasses. But the law should extend to the highest light levels, so the spots should be as easily distinguished with the naked eye from the surrounding light reason than concurrence with dark glasses. Undisputed place at much lower light intensities, a deviation from the law instead, probably wherever the eye feels dazzled, although in certain experiments here on quite lacking. It may therefore be possible that in very bright clouds lighting really a small profit is made in clarifying the differences between the clouds nuances through the dark glasses, but it can after the failures of the combination of experimental and counter attempt merely a profit very small order so the shown in experiments with moderately bright clouds lighting objective of mine has konstatieren can not, for experiments with very dazzling lighting I certainly because of the great irritability of my eyes quiet and often enough can hire to say something about Secure can. The lower limit anlangend so light of a priori that if you wanted to go with the darkening of the glasses to the extremes, everywhere nothing more, and so no more difference can be seen, it would also appear without glasses yet so large and be, and that therefore the continuity of Prinzipe already must feel a reduced clarity when this limit is very approaches, as well as the experience confirmed. In fact, a difference may be as great as he wants, so you will always be able to find a degree of darkening of the glasses, in which he appears as a blurry without glasses. The same sun spots which are clearly at a moderately dark glasses, are again quite indistinct in dark glasses and finally completely unknowable. So instead of being able to maintain an unrestricted validity of the law, we can only say that it is so far confirmed in the fairly wide limits the intensity in which moves the ordinary seeing that a deviation from the statements of the experiments laws is not detectable. But it can be inferred even been in some way from the opposite direction of the deviations above and below the validity of the same middle-limits. In light of the intense clarity grows by attenuation at very low by increasing the components in the same proportion. So there must already be some aspects of mathematical average interval, where it remains the same unchanged by strengthening and weakening. Only that the great expansion of such interval was not foreseen by merely mathematical aspects. I have prefixed the previous experiments, not only because it was the one on which

I myself first fell for consideration of the law, before I was even earlier in this regard Advance known, but also because they are particularly comfortable, each easily accessible , and there are so much conclusive than any other for the general fact of the law basically. Only one has neither the determination nor uniform preservation, nor modification of the light shades in his power, therefore, can not all three main events make any order, and from this point of view, however, it is recommended that concurrence or other Verfahrungsarten, which for the experiment observation paste. Now there are very different ways. To produce light of different shades of gradation to the just noticeable differences from each other, after which the test may take several forms. Is very easy to produce with ink on vellum shades schwchstmgliche, although just give as little as the clouds shading a measured difference, but have the advantage of uniform preservation, and handling any gradation advance. In fact I try and counter recently repeated attempt at such and receive the appropriate income as before the clouds nuances. Even with black-glass combinations that only after precise photometric measurement 1 / 100 let light through, I realize after I looked through a short time, nor the schwchstmglichen shades that I only just find with the naked eye. Only the attempt must be made in good daylight, because if I place it in the light of the study lamp, when I'm used to write the shading is the same blackout completely unknowable, however, a blackout on 1 / 12 and more, they still as clear as can appear without blackout. Another easier and more convenient, at the same time certain measurements permit Direction, and of the amendment to all three main cases, efficient, Versuchsweg does not provide in the application of two neighboring shade represents the one generated by two lamps or lights of the same object by the photometric ratio of the two shadow only slightly regulated, but also to easily given measured using the same light sources of light by the reciprocal ratio of the squares of the distances of both sources from their shadow, while the photometric similarity of sources of the same brightness of the shadow at the same distances from the same light bewhrbar and by cleaning the lights or screw the lamps can be produced. However it is in whole or expedient, instead of both shadow to take the a shadow and the surrounding ground as components of the difference of the sentence of the law in the eye, because the ratio of the shadow to that same quite surrounding, basically even easier assessable in which 'the chosen, Tentatively, more specifically, the following can be considered. Be the two light sources L, L ' and L ' the one whose shadow you want to envisage. This shadow is still one of the light L, the surrounding ground of two lights, L, L ' enlightened.Moves to the light L ' ever further from the shadows fielding panel while L remains, the reason surrounding the shadow gets a smaller and smaller enlightenment subsidy by L ', and finally this is so small that it is imperceptible to the eye , ie, the shadows in the surrounding basically disappears. When you reach this point, suffices a small displacement of one or both lights lamps both screws one at right sense to bring him back just noticeably. Well first and foremost you can repeat the experiment and experiment with the dark

glasses against it, and is just as the law as the lower limit of the law can state a result. Instead of weakening of both components to the same conditions through dark glasses can be the same thereby weakening the effect that both light sources 'L, L put in more and more, but the same ratio behaltende, distances from the shadowcollecting panel. So it was in the following experiments. During the process, the direction of the process in the manner was reversed in that, instead of the current to monitor the constant noticeability of the difference as a success of the relatively same attenuation of the components, vice versa, this was observed as to the manufacture of the same noticeability as apparent from the following will emerge. This new experiment way is rather to supplement and control than the previous repetition. Since my very weakened eyes could not engage in similar experiments in which the most strenuous attention and the sharpest scrutiny is needed to even the interpreted traces the disappearance or reappearance nascent shadow, as Volkmann by consultation of some second observer with good eyes the employment of the same adopted. Following the essentials of the method and results. A vertically on a vertical white board capped rod threw under the influence of two light sources L, L ' two shadows on the board. A light source L , a burning stearin, obtained in a given distances from the board, and the other, the same light intensity was stated by photometry with that of dual paths, now as far back moved by one of the co-observer of the board until the of the observer sharp envisaged shadow it cast, ceased to be just noticeably. For this purpose had with Volkmann's eyes, the distance of the candle L ' from the shadows be 10 times as much as the candle L, ie, the difference of lighting, where the shadow ceased to be just noticeably, 1 / 100 are the absolute illumination. The same ratio of the distances and thus lighting, where this point is entered, but found himself also at very different absolute intensities of illumination, which bemerktermaen partly by altering the intensity of the flame itself, was partly obtained by the flame L in greater or lesser distance from the panel was added. Always had the distance of the flame L ' be noticeably 10 times as much to bring the shadows to the point of disappearance. The attempt of an intensity of illumination was L equal intensities by 0.36 = 1 = 2.25, = 7.71 to 38.79 varied, with 1 as the illumination by a stearin candle in 3 decimeter distance from the white board is without the ratio of the distance of the other light source to the panel, or significantly noticeable precipitated different. Only at the weakest intensity (0.36), a significant smaller waste took place, ie the distance of the light L ' had slightly less than 10 times the distance of the light L be (according to the table of results, the 9 -, 6 times) To make the shadow disappear just by hereby began to be indisputably the lower limit, which confirmed the validity of the law for the experiment exceeded. For brevity, I have referred in this presentation only to the point of disappearance. In reality, the light source was to the point of disappearing around L ' alternating back and hergerckt so that was obtained as precisely as possible between the points of disappearance and reappearance of the shadow of the point of Ebenmerklichkeit, and since the displacement of the light source L ' by a agents directed only to the call of, all with eye and attention to the apperception of the shadow observer happened, the

definitive fixation was made without the knowledge of the distance the part of the observer, and therefore could not be influenziert by such knowledge, so the result of this try is so unambiguous. These experiments are employed by Volkmann by consultation of garlic Prof. Dr. Heidenhain Hall and Dr. Young in Berlin, and has been repeated to some extent in my own presence.And remarkably, was found in all of these observers a little about 1 / 100 the absolute light of fluctuating value than just noticeable difference again. However, this method leaves no great sharpness in individual experiments to by the light L ' within a certain distance, which is about Volkmann 1 / 10 may may be the total distance shift, without knowing exactly where the point of Ebenmerklichkeit of the shadow to fix, so in general for each observer, the mean of several trials was regarded as authoritative, but individual results often fluctuated very little about the mean, and the uncertainty that remains after the funds is very low. These experimental way with the shadow is the first major event; understand but can also be easily the second thereby meet that one approaches a light alone without the other, the panel or from being lighter or darkens, the third by the fact that the two shadow which give a difference, or a shadow, and the reason illuminated together with a third sufficiently bright light, thereby being able to bring a very significant difference to the eye disappear. As far as their own, causing me through trials. Nevertheless, they are not much new to the already input Vorbemerkten, but their leadership could still be useful even after the previously employed, provided they are employed by the same independent and with some modifications, thereby contributing to ensuring and explanation of the law. But now even the essentials to add to what has become of my former probation gradually known. First of Bouguer has to see Trait d'optique sur la gradation de la lumire par Lacaille. in 1760. p . 51 attempts with the vanishing shadow in a similar manner employed as Volkmann 4) , and describes it under the heading "Observations faites pour determiner, source qu'ait force il faut une lumire pour qu'elle en summarize disparaitre une autre plus faiblement. "
4)

I gather the information about the literal rendering of his words by Masson in the Ann. Ch de et de Ph. 1845. T. XIV, p. 148, because I was not writing itself to Bouguer's commandments. Although he is merely the result of an experiment with a single bond lengths of both lights, after which a shadow at about 1 / 64 difference (instead of 1 / 100 disappears at Volkmann), but goes on to say, this level of sensitivity needed depending on the eye of the observer be different, he believed, however, to find that he was independent of the intensity of the light of his eye. After a comprehensive statement on oral communication of Masson 5) Arago repeated the experiments of Bouguer and it also operates with colored lights. Arago

himself explains in his popular astronomy 6) positive as to the merits of the law, he says, after the confrontation Bouguer'schen Tentatively, "which is also the absolute magnitude of M and L is (the two lights of Bouguer'schen experiment), Always attempt will lead to the same result (same relative just noticeable difference). " But he will not own tests on here in relation to the subject matter. de Chim. et de Phys. , 1845. T. XIV, p . 150 Hankel, Th IS 168
5) Ann. 6) Edited

by

Even in his Mmoires sur la photometry (p. 256) he does not come back to the law, but leads, it seems, under the assumption of the law, experiments which demonstrate an effect of movement on the visibility of the difference, and I shall quote below. Masson 7) has come to his attempts to probation of Law casually in an extended study of electric photometry. His method is simple and ingenious, and his figures do not take probation emerge much sharper and more complete than the data Bouguer's and Arago. In essence, it was this: A white disc of about 6 cm in diameter, on the one sector, for example 1 / 60 of the circular area betragend, some parts mn was blackened in beige signed manner was in rapid rotation

offset so that by virtue of the Nachdauer the face impression the black part extended to a ring or wreath on the white disk, after the well-known, this prevailing, the law of the brightness ratios rapidly moving bodies around 1 / 60 . was darker than the white disk base An eye on what is still able to distinguish the ring from the bottom, will hereafter be able to make a difference, not the 1 / 60 , still perceive is the intensity. Masson now had a number of such slices drawn up, in which the ratio of the angular size of the sector to the circular area respektiv1 / 50 , 1 / 60 , 1 / 70 and then progressively to 1 / 120 was, so he was put in a position, limits to determine between which the limit of sensitivity fell. To matching results with this method performs the following, which, compared with the previous one, also has the interest to show that Instantanes light behaves with constant light in regard to the law equally.
7) Ann.

de Chim. et de Phys. , 1845. T. XIV, p. 150th

As is known, when an alternating white and black sectors shared, illuminated by

daylight or from a lamp, circular disk rotates rapidly, it appears of uniform gray. Instead, they are enlightened with the instantaneous electric spark, as one sees all sectors completely distinguished. Applying both types of lighting at the same time, so it depends on the ratio of the intensities of whether one sees uniform gray or the different sectors; former when the electric light is too weak, the latter, if it is sufficiently strong. For Masson's eyes from various people, the ratio of the two light intensities, wherein the uniform gray occurs, different, however, it remains the same for the eye of the same observer. The sectors disappear and the smooth gray occurs when the instantaneous illumination of the white sectors of the electric light (the black throw no significant light back) the same is not a sufficient obesity more than the uniform gray color that would occur without the electric light, are that they can be distinguished by the eye, and, depending on the relative width of the black and white sectors, thus changing the gray, therefore a different strong electric illumination is required for this purpose at the same fixed lighting. Can the eye after the previous trial basis even 1 / 100 to distinguish, as in case of equality of the white and black sectors of the illumination of the white sectors of the electric light is 1 / 200 of their enlightenment must be by constant light by this enlightenment by the rotation of the disc to a gray of half photometric brightness is weakened. The trials of this method are employed by Masson for purposes other than to prove our law in great amendment, but it was stated that with the previous method, the conformity of their results. The details of his results are Masson, first Beobachtungsme respect to the first method, after turning to the second, as follows 8) : En essayant diffrentes vues, j'ai trouv pour que celles que l'on Considre comme faibles, vari de la sensibilit a 1 / 50 1 / 70 . Elle a t de 1 / 80 1 / 100 pour les vues ordinaires, et pour les vues de bonnes 1 / 100 1 / 120 AudeLA et. Rencontre J'ai deux personnes apercevant continued distinctement produite la couronne sur un disque donnant le 1 / 120 " "De l'faisant varier intensit de l'clairement, j'ai trouv que, quand il tait suffisant, pour qu'on Put facilement lire dans un inoctavo, la sensibilit variait ne pas pour un mme individual. Ainsi, l'avait comme Bouguer reconnu, la sensibilit de l'oeil de l'est indpendante intensit de la lumire. J'ai fait de plusieurs varier Manires la puissance du rayon lumineux rflchi par le disque. J'ai pris la lumire d'une carcel place diverses du disque distances, l'clairement par un temps et sombre couvert; Opere j'ai la lumire diffuse aprs le coucher du soleil; employ j'ai la lumire solaire rflchie par un heliostat quelquefois et j'ai le rendu faisceau divergent au moyen d'une lentille. La distance de l'oeil to influence sans disque est sur la sensibilit, pourvu qu'on n'atteigne pas une certaine limits dtermine par l'angle soutenu par la couronne. " Les rsultats n'ont pas t Modifies, chang quand j'ai le rapport entre le disque et la diamtre you largeur de la couronne. J'ai employ of disques, dans la lesquels

surface parcourue par le secteur noir tait le tiers ou le quart de celle du cercle. Plac j'ai la partie noire au bord du disque, au center et entre le center et la circonfrence. Dispose Enfin j'ai mme sur un cercle plusieurs portions noires appartenant of secteurs ayant le cercle des rapports avec diffrents, et j'ai le disque employ no 5 9) . Dans tous les cas, la limite de la sensibilit reste est invariable. " En clairant mobile par le disque of lumires colores, j'ai pu determiner si l'oeil de la sensibilit variait avec la nature of the rayons lumineux. Sauf quelques restrictions dont je vais parler, j'ai trouv que la limite de sensibilit indpendante est de la couleur. Ainsi, depending vois aussi la couronne distinctement au 1 / 100 , soit que le disque j'claire par la lumire naturelle, soit que j'emploie of rayons colors. " "J'ai des lumires produit de diverses couleurs en faisant passer au travers de verres colors les rayons du soleil ou ceux d'une lampe de Carcel. Je me suis servi des couleurs d'un specire, et enfin de l'appareil de photomtrique M. Arago. "
8)

The fact that, so far as I know, the Masson'sche work has gone into not just a German scientific journal, is slightly longer justify the literal message.
9)

This disc contains an interrupted black sector part.

Les verres que je dois l'obligeance M. Bontemps de tous ont t au Essayes specter. Except le verre rouge qui ne laissait passer que l'extrmit rouge du specter, tous les autres laissaient passer toutes les couleurs de quantites variable. Quelquesuns, le rouge par exemple, une absorbaient adjusting quantit de lumire, voyait difficilement qu'on la couronne. " "Dans les Essais prcdents, l'observateur ayant l'oeil sur le disque fix pendant un temps plus ou moins long, nous ne pouvons affirmer que les limites de sensibilit, ainsi dtermins, resteront les mmes quand l'Instant clairement sera. Je me suis assur par le moyen suivant que, dans ce dernier cas, la limite de peu de sensibilit prouvait variations. " Aprs avoir les secteurs clair you photomtre 10) par une Carcel lamp, j'ai une lumire plac lectrique la limite distance, varier puis j'ai fait, soit la distance de l'tincelle, soit celle de la lampe, de manire trs rendre les secteurs-sensitive. J'ai pour diverses intensits Opere d'clairement. S comparant ainsi de la variation distance produire ncessaire pour l'apparence of secteurs la distance of lumires absolue, j'ai trouv cela et aussi resulte of expriences citerai plus loin que je, qu'on pouvait pour prendre dans mes limite de sensibilit expriences photomtriques les nombres obtenus pour les lumires fixes. " En soumettant mes expriences plusieurs individus, j'ai fait un constate de la plus haute Importance pour la photometry absolue, je veux dire pour la comparaison of lumires fixes une lumire pour unit instantane prize. J'ai trouv que deux personnes qui avaient la mme sensibilit, donnaient, aprs avoir l'habitude of the acquis suffisamment expriences, les nombres mmes au photomtre lectrique. " "J'ai substitue aux blancs papiers claires par of lumires colores, of a paper

colors claires par de la lumire naturelle. La limite de sensibilit m'a toujours plus petite paru dans ce dernier cas et la couleur avec un peu variable of a paper. Je ne pense pas cependant doive regarder ce qu'on fait comme une exception la que j'ai rgle establish itself. Il est en effet peu prs Impossible de se procurer of a paper uniformment colors; qu'ils rflchissent la lumire est toujours trs-faiblement, et le noir leur qu'on dpose surface adhre difficilement rflchit et lui une mme quantit de lumire blanche qui varie the limites dans assez tendues ment relative la lumire par les disques rflchie colors.Cependant, pour des papiers rouges et bleus, je suis trs arriv-sensitive element la limite obtenue par les autres moyens. " Ayant Remarque qu' la limite de la couronne dcrite par la partie noire du secteur, il y avait toujours un certain contraste qui la couronne Rendant plus apparent sur ses bords, aidait sa vision, j'ai la partie noire termin you secteur et par une bordure frange no 6 7 fig "(see the original).
10).

Masson described here refers to a paper stock in its photometric means consisting in a by the electric spark to be illuminated, in white and black divided sectors quickly rotated disc. Comp. P 153 Il resulte of expriences aussi que j'ai faites sur plusieurs individus, que la sensibilit organs restant de leur la mme pour toutes les couleurs, ils prouvaient, en fixant le disque clair par le rouge une fatigue, malaise un chez qui indiquaient eux une espce de repugnance pour cette couleur. Il serait d'examiner curieux n'est pas si cet effet produit par une couleur yeux sur quelques autre que le rouge. " I come finally to Steinheil's experiments. This was, in his famous treatise on the prism photometer 11) to examine the request, whether the error that one commits in the estimate of the equality of light intensities, depending on the size of the intensities is different in size, and are (p. 14 of his treatise ) the result of the above observations made shortly go to: "You show that you recognize with great accuracy the point at which two surfaces are equally bright, the uncertainty of each estimate of the kind is not. 1 / 38 of the total brightness, this may be large or small. "
11)

elements of the night sky brightness measurements of crystal healing, in the Abhandl. of tutoring. phys class the can. bair. Akad.1837. This statement includes the statement of our law. Because the uncertainty in the estimate of the equality of two light intensities depend understand on the size of the still discernible difference, and if it is wrong at different intensities to an equal ratio of the average of a plurality of tests, including the boundary of noticeability of a difference must be at an equal ratio of intensities of these parts are. It summarizes crystal healing itself by saying with respect to the same observation (p. 71): "In Division B will be shown ... that you always missing in the estimation of equal brightness to an aliquot part of the total amount of light from the latter. it

follows that, up to the point when the light intensity weakens the areas where they are indistinguishable from the sky basically, this then have an intensity which is proportional to the ground of the sky. " The absolute location of 1 / 38 , the former from 1 / 64 to 1 / 120 compared to stand out, and it is questionable whether it depends on a variety of eyes or method, but that does not apply the law to what it can do here 's. It should be noted that the fraction 1 / 38 , which measures the uncertainty of crystal healing, the just noticeable differences, which the fractions 1 / 64 to 1 /120 , although as a proportion, but not consistently as so deemed by the other observers call is, although this remark the size and direction of the difference between the results is not explained. Steinheil's experiments (p. 73 ff his treatise), they come in so far for the trial of our law as comparable into consideration, however, relate to a scale of three intensities behave like 1,000, 1,672 and 2,887, so do not great extent, but they are very valuable and important, not only because they practiced by one of the highest, photometric pursuant to gauge means, resulting observer, but also because they are based on another probation Prinzipe, than the previous, and therefore the more testify that the law is any kind of test. In fact, it is easy to forget that when Steinheil's probation, the principle of the method is subject to error of the mean, while the former are based on probation to the principle of the method of just noticeable differences. Since the calculation and display of Steinheil'schen experiments could not be done without fussiness, I refer it to the original or to my treatise p. 477, where I after a slightly modified calculation and excluding one, with the other not quite comparable test series instead of the fraction 1 / 38 find 1 / 40 . Only the combination of found and calculated according to the condition of the validity of the law of the simple average error, proportional to the square roots of the intensities, observables may follow here. Observed. About. 2,517 1,712 2,426 1,846

1,471 1,428 The previous confirmations of the law with respect to very small differences, which, as we in the 7th Seen chapter, to founding a psychological level it is essential. The direct parole same for more than just noticeable differences has some difficulty because bemerktermaen the verdict on their equality is not is quite safe, and the combination of experimental and counter attempt here not just as with only just noticeable differences from the mere existence of the same noticeability suggests. But I run in my treatise p.489 experience that when cover of one eye, a slight shadow lies down on the field, the one does not inclined to hold lighter or

darker, you might catch a fire or a wall in the eye, as such, which emerges from some aspects of our law, and suspended as of the same for something more than just noticeable differences can be interpreted. The discussion of this experience may you see in the essay itself. But there is another side of one, and unzweideutigere much, probation of the law on more than just noticeable differences, also the first one that exists at all for the law, again high on that field of observation, the first mentioned probation the were taken, namely the estimated sizes of the star, where one must assume that the trained eye of astronomers has happily overcome the difficulty of estimating the spirit of our law. The estimate of the stellar magnitudes is in fact since ages (Hipparchus) known not happen according to their photometric light values, but by the impression, make the same to the eye in such a way that astronomers the stars 1, 2, 3 Size & c by the same apparent brightness differences distinguish're looking for, while leaving the numbers of stellar magnitudes decrease as the apparent magnitudes increase. According to our laws now the perceived difference in brightness between the successive size classes can only be equal if the photometric ratio between them is the same, therefore the mathematical series of stellar magnitudes listened to a geometric the star intensities to briefly describe the photometric value of a star with star intensity. This is now, however, in contradiction, that, according to a J. Herschel's investigations based specification in Humboldt's Cosmos, which is the consecutive number of stellar magnitudes corresponding intensities star instead of a geometric series, rather a quadratic power series

If it is a geometric series, each number would emerge by multiplying by the same number from the next preceding, and one under mglichstem CONNECTION to the previous row in simple figures have rather

This contradiction seems all the more important for the first sight, as the square power series of Herschel itself preferred the geometric series and as its most thorough revision of stellar magnitudes and comparing the same with the star intensities own photometric requirements is one of the most extensive and important documents, whereupon can be based on the present question with any certainty at all. Meanwhile, I have demonstrated in my essay einwurf free, I believe that the contradiction is only apparent, and dissolves upon closer inspection rather in the full confirmation of our law. Here are the main points: A significant difference between the above two rows and is in fact taken only in the size class l. But this varies the intensity of each star from the simple to about to 16 times, so that if one randomly selects the intensity of a star in this class as representative of the intensity of the whole class, such can bring any of

this or that series in accordance; and in fact there has been such an arbitrariness in Herschel. The same fact had a fondness for the quadratic power series of intensities by the same would consider the ratios of the numbers denoting the size, while the ratios of the distances at which they are of us, under the condition, and chose accordingly as representatives of stars 1 . Size from those which best agreed to this condition, but which by no means is the mean intensity, but one of the brightest, the order for the third under the stars 1 Size, Centauri, however, Herschel himself in several places another star, Orionis (Beteugeuze) expressly referred to it as such, a middle position among the stars of the first Size occupies, as a "typical specimen" of the stars 1 Size, as a star "of an average first magnitude." Really takes also this same point to Herschel's own observation data, which among other 14 photometrically determined by him and lined up by consultation of size fractions Stars 1 A smaller size 8, 6 a greater intensity, a smaller 6, 8 have a larger size number, as Orionis. Hereafter is obvious that if you have an average or typical value for the Stars 1 Adaptation to any size without arbitrary assumption examined not Centauri, but Orionis has to choose it. Now there is Orionis to Centauri to Herschel's own photometric determination in conditions of 0.484 to 1 So we substitute 0.484 for l in the quadratic power series, it goes into

0,484 but so little from 0.5 or 1 / 2 and 1 / 9 of 1 / 8 , that in consideration of the self highlighted by Herschel difficulty of accurately determining the size and intensity, considering also that he himself square power series is not explained for the observations exactly true, you can see the difference as small enough for the square, the geometric series

substitutable to find. At higher size classes, however both series would give way further apart, alone Herschel photometric provisions do not go beyond the fourth Size class out, and so it is here offered no evidence for further comparisons. A more thorough calculation as to which I must refer to my essay has further shown that the geometric progression of star intensities is not only compatible with the observed data Herschel's, but the same still better represented at appropriate reference setting to and suitable certain exponents of the series, as the quadratic power series, founded by the combination of observation and calculation according to Herschel, based on the assumption of quadratic power series formula is a sum of squared errors of our 2,719, on the condition of the geometric series formula can be left only 2.2291. However, J. Herschel's investigation, though one of the most important, is not the only thing you can take with regard to this subject, and it is found that instead of having the geometric series, the star intensities for arithmetic series of stellar

magnitudes or by various other thorough investigations no doubt which all, irrespective of each other, have led to the same results as of Steinheil, of tampers, of Johnson and Pogson. The compilation of these studies can be found partly in my first major treatise cited, sometimes in the night to rage in the reports of schs firm. The exponent of the geometric series varies according to the results of these various studies is not very significant at 2.5 or 0.40, depending on whether one follows the series of intensities in ascending or descending order, that is determined as follows: asc. abst. by J. Herschel's Datis 2,241 0.4427 2,831 0.3588 - Steinheil 12) (1). . (2). . 2,702 0.3705 2,519 0,3970 - Tamper 13) (1). . (2). . 2,545 0.3929 14) 2,358 0,424 - Johnson (1). . (2). . 2,427 0,412 - Pogson ...... 2,400 0,417 12) (1) By Steinheil's own calculation, (2) following a slightly modified bill, my first essay cf. pp. 518 ff
13) (1) After determination of fixed stars, (2) to determine on planet.
14)

(1) After its own review of the stellar magnitudes, (2) concurrence with other more size estimates. The differences between these provisions of the exponent part, be explained by differences between the size estimates, partly between the photometric requirements of different observers. Also, the absolute value of the provisions have had some influence, that the intensity of the sky ground is not neces-sary taken into consideration here, as I discuss in more detail in my second essay. Here, however, it would not be in the place to dwell on the subject by the general consensus of these studies are essential for us in the results, ie the validity of the geometric series, the star intensities sufficient. After all the above, a casual objection must stand out, which is found in J. Herschel's details against our law, and we, as herrhrend must not lose sight of such a reliable observer, though he is in Disagreed with the results, which flows according to the above discussion of the other side of Herschel's investigation, and the result of all previous investigations can not cancel. Herschel noticed namely description of his astro-meter (Capreise, p 357) in a note, it would be useful here to take an equilateral prism to help to make it through the reflective effect, the line connecting two to compare star the horizon in parallel, and

adds added: "Occasionally, too, it may be used to enfeeble the light of bright stars nearly equal, by external reflection in a eqaal ratio (by bringing the line joining Their images reflected did parallel to joining Their direct). In this enfeebled state, shades of inequality become apparent, Which would otherwise escape detection. By Increasing or diminishing (Equally) the angles of incidence, the reflected images may be more or less enfeebled. A plain metallic mirror may be used for the same purpose. "(For this purpose, a parallel passage in Outlines p. 522) As it is now behaving well with this contradiction, so after all the above, it seems to me in any case impossible to see in the deviation of Herschel noticed more than a small deviation order, which occurs under certain conditions of observation. It seems that he has this deviation only "occasionally" observed without hiring certain tests therefore, and after he himself elsewhere speaks of "many" causes that "our judgment with unbelievable way in such experiments determine," one may occasionally not hold sufficient observations, the same specific tests versus how they have been present vorstehends, justified. From the other side, but can, however, think that in such observations as much as the busy and practiced eye of Herschel recently acquired a sensitivity to subtle differences and thus fine deviations from laws, which represent only a very small size for the measure, at intensities where they are not yet noticeably for the untrained eye, and this is not unlikely that Herschel's statement preferably refers to very bright stars, where the deviation due to the upper limit of the law may be everywhere already felt since Herschel himself the difficulty an accurate determination of the brightest stars highlights, and may have here preferably applied the newly specified agent. Unfortunately, nothing can be decided here about lack of more definite information. But those calls, sure the factual foot on something, the more opposition to a further investigation of the conditions of validity of the law on. The Past concerned to prove that the law exists at all, within certain limits, without precisely determine these limits, what ever is not done until now. Partly the citation of some points be to establish appropriate here, which without prejudice to the validity of the law on the noticeability of differences in light have influence, so in experiments on, but is part of the conditions to be the reason yet understand the nature of these limits in some discussions validity of the same identical or similar to hold, by the way here, where they first come back in Looks, should be adequately treated it for future reference. The upper limit of the law, if the eye feels dazzled depends, undoubtedly to the fact that the eye is thereby injuriously affected. In a sense, a limit to the type of course. Common ground that the internal motions, on which depends the sensation, not be increased beyond a certain limit, without destroying the body and remove the possibility of further increase itself. Also, two different strong stimuli that reach and exceed this limit the excitation, but it will only bring this up to the same maximum sensation be able so can be no difference of sentiment more. But in any case already leads the approach to this limit with a deviation from the law. It is tempting to push the upper deviation from the law simply to the fact that the eye less sensitive going through blunting against the light stimulus at the same time

to light differences, and this seems to find his striking confirmation of the fact that, after a sudden transfers from full light of day in a dim chamber in the first moments nothing different, but gradually learns more and more different. Now, however, the same phenomenon also claims in the reverse direction. If someone suddenly enters the Light after frequent stays in the dark, can initially just as little to distinguish the objects, and learns only gradually. Would be blunting the reason that you probably do not recognize differences in very bright light, so one would have in the first eye look at the entries from the darkness into the Light clearest and gradually differentiate from bad to worse. Even in respect of employment of the experiment and counter experiment with the clouds nuances of this double case argued. You might hereafter be inclined to distinguish the inability of the entries from the Hellen in the dark the objects immediately, rather a Nachdauer the light impression, as blunting against the impression, and the corresponding inability of the entries from the darkness into the Light on the Allmligkeit with which to make impressions claims to push.Would namely in the transition into the darkness of the Hellen's Eye Black by Nachdauer still evident for a long time, they could not be perceived faint impressions to to the principle of the disappearance of the stars during the day, and made the reverse transitions of stronger impression at a slower conditions claimed as the weaker, they could also differences between strong light not initially be perceived. In fact, I've placed this statement in my essay on "a psycho-physical constitution," pp. 487 conjecturally. But both sides of the explanation seems to me no longer tenable upon closer consideration. Because after all the experience the phenomenon of Nachdauer goes off too quickly, not to mention other difficulties, and the assumption that a strong impression of light relatively slowly make claims as a weak, contrary to positive tests from Swan 15) .
15)

Sillim. J. 1850. IX. p. 443

If I'm not mistaken, in the darkness takes the initial inability to entry from the Hellen to see significantly lower aspects, in the 12th Chapters will find their discussion, but not to explain the same incapacity for transfers from the darkness into the Light, and is perhaps therefore not incurring as a declaration that, as prior exposure to a strong light stimulus against the absolute feeling of weak for a time more or makes it less dull, as well as prior exposure to a strong light difference against the feeling afterward of a weak difference makes for a time more or less dull. Whether it is that we go from a very light and very low light, or vice versa, so this is a strong light difference, which, though gradually understood, but also to light differences that should be considered at the same time after that for a time more or less could blunt. However, although this explanation is as yet very problematic. Anyway, it is always the one in the 12th Chapter drawn up, has most likely that if the eye for both components thus blunts in the same way, it has no other success than if both components are externally attenuated to the same conditions, where the difference still remains remarkably the same, so that a disturbance of the law from here can not take place.

As far as the lower limit of our law, it is not to be regarded as a true limit on closer inspection, and what previously appeared as a deviation from the law, is exactly considered a conclusion of law. To show this, one for the result after many important relationships, Vorerrterung is necessary. Abnormerweise can sense in all areas by internal causes (internal stimuli), regardless of external stimuli caused sensations that you know, designated by the name hallucinations, a proof that a fortune to be independent of external stimuli in all sensory domains available. So it may have nothing remarkable in itself, if such a constant and also normally expressed in a given area. An example of this fact gives us the sense of sight out where we have to recognize a normal hallucination, so to speak. In fact, the black that we see in the dark with eyes closed, a light sensation that place without external stimulus has not to be confused with the not-seeing, which took place with the finger or back of the head, and not to be compared with the nonhearing in the absence of external noise. Rather, the black, we have the closed eye, just the same light sensation that we have at the sight of a black surface, which can pass through all gradations in the strongest sensation of light; yes the inner black of the eye is itself by purely internal causes sometimes in bright light over, and contains clear phenomena disseminated so to speak. Closer attention is discovered in the black of the closed eye, a kind of fine light dust which is present in abundance in various different people and in different conditions of the eye, and can be increased in pathological states to vivid light phenomena. In my mind's eye for a longer disease a strong continuous light flickering present, which increases according as the one great subject to fluctuations, irritable condition of my eye increases. Such a lively way, subjective light phenomena can take very different forms in different individuals, what I discuss here in any further detail, but refer to writings about eye diseases and chapters on subjective light phenomena in physiological journals. Comp. eg Rte's Ophthalmol. 2 Ed p 192 The black base of the eye can also grow in depth and remove. The proof is easy to carry. Did you look at a white disk on a black paper sharp and sustained, it becomes evident after even in the closed eye in pre-keep-ing hands (to the admission of light through the eyelids excluded), a deepened black afterimage of the disc in a relative against bright reason, at the same time shows the retina at the site of the afterimage numb to outside light, because I set up the eye, where you have the after-image, open on a white surface, one sees there a dark spot against the white ground. So the black eyes deepened by fatigue and brightens the eye through a relatively calm. The same success that fatigue has this, has paralysis, which may be partially or totally, completely or incompletely, temporarily or permanently affect merely the retina or the central parts of the visual system. Not infrequently, only some points of the retina are paralyzed, the patient sees with open eyes gray, black or colored (considering the different radiosensitivity weakened for different color) spots on the objects which correspond to the paralyzed bodies 16) . In some patients occurs like a transient. Also, the entire field can be just as consistent temporarily darken, from internal causes. Rte 17) "observed a lady in the often sudden a complete darkness

poured under constant light on the eyes, from the visible objects only occasionally appeared like phantoms and immediately disappeared when the patient sought to fix them."
16) 17)

Rte, Ophthalmol. II 458 Ophthalmol. I. 156

Should not merely the retina, but also the central parts of the visual system to be completely paralyzed, one would expect that not only the visual field darkens, but fades the black of the visual field itself (as it vanishes at the boundaries of the visual field in the closed eye is just not even seen) and with the eyes than with your finger or a dead nerve Strange. I did not find anything, and the famous ophthalmologists no decisive information can be obtained about whether the like has actually been observed totally and permanently, it does not seem so, temporarily and partially but it is according to the following specification Rte's 18) of the case: "It is in nervous subjects, sometimes before that you the piece of the outside world, which corresponds to the gelahmten sites, such as in space do not exist appears in current paralysis of single parts of the retina 19) . "Probably the key terms of the visual sensation in the brain are too much with the conditions of life connected than that a total and permanent cessation of one without the other could take place.
18) 19)

Ophthalmol. I. 154

A treatise of Grafe About the interruptions of the visual field in amblyopic affections" in Graefe's Arch Ophthalmol f. Abth II. 2 S. 258 seems to apply only to cases where parts of the visual field is not abolished both, as were merely obscured.

Assuming the unrestricted validity of the law can be down even the photometric intensity of black eyes all over analogous experiments, as has been previously employed on probation of Weber's law, determine. For this one has won only in the dark of night to remove a single light as much of a shade-giving body until the just alone nor black filled the eyes, shadow of through the eyes black and the outer enlightenment at the same time illuminated reason is just not more distinguishable . If one of the found Volkmann book value 1 / 100 in so at this distance is enlightenment, which causes the light to the eyes black, 1 / 100 of the intensity of the eyes black. This test is really been far even if only very casually employed. For Volkmann's eyes the shadow disappeared upon a ground of black velvet, as the light, usually a burning stearin, in a long, dark, with some room still extended, swing was moved back to 87 feet away. If now at this distance the enlightenment that inflicted the light of the eyes black, 1 / 100 of enlightenment through the eyes was black, they would

at 1 / 10 of that distance, that is, to have been equal to 8.7 feet away the same. So the attempt says that a blackboard by a common stearin candle that burns in about 9 Fussen distance from it, an equally strong enlightenment receives than by the Black alone without external illumination, and therefore the photometric intensity of the final enlightenment of the first equal 's. Perhaps one might find such a brightness level of the eyes or striking black and much too large, if it is equivalent to the distance illumination of an area by an ordinary candle in his near 9 feet. But one must not overlook the fact that it is the enlightenment of a black surface, which asserts the equivalence, because evidenced by the attempt is. But it would not become enlightened by the next standing still so intense flame by swallowing all the light an absolutely black surface, and only the fact that there is no absolutely black body can, speak of a low illumination levels of a black ground at all . Therefore, the black base threw something at least, but only very little light in the area of the shadow back, so that the brightness of the black eye could be commensurable in the way very well, as it has proved by experiment. I only have the result of Volkmann's eyes with the most careful experiments, he made previously mentioned here, and two other persons, which he incurred to the experiments, the shadows detected even at that distance of 87 Fussen, on which the trial on the nature the location could not be driven, which proves that either the brightness of her eyes black or their sensitivity was different. Volkmann intended to give these tests more accurate determination, further execution and result. For the time being the result obtained by him is sufficient to show that the photometric intensity of the black eyes neither in itself is immeasurable, yet immeasurably small, and this is what really matters here first. In this respect, after all the above, the black of the visual field is still to be regarded as a real sensation of light in the cast of exclusions external light, it can not be neglected in the examination of Weber's law. Set, we consider two other close shades or shadows clouds with naked eyes, so adds up to two cloud shades or shadows even the brightness of the black eyes added. We vapors now the light of both clouds shades or shadows by provision of a gray glass in a given situation, the brightness of the eyes black it remains undamped, and still fits in with his constant intensity of the two clouds nuances or shades which will therefore not truly the same ratio and hereby does not retain the same relative difference than before, but less of what must be accompanied by a reduction of the difference in sensation according to the law. Yes, if we go with the dark glasses always on, so finally the black eyes instead of both shades will alone remain, and all the difference disappears. The Black eye effect in this experiment, in fact, how strange it may seem, much like the bright illumination of the sky in which the stars disappear. So the Weber's law can in relation to the mere external light stimulus only to the extent and for so long confirm, as the inner eye to the outer light is vanishingly small, as well as the validity of the law Masson accepts only from the points claimed, where you can read standard print font, whereas if you go down to great darkness with the experiments, the difference in nuances must be distinct. The same applies to all the mentioned modifications of the experiment and

confirmed by the experience everywhere. A good explanation of the above, it granted, that a light which differs very little from the black eyes, with a seemingly opposite means, but according to the same principle, can be made to disappear. When one evening, takes a star in the eye, which can only just be distinguished from the black raspberries melsgrunde so it can just as well make it disappear when you take a darkening glass before his eyes, as if the eye is the lamp of approaches the side. A similar experience could be done very nicely at the beginning of October 1858 the magnificent comet of the year. Both through gray colored glasses such as when approaching a bright light from the side of the tail shortened exceedingly, and a dark red glass through which I saw the clouds finest nuances in daylight, even brought the whole comet disappear. The first explained by the fact that through the glasses the light of the star or comet, not the black in the eye, is considerably weakened, the second by the fact that by the light of not only the part of the retina, to which his image falls, but in some degree the whole fundus is illuminated, in part due to various causes, which have been of different observers highlighted. Once the light through sclerotic and choroid with a reddish color shows through, which some remarkable phenomena of objective and subjective coloring of the images depend on the bridge in Poggend. Ann. LXXXIV. S. 418 has very carefully studied, and second place from the picture of a direct scattering reflection on the other parts of the retina, such as backward for the cornea instead, from which the light is again reflected back to the part of the retina, which points to Mitrcksicht on particularly in the following Helmholtz Pogg.Ann. LXXXVI. S. has highlighted 501 ff; Third place due to the microscopic composition of the ocular media of cells, fibers, cuticle an irregular scattering of light as it seems instead of to the principle of diffraction, of which the visible to light flame colored houses depend on what Meyer Pogg. Ann. XCVI. S. 235 has made the subject of a special study.By virtue of the final cause as by virtue of the direct scattering reflection of the image of the light source to the rest of the retina, the retinal illumination is strongest in the vicinity of the image, but in fact decreasing extends over the entire fundus. By the combined effect of these causes is the very weak light of the star or comet tail, similar to the starlight by daylight, the easier drowned, the closer it is to the image of the light source in the eye drops, since the illumination of the eye ground in the vicinity is the strongest. Therefore, the indication Brewster's 20) : "If the light when held close to the right eye candle flame acts on a part of the retina, it makes all the other parts of the retina to a greater or lesser extent insensitive to all other impressions of light. The resistance reaches its maximum close to the lighted spots, and decreases with distance from this starting. Moderately lit counter statuses really disappear in the area of highly excited lots of vibrant colors and body are not only deprived of all its splendor, but also changes in its color. " In the same reason, it is based, that according to Helmholtz method 21) , the so-

called over violet rays of the solar spectrum, which are not seen by the ordinary method, can behold even without the use of fluorescent substances, if you set up things so that they noticeably isolated from the other parts of the spectrum, they deafened by the diffused light, can be considered.
20) 21)

Pogg. XXVII. P 494

Pogg. LXXXVI. P 513

A general conclusion from the above is also important that, regardless with increased illumination, the amount of reflected light on black and white areas growing in the same conditions, but the difference of the white from the black intensity of illumination appears to be larger, because the brightness of the eyes black always the main contributors to the brightness of the black reserves. This is for example the simple reason that you can read in the light better than in the dark. Apart from the boundaries of the law, which are related to the degree of intensity of the light, we must not forget that a confirmation thereof is to be expected from observation only to the extent that remain out of the intensity ratios other circumstances which the view of the light difference may express an influence. Now, the investigation of the circumstances which may be of belang rich influence in this respect, is still highly incomplete, but a few points should be considered, which earn experience to date, preferably attention. There (where) it was said that Arago had detected an influence of the motion of the components on the perception of their difference. Volkmann also has perceived this influence. To conceive the finest traces of appearing or disappearing shadow, the shadow-giving light had to be moved, bringing the shadow moved at the same time, and the just noticeable difference1 / 100 is determined under the influence of the movement. In Arago's experiments relating thereto, which consisted of two components, not shadows, but were obtained so that, with a telescope, which inwardly Rochon'sches a prism (thereby creating a double image) had, and a Nicol prism mounted in front of the lens was by the rotation of a picture that was in any measurable conditions and against the other can be alleviated by a black cardboard mounted in aperture projected on the sky covered targets, where then from the position of the main sections of the Nicol and Rochon'schen prism can determine the relative intensity of the two images produced by the latter against each other. The weaker image was set in motion by linear movement of the prism in the Rochon'schen telescopes in the direction of the eye-piece of the lenses so that, in reasonable time passed from the location where his band went through the middle of the stronger to that where its edge is touched with the edge. In three series of experiments, which were made by consultation of several observers in this way, the disappearance of the weaker to the stronger superpositioned image of the eye was at a speed of movement of the image of 12 arcmin in the time second place, if the intensity of the weaker following fractional value the stronger

was: At rest. During movement. 1/ I. 39 II III. 1 / 51

1 1 1

/ 58

/ 87
1

/ 71

/ 131

In regard to the great difference, which show the absolute numbers of these three trials, Arago remarked simply: "Je ne chercherai pas ici expliquer, comment la sensibilit de l'oeil correspondant l'tat de repos a Etesi diffrente dans ces trois sries d 'expriences. C est l un phnomne physiologique , . sur lequel il y aura revenir. " the difference can not have depended on the diversity of the observers, as Arago says: The above are the "rsultats trs peu concordants, obtenus par M. Laugier, par M. Goujon et par M. Charles Mathieu; ". : as little of a difference in the absolute intensity, which partly contradicts the explicit recognition of our law in popular astronomy, some of the general statement that he attaches to all attempts Ajoutons , comme renseignement propre faire de l'juger obscurit you champ, que l'image faiblement, lorsqu'elle projetait se en dehors de l'image forte, a disparu quand son intensit tait en 1 / 2100 . " Of interest in relation to the influence of the movement also remarks of ranger are 22) , he makes regarding the use of his photometer: "In a very dim lighting and small objects the appearance occurs, that the latter, if it's considered a few moments quietly, suddenly, instead of being even more apparent disappear to reappear soon. I believe that this change was not one who zukommenden retina as peculiarity, swaying their energy based, but in the fact that the eyes have made a small movement in the moments where the objects are visible again, so that now take the same pictures new, previously aroused in other ways retina Parts . I can see this with the utmost certainty on the occasion of the employed with Aubert experiments on the sense of space of the retina (cf. v. Grfe'sches Arch III). We looked back in a strongly darkened room to walk some distance large sheet of paper, to those isolated by large gaps, black letters were, and it seemed to us important to keep the eye pretty quiet. The room was so dark, that the figures only just now appeared to us as black spots. I Fixed one of these , so it took - at some very low light -. not long before both the fixed point than any other in the gray sheet of paper, which was always dark, completely disappeared was this moment occurred, the setting was henceforth impossible, it turned an uncomfortable feeling in the orbit, which eyes did a little move and immediately the whole sheet with the number of spots was visible again., the motion was either perceived themselves as such or it was made arbitrarily, or, finally, it was developed from the fact that now a different location number was in the fixation points. "
22)

About hemeralopia p. 13th

Until now, it is still unclear what is the basis of the influence of the movement. You searched for him is that the difference to a new, not yet tired body fall, but as the components of the difference can not be changed by the movement, but merely the place of the very small difference is crazy, so it does not appear that the fatigue condition could be significantly reduced by the movement. Coming soon is possible that it is the mimeographed opinion the difference is instead by a majority of points as the freshness of these points, the greater noticeability of the difference in the movement caused insofar perhaps a summation of the impression of the points successively taken in the period up certain limits takes place. Finally, following, of course, also not yet declared, but its general sense a substitute declaration reason, ratio in games could be. Any comparison of two different sizes of more successful if we successively by the same body parts as simultaneously interpret the same with different, as EH Weber has highlighted and confirmed by experiments, and as it did (Chapter 8), it was argued. So we see a small difference between two weights easier by successive weighing with the same hand as simultaneous with different hands. The movement of the components for our experiments but the simultaneous light difference for various points in the retina is converted to the same in a gradual. At the same points, fell to just still stronger light, falling soon weaker and vice versa, and the faster the movement is, the more points occur in a given time in this succession. However, this explanation until now is just a guess as. Next is one of the circumstances which have influence on the detectability of a difference, the expansion of the components, without, however, the law regarding the intensity is changed by when the extension each time remains comparable, as it was immediately apparent from the fact that it at stars just as well as to dense shade has proved to be valid.However, a light spot with the same intensity is not easily distinguishable from the bottom, as a light surface. Because now this subject in more detail in 11 Chapter covers, so I'm not here on a. Third, it has been shown that a given relative light difference is easily detected if its components are basically dark in bright light than in the dark ground. Here the street is not only based on experience explicit indication of Arago on the choice of one or other relationship with a given by him photometric apparatus from 23) , but Hankel also has the same found on occasion other photometric tests, which have not been published until now .
23)

Arago's works, edited by Hankel.

Finally, the following remark: In the otherwise usually as valid prestigious analogy between pitch and color, it is a remarkable, from this analogy all the way out Trespassing, fact that Weber's law is not quite as composed in the domain of color, as, soon after the communicated, in the areas of the pitch, ie, the same significant differences in the frequencies are not proportional to the frequencies of the colors. In

fact, the eye maintained at the limits of the spectrum at intervals of a minor or even major third little color change, however, the significant color transitions so quickly follow in the area of the yellow and green is that all transitional stages between yellow and green in the interval of a small half-tones are compressed into 24) . Incidentally, there are also other, not to be discussed here, points in which the analogy between tones and colors fails. 25)
24)

Helmholtz in the reports of Berl. Acad 1855. Pp. 757 ff In terms of p 166 ff 2) Sound 26) .

25)

In the areas of the sound, it is important to distinguish mere noise, which have no definite pitch, where then is simply the strength of as something Measurable contemplated and sounds in which, which depends on the oscillation amplitude, the square of the same proportional strength, and by the vibration frequency dependent, to be drawn by the same physically measured, especially considering the amount. The ratios of the strength you will just as in the one as the other, which can examine only the latter amount. We first summarize the strength of the eye.
26)

In terms p.160 Revision S. 367-419.

Renz and Wolf 27) have under Vierordt's line by the method of right and wrong cases experiments on the sensitivity of the ear for differences in sound intensity at the ticking of a clock, which was installed at various distances from the ear under appropriate measures employed. As a main result follows from their experiments:
27)

Vierordt's Arch in 1856. 2 H. P 185 Poggend. Ann. Xcviii.

"If two sound values of but absolutely pretty weak intensities perceived directly behind each other, so the security of the judgment increases with increasing difference between the sound levels in the way that sound values in the ratios of l00 : . were 72 under all circumstances significantly different from each other for sound values, that behave like 100 : 92, the number of correct decisions surpasses only a trifle the sum of the false and remained undecided ". This employed with care trials deserve consideration as an explanation examples of the application of the method of right and wrong cases, and, if what is to come for the following into consideration, indicating a relatively low security in the knowledge of differences in sound intensity, are but not suitable to decide on the validity of our law, because they were not focused on the equality of the perceived difference at different absolute sound levels. Then, the following experiments relate. When I am with people man entertained the photometric experiments on the great importance of a more general probation of Weber's Law after his execution, he improvised the provisional probation of the law for sound intensity equal to the

following apparatus, which was produced with no significant cost very day. It consists simply in a pendulierenden hammer strikes against a plate from some sounding or not sounding substance. As this axis pendulum was a strong knitting needle, turning in brass holes between two, mounted on a board, connected above by a wooden cross, pillars. Understandably, depending on whether one makes it easier or harder, can fall from a greater or lesser amount against the plate the hammer to the apparatus approaches more or further away, the sound is considered to be physically stronger or weaker. Since the apparatus in its raw embodiment had no circuit arrangement for determining any repeated elevation of the hammer, the same one Quartant became substitutes provided with some shopping mark at different heights on the side of the apparatus and the each-time elevation of the hammer thereby determined. the hammer was of wood and struck a square glass bottle. Now two elevations of the hammer were visited, which sufficiently distinct sounds stated that a directly standing in appliances observer was not mistaken when he, without knowing the elevation, advised that sound was the stronger, but little enough distinction that if the difference was reduced to about half the verdict was unsafe and was partly right and partly wrong cases. Thenthe observer successively removed at 6, 12, 18 steps, so that the initial distance was increased twelvefold from the same apparatus at least. In each of these intervals, the same experiment was repeated several times with those two elevations, which determines a still recognizable to the observer in the vicinity, but had very weak difference presented. Since 12x distance of the observer, the physical intensity of sound at 1 / 144 came down 28) , so would not know much about the need to disappear beyond the just noticeable difference in the area, if he ever would depend on the absolute strength of the sound. But in all three distances of the observer remained the same judgment just as safely and correctly, as in closest proximity.
28)

This is exactly what would certainly only in respect of employment of the experiment to be in free air. The above was employed in closed space. So raw in some ways was the experimental apparatus and the essentials seemed sufficiently taken into account and the result so decisive that was to be expected, a more accurate model with a carefully constructed apparatus will lead to no other results. In fact, this has, in fact shown in a very large experimental scale with sound levels from the simple to the more hundred times in the later attempts Volkmann's, but that were not employed by a falling pendulum, but freely on a steel plate falling steel balls in necessary measures and at the few I have taken part. In these experiments were both drop height, as amended severity of the falling balls as the distance of the observer within wide limits, the drop heights and their differences but was performed on a vertical scale along which the case accurately determined. Moreover, the manner of employment and the success of the experiments was consistent with the previous. With a variety of absolute sound levels namely the ratio of the drop heights 3 appeared : 4 an equal ratio of the sound levels which down the following derivation corresponds, just enough to cause a certain distinction for

two observers with good discernment that obtained with the Renz and Wolf results probably agrees. Here is the one from Volkmann's observation journal extended detailed description of the experiments. "A prismatic bar is graduated and vertically placed on a board, which can be obtained by three screws in the horizontal. At this point two runners are attached, from which horizontal two arms , out. From the height which the two arms See, allowed to fall down a ball on the board, the ball was caught between the thumb and forefinger;., the tip of the index finger touched the arm or ., and then the fingers were carefully removed from each other in order to drop the ball I had two balls of equal severity, summarized the one with the left, the other with the right hand to pick up the ball for the second attempt not only to the first case, or even having to look. " "The greatest near the border observer listening to the case instruments was 1 meter, the greatest distance 6 meters." "The absolute heights of fall, who came to the comparisons differed as 3 : 11.0. " "The weight of the falling balls differed as 1.35 Grmm. : 14.85 Grmm ....... " "Numerous attempts within the width of the sound differences showed that Heidenhain and I are able to distinguish with certainty sonic strengths to each other as 3 : . behave 4 If the difference is reduced to conditions 6 : so come 7 an individual errors and more often indecision before the judgments. " "Fechner, however mistaken even at the ratios 3 : 4 very often but when it obviously had exercise influence on increase of discrimination, because at the end of a very long series of observations he distinguished sound levels in the ratios of third : 4 each time properly while he was mistaken at first often heard as properly and after longer trials are still 1 / 3 false report 2 / 3 made right. " The previous experiments are based on to the principle of the method of just noticeable differences, and because of previously stated reasons by means of this method can not be achieved the same sharpness well as by the method of right and wrong cases and mean error, so remain disputed trials this methods are still desirable. But with the exceedingly large variation of absolute sound levels that had place in the experiments made, they are critical enough for the validity of the law in general, and it could at most a deviation smaller order of the same be possible within the limits of the employed tests, without such a probability justify it. It would be useful to add more stuff on to be used in experiments of this type apparatus and their theory. Schafhutl 29) has previously falling balls with an instrument to measure the sensitivity to sound Strong stated, however, the same used only for measuring the absolute sensitivity. Equally, the sound pendulum has already been drawn earlier for this purpose in use. Itard 30) has such a to investigate the sensitivity of the ear served in ear diseases

under the name Akumeter consisting of a beaten copper rings, hanging freely on a rod by the set up by a column on a pedestals machine and against which the abuts shuttle, the elevation is measured at a protractor.
29)

Abhandl. d baier. Academic VII 2 Abth.

30)

Gehler's Words to live by. Art hearing. S. 1217.

I myself have let me manufacture a double pendulum with sound degree arc, no matter where two pendulum constructed from two sides to a thick slate 31) beat, but not yet found time to make experiments with it.
31) With

wood I have not been able to achieve the same sound for both

pendulums. Following the theory of instruments: It is easy to see that when a body it falls by free fall or as a pendant on a different body, the intensity of the sound arising from the process in the assembled conditions of the head and the weight of the falling body is 32) as far as the influence of air resistance can be neglected and the rate of fall of any other disturbing influences.
32)

Schafhutl is the sound intensity is proportional to the square root of the drop height of the sound-body imaging (Mnchen. Abhandl VII. p. 17), I can not see properly after following the above derivation. In fact, the strength of the sound is proportional to the square of the amplitude of vibration of sounding body, the vibration amplitude of the sounding body is with the pass (by formulas known) proportional to the velocity, the particles through its equilibrium position, ie, the same with which they removed from are. This is in the assembled situation the speed at which strikes the falling body and its weight. The rate at which the body is incident, that is, the terminal velocity of his case, is proportional to the square root of the law case head.Thus, the final speed is proportional to the square of this head, and consequently also the square of the speed at which the particles move away from the rest position, the head proportional usf. Since it is now known, makes no difference as to the terminal velocity, if a body falls through free-fall or crooked paths through a certain height, so you can see the previous observation just as the hammer of the case pendulum (assuming the friction on the axis as vanishingly) use as a free-falling body. You just have to beware if both to inform the falling body at the commencement of a speed if the specified function of the sound intensity should be valid from the drop height. The air resistance is expected at the low drop heights and speeds at which they will operate in general, the more can be neglected when applying lead as a falling body. From previous volume it is evident that the intensity of the sound at the sound of

pendulum is not in the conditions of the elevation angle to which the hammer is lifted above its lowest point of the pendulum, but the vertical height, ie the ratios of , under which the instrument could be equally graduated. For

example, since the cosine of 45 degrees equal to 0.707 and the cosine of 90 is equal to zero, then thereafter the ratio of the sound levels at these two elevations of the 1-.707 = 0.293 to 1 or 3 to 10 as nahehinThe elevation angle of 60 , 90 , 180 , corresponding to a ratio of the sound strengths : 1 : 2 As long as the elevation does not exceed 60 , one can approximate the sound intensity is proportional to the square of the same place, so that a double elevation four times, one triple nine times the sound intensity corresponds nahehin 33) .
33)

This follows from the well-known formula

- etc.

Here are two small tables which give the corresponding to the elevations of a sound pendulum of 0 to 90 noise strengths, and vice versa, if the thickness is set at 90 is equal to 1.0000 (in Table I) or 10 (Table II). At 180 then it is twice as large as at 90 , and all strengths in elevation between 90 and 180 between fall here, but it is not easy to use a pendulum at elevations above 90 . Tables of the relationship between the elevation of a sound pendulum and the sound intensity. I. II Elevat. Strength Elevat. Strength Strength Elevat. Strength Elevat. 90 85 80 75 70 65 60 55 1.0000 0.9128 0.8264 0.7412 0.6580 0.5774 0,5000 0.4264 45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 0,2929 0.2340 0.1808 0.1340 0.0937 0.0603 0.0341 0.0152 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 90 , 00 84 , 26 78 , 46 72 , 54 66 , 42 60 , 00 53 , 13 3 2 1
1

45 , 57 36 , 87 25 , 84 17 , 19 12 , 97 9 , 07 6 , 41

/8 / 16

50 0.3572 5 0.0038 In regard to the pitch at which the oscillation frequency is responsible for the size of the stimulus, are out of Weber's general statement that, also cited by Weber, information Delezenne's before, but refer his observations, I am convinced from his original treatise in the The main thing rather on what deviations from the purity even at such and such a type interval (unison, octave, fifth, & c.) are distinct, as to whether the deviation from the equality of two tones at the same ratios of the frequencies or in different amount equal to the tone scale is much larger than what is the real question of Weber's law. Meanwhile, there is a need for confirmation of the law in this respect not only special tests since it is simple and to say so notorious statement of musical Gehres that equal ratios of frequencies corresponding to one as equal perceived tone difference in different octaves, so that the Act as a direct proven somewhere else can hold even for large differences. Also, Euler, Herbart and Drobisch have gefut thereon at their mathematical analysis of the tonal. I interviewed several people with good musical hearings with occasional hiring of experiments with a wooden swing sound, which opened on wood, if they do not vermchten a comparison of the ratio of the sound levels at 45 and 90 with a draw ratio of pitches. Some declared themselves incapable, but strangely enough, most of which were getting on a comparison were consistent (independent of each other and without knowing something of the judgments of others) then that is used to compare the ratio of a fourth. But I will give to these tests on her just raw and casual employment, the less something than that consensus was not without exception, and hold himself still for very questionable whether a direct comparison between the ratios of the thickness and height of the feeling at all to draw. In any event occurs, the results of these experiments in the affirmative by Renz and Wolf, as Volkmann got into it, which one is not inclined to fairly significant differences in sound levels (3 : 10) to appraise as high. The same relationship was interesting to me by a musician (a violinist v. Wasilewski) to hear the words, you've made the experience at Rheinische song festivals that a choir of 400 male voices do not significantly stronger impression than 200 3) weights. 34) The means of the method of just noticeable differences obtained results Weaver's, making the first confirmation of our law is necessary in the field of weight attempts have already been mentioned. His attempts to have the special merit that with a part of the same, the pressure sensation of the skin is separate from the muscular feelings, and the results obtained in this way have been compared with those obtained with common claims of both sensations, however, after about myself the method of right and wrong cases experiments carried from which further mention will hereafter be, to be held at the at the elevations of the compared weights, natural connection between the two sensations relate. An accurate separation of the two was in fact not well executed by the modality of the process, but appeared a common law of probation for both, considering the accuracy, which promised the method useful also these attempts

were not less than the study of the method for testing the law determines.
34) In

terms of S. 164, 186-199. Revision p 168-173, 358-367.

To the understanding of what follows, reference to The one will very often be necessary, what is said in the chapter on the execution of the method, without that I think it necessary to come back to it in detail here. From the other hand, some evidence and explanation will contain examples of what is said there in the following. My main test series on the subject in question are two, two-handed and one (with Right and Left specially engineered) handed, which, both comparable, a series of six main weights, 300, 500, 1000, 1500, 2000, 3000 grams performed to had very consistent results. The series is handed in October and November, 1856, made the two-handed in December 1856 and January l857. The circumstances of the experiments of both series were the normal circumstances specified in general. Specifically, the following points should be noted: Each of the two series comprises 32 test days with 12 divisions of 64 italics in the whole 32 . 12 . 24576 64 = simple uplift or cases. Each main weights P were (thus periodically changing) two distinct parts as additional weight ratio D applied, namely 0.04 P and 0.08 P. The latter additional weight may seem large, but are, as you can convince yourself of the following test tables, even enough false cases, which is related to the means of the described method, each (calculated to 2 cases) compared to a simple double lift, rather than to justify repeated round-Herwiegen, where D = 0.08 P would provide hardly even false cases . On each trial of 12 days . = 64 768 elevations were all 6 main weights, each in two divisions of 64 elevations, all with the same proportionate D tested, and this only after days or weeks, as indicated below, changed. It was also partly by days in ascending ( ) And descending ( ) method of the main sequence weights. Thus, in each of the two series of tests on each of the six main weights on the whole 32 . 2048 with; 128 = 4096 or heave cases D = 0.04 P and as many with D = 0.08 P , 1024 each of which and as many . In the 128 series, the two-handed heave every day with each main weights were incontinuo employed in the follow-handed oriented 64 to the left, 64 to the right, the left or alternating with rights made the beginning of days. In the twohanded series, after two days, with one hand only after each 8 days between D = 0.04 P and D = 0.08 P changed. This has accompanied the difference that in the twohand number, the sensitivity values at the two D's are very similar, so that this series with a confirmation of the law can be used, according to which the ratio of the real to the total number of cases of the size D at constant speed h depends 35) , while this is not the case with the one-handed series, where weeks with 0.08 P relatively lower sensitivity values than the 0.04 with P give what 8) enters it into the observation (chapter. But in regard to the influence of the size of the main weight on the dimension values, what is important here alone, one-handed is quite as similar to himself as the two-handed.
35)

This law is following the discussions in the 7th Chapter by the relationship

of the values to t = hD expressed in our fundamental table, after which a double D a double t there when the influences p, q are eliminated. I now give first place, to begin with the simplest, if not the most accurate, use way this series of observations, the total number of correct cases r for the different emphases P,specified by some major circumstances, but without separation of the four main cases with and without fall on the exact metrics, ie, the values t = hD, which can be calculated from it by even without such a calculation the eligible principal results from the ratios of the combined for all major events right numbers also r will be drawn, that the stricter treatment of the series continue nothing will be able to afford to put out a little sharper than the same results. The unit of weight used in the following is all of the frames. To make the meaning of the numbers in the next following tables no doubt, I admit to the same specifically for the first number of the first table. The number 612 at P = 300, D =0.04 P, n = 1024, says that when a main weights = 300 grams = 0.04 and an additional weights of emphasis, so 12 grams, the number of correct cases of all days, where the main weights in ascending order ( ) Were applied, was 612, while the total number of cases, right and wrong together, was under the same circumstances in 1024, after which the number of false 1024-612 = 412 was. Thereafter, the remaining numbers of Bedeutungder itself will be understood. The numbers r the vertical end total column is of course 4 times n the numbers in the special columns, ie, 4096, as is reclose be stated as the r of the 4 specific vertical columns are added in the vertical final total column, on the other hand is the number r of the horizontal circuit total column 6 times n the special numbers, ie 6144, since the r, which of the 6 P's are in the same vertical column are added in the horizontal circuit total column. I. number of correct cases r the two-handed set .

n = 1024 P 300 500 1000 1500 2000 3000 Total d = 0.04 P 612 586 629 638 661 685 3811 614 649 667 683 682 650 3945 714 701 747 811 828 839 4640 d = 0.08 P 720 707 753 781 798 818 4577

Sum ( n = 4096) 2660 2643 2796 2913 2969 2992 16973

( n = 6144)

II number of correct cases r handed the series.

n = 512 P d = 0.04 P Left 300 500 1000 1500 2000 3000 352 339 325 353 378 367 Rights d = 0.08 P Left Rights

Sum ( n = 4096)

337 344 318 387 372 386 342 2838 332 348 335 383 402 413 366 2918 343 382 388 383 412 389 422 3044 358 371 383 406 416 435 430 3152 353 369 382 413 418 414 421 3148 343 364 386 426 433 429 438 3186

Total 2114 2066 2178 2192 2398 2453 2466 2419 18286 (n= 3072) I pass over, as belonging not here, all discussions about the diversity of the results of these tables according to the different circumstances (different than the size of D, use the left and right, and ), which one can easily notice them, and will be followed to address in more detail in the "Methods of Measurement." Here geschahe the specification of the results according to the circumstances, primarily only from the bottom, in order to show that the number of real events r in respect of the main weight P in all conditions followed substantially the same speed, that is, increases slowly with the main weights, and wherein the Main highest weights, 2000 and 3000 grams, it changes only a little more. If you have taken this match for the different experimental conditions in the eye, then one can further observe the final total vertical columns, which in both tables for n = 4096 give the correct numbers in each of the major weights. If now the law are proven directly and accurately by these experiments, as would, in consideration of the fact that everywhere the same ratio of the additional weight is the main weights, all numbers r for the different emphases not only approximate, but should be exactly the same. This is not the case. However, it is the deviation of such shape for the experiment is left of the laws, just as little to see a real difference, as the deviation, which we found at the lower limit in the realm of perception of light, but just as and for a very analogous considerations as a requirement of the law. As we in the perception of light which, even without access of the external light is for them to

take existing, internal light excitation with in the bill, so here even without external weight P present, the same in elevation in with upscale, weight of the arm and any covering garment ( my experiments only a slight shirtsleeves 36) . And how the law can directly confirm the former territories of the experiment only in accordance with, as can be the inner eyesight neglect against the outer, as in other areas only in accordance with, as the weight moment of the rising and yet upscale arm against the upper weight can be neglected.
36)

also remains questionable, not to be taken into account with some values to what extent the pressure of air on the skin, but this seems so to speak, into the body charged with. Really though, we see our main highest weights only a very insignificant deviation from the requirement of the law, and the general course of the deviation in the sense in which it can be expected after a previous conception, ie the right numbers grow something with P. Let us namely the ascending in size emphases P always the same absolute additive A virtue of Armgewichtes together, while D merely proportional to P grows, as in our experiments is the case, of course, falls , what the right number depends from the greater, depending more Ato P vanishes in the divisor, ie, the larger P is even, and is remarkably constant from the at points where P has become large enough that A can not as however all coming into consideration, just as it shows the experimental . In the not inconsiderable weight of the arm, it may at first only notice that the growth, the main weights of 300 to 3000 grams obtained, not in an even stronger accruals correct numbers with ascending P are known, and especially that it does not in the transition between the two smallest principal weights 300 grams and 800 is noticeable, where even in the two-handed series rather shows a small decrease. But this latter anomaly initially undecided on which I return later, it is firstly not to be regarded as settled that the burden of the arm by its own weight should be placed in the same way to stop, as a duly gefgtes external weight, and secondly in consideration must be concluded that the weight lifted P at the end of the lever arm, the forms of the lifting arm acts, which acts in the focus of the arm weight of the arm but in a shorter, which reduces its moment relatively, thirdly, that the addition of this moment for moments of P is just for muscle feeling, but not for the feeling of pressure into account, since only the weight of P , but not the weight of the arm acting oppressively on the skin; fourth, finally, that the right numbers of the previous tables still no exact measure of can provide the sensitivity, but merely show the progress of sensitivity in upgrades to the main weights anyway. It is here, in fact quite what was dealt in chapter 8, and in particular the mentioned circumstance comes into consideration that the influence of the timing of uplift pgrows at high magnification of emphasis, and in accordance with the remark in Section 8 the sum of the proper cases makes little smaller than it would be without this interfering effect of the case, so that the right numbers at the highest emphases would be slightly larger, slightly

differentiated from the lower failed without this disorder indeed. This is especially considered in addition to the smaller weights 0.04 P, however, against the larger 0.08 P influence the p relatively more disappears. So you have the two-handed set for the main weights 1500 and 3000 as the correct figures at 0.04 P Summa in 1321 and 1335, at 0.08 P , however in 1592 and 1657, with one hand just as at 0.04 P the numbers 1465 and 1460, at 0.08 P1687 and in 1726. So the difference is much larger at 0.08 in both series P as 0.04 P . Eliminating the interference by the side effects p, q completely by the earlier (Chapter 8) discussed the same full compensation, which is based on the separation and separate calculation of the 4 major events. Here follows first place, the specification of the r -values for the four major events in a first table (III) and the means of the fundamental table from it (even without fractionation) derived t -values in a second (IV). In the "measurement methods" I will tell an appropriate specification for the series of one-handed, here I wish to heap too many numbers. The definitive results to which one has to take down the following discussion regarding the question of our law are, in columns 4 hD and 8 hD included in Table IV, and the remaining columns of this table and the whole table III are for our present purpose only Definitely documents that results in consideration, but may incidentally to illustrate the manner in which such reports are to win, and its many points of the method at all useful, as I inclose reclosing example. Secure understanding sake I discuss again the first numbers of the two following tables: The number r 1 = 328 at P = 300, D = 0.04 P, n = 512 in Table III says that at P = 300 grams, D = 12 grams, 512 cases of the first major case, ie where D in erstaufgehobenen vessels is left standing, give 328 correct cases. The corresponding number t 1 = 2547 of Table IV has been found according to the fundamental table by adding to the corresponding t -value is taken. The specificationn = 512, v = 1 is at the top of Table IV that each t value from 1 times 512 cases (without fractionation) derived. III. After the 4 main cases specified values r of the two-handed set. n = 512 P r1 300 500 1000 1500 2000 D = 0.04 P r2 r3 328 321 335 308 309 r4 266 288 309 344 373 r1 404 399 377 408 404 328 304 352 274 334 318 346 323 296 365 D = 0.08 P r2 358 339 365 402 385 r3 372 364 410 399 439 r4 300 306, 338 383 398 Sum ( n = 4096) 2660 2643 2796 2913 2969

3000 Sum

244 393

265

433

392

447

390

428

2992

1900 1977 1866 2013 2384 2296 2374 2153 16973

IV From the previous table derived values t of the two-handed set. n = 512, v = 1, D = 0.04 P P Sum t1 t2 t3 t4 4 hD t1 t2 t3 t4 D = 0.08 P Total 4hD Total 8hD

300 2547 1677 2547 346 500 3456 624 2290 1112

7117 5679 3692 4260 1535 15166 22283 7482 5444 2958 3932 1749 14083 21565

1000 2769 2181 2807 1856 9613 4469 3973 5971 2920 17333 26946 1500 3224 2363 1820 3147 10554 5873 5584 5444 4726 21627 32181 2000 1394 3973 1856 4301 11524 5679 4813 7558 5397 23447 34971 3000 - 416 5168 312 Sat 7200 12264 5123 8067 5034 6915 25139 37403 12974 15986 11632 17962 58554 32267 29087 32199 23242 116795 175349 You can see how much upon the nature of the 4 main cases the numbers r change, and how these changes are influiert the size of emphasis with. At P = 3000 is the right number r = 244 (which is obtained by deducting the correct number of the total number 512) is even smaller than the 268 false, then what a negative value t has carried (in Table IV) (see Chapter 8). Such cases are incidentally enough before in my other observation tables. You can now use the Table III, the rules given in Chapter 8 for complete compensation and determination of influences , pq to bring itself in the exercise, which provision to take here there is no interest. Furthermore, you can by comparing with D = 0.04 P and D = 0.08 P sum obtained values of the table 's t convince that this sum the values of D's are noticeably proportional, namely at 0.08 P obtained noticeably twice the 0.04 P obtained, which made the remark merits of the bill after the operation (see Chapter 8) guarantees 37) . However, this is to respond to everything here in detail.
37)

These are my way, even before other test series.

What matters here is that we see how the totals of 4 Hd , 8 hD , which by the addition of t 1 , t 2 , t 3 , t 4 are formed, constant at the various P's are what they are just so as the sums of the numbers r , from which they are derived, would be if our law applies,

and if the weight of the arm not to P zutrte. The figures in the columns 4 Hd, 4 Hd, 8 hD provide namely, the former for each of the two proportionate additional weights in particular, the latter added for both the shows actually here under consideration metrics, which without the Miteinflsse the time and spatial position of the vessels p , q would have been obtained, ie products of the extent of the difference in sensitivity h in the 4 - or 8-fold additional weight D, resulting from dividing with 4 or 8 D 38) , the difference measure h would be found even for different emphases. This would have no access to our laws of Armgewichtes the weights P and hence it is proportional to the additional weights D are found in inverse proportion, and thereafter give the products 4 hD or 8 hD be found in the different emphases same. Since it is now possible deviations from the equality easier to judge than from proportionality, so the products is 4 Hd , 8 hD stopped without hitting h return itself.
38) D

is for the column 8HD on average 0.06 P. Closer calculation but is the calculation of h for D = 0.04 P = 0.08 and D P 4 particularly from the columns hD make, and from this the only most probable mean of hto search. Now because of the better overview we present the values of the three main columns by dividing respektiv with 4 or 8 to the simple value hD returned in the following table together.The terms v = 4, v = 8 say above the columns in accordance with the notation given in Chapter 8, that any number of columns respektiv of 4 - or 8 times n observations is derived, n = 512 but V. values hD represents two-handed series. n = 512 D = 0.04 P D = 0.08P Means P 300 500 1000 1500 2000 3000 ( v = 4) 1779 1871 2408 2639 2881 3066 ( v = 4) 3792 3521 4333 5407 5862 6285 ( v = 8) 2785 2696 3368 4023 4371 4675

Sum 14639 29200 21918 The abstract meaning of the numbers hD, translate with which we are dealing here only with respect to the Konstatierung our law, a meaning for the experiment, it is this: if you apply for any of the applied emphases rather than the same relative extra weight as has been done, this divided by the number hD or a given fraction of

multitype or hD, would have applied, the same number everywhere would have been obtained. Thus, it will, for example, in the two-hand series of successive page to the statement of the trials associated with the main weights 2000 and 3000 grams additional weights, which are the said main weights in the same ratio se have respektiv to divide with numbers which 4500 and 4909 are in proportion so that they equally fall into the sensation. Even if this bill results are not yet definitive, to which I folgends only come, I have it but here given with diligence because they do not differ significantly from the final, so you could hold on to it, after all, and because without large expanse all the same documents could give, from which they are according to the 8th Chapter specified rules can reproduce itself. Here are all the right numbers, which, for the same case, the same principal P and D were obtained during the whole month of observation, taken together, and without fractionation to derive the t -values were used from the fundamental table. However, I, like (see Chapter 8) notes, preferred in all my trials, the variations of the factors p and q to eliminate safer, the t -values for each major case out of pure fractions of n to calculate = 64 particularly, and these combine to total or average values. So it is folgends happen both in the as-handed two-handed series. The correct numbers of these fractions of 64 and derived from individual t to reproduce values here individually, but would take too much space, I confine myself therefore folgends, which collapsed from all the groups, with the number v divided the fractions Definitely result for both rows to give in to the last stop. VI. Values hD the two-handed set. n = 64 D = 0.04 P D = 0.08 P P 300 500 1000 1500 2000 3000 Sum ( v = 32) 2023 1965 2530 2774 2966 3296 ( v = 32) 3918 3705 4637 5910 6034 6520 Means ( v = 64) 2971 2835 3584 4342 4500 4908

15554 30724 23140 VII values hD handed the series. n = 64

Left P

Rights

L. and R.

D = 0.04 P D = 0.08P Means D = 0.04P D = 0.08P Means Total center ( v = 16) ( v = 16) ( v = ( v = 16) ( v = 16) ( v = 32) 32) ( v = 64) 4845 5246 5649 6426 6515 8084 4381 4061 4278 5221 5608 6220 3658 3349 5103 4638 4517 4551 5360 5584 6230 7647 6821 7616 4509 4467 5667 6143 5669 6084 4445 4264 4973 5682 5639 6152

300 3916 500 2876 1000 2906 1500 4016 2000 4700 3000 4455

Sum 22869 36765 29769 25816 39258 32539 31155 Occasionally, I would here again on a point of procedure, indicates that explains itself by comparing Table V with Table VI. Both applicable to the two-hand row tables are based on the same observation values, and only in that in the table V, the values differ hD without other fractionation as for the four main cases using n are = 512 derived in the Table VI However, with strong fractionation using n = 64 This will depend, according to the observation (chapter 8), from that all of the last table are slightly larger than the first. The deviation would be indifferent if the ratio of magnification at all values would be the same, since it ever gets here only on conditions. But some values are increased in other conditions than others.This depends, as one can demonstrate from a discussion of the special series of observations, which from that p and q are not remained completely stable during the observation carried out a month-row, but have varied irregularly. By dividing the rows into such small fractions, in that during each of which the variation can be ignored, it eliminates the for the elimination of p and q arising therefrom disadvantage and for this reason, the values obtained in table VI those of Table V is preferable. It now appears but no significant difference in the way the values between two tables, so that you also probably much shorter derivable from the first, had to stop. In any case, the comparison of these tables can give an indication of how some can change the absolute measure values according to the degree of fractionation. Comparing the obtained with the one-handed and two-handed final series averages, one finds einhnd. zweihnd. 1,496

P 300

800 1000 1500 2000

1,504 1,325 1,309 1,253

3000 1,254 after which the ratio of the two values decreases slowly with increasing emphases, but the constancy seems to be approaching. The view of the transition of the values hD in previous Tables VI and VII teaches now probably that the same essentially leads to the same as the speed of the numbers r in the first tables, except that the growth of the values of hD with P from the specified reason for the highest P values is slightly more noticeable as the number of r . Still, however, the increasing approximation to the growth of equality with is P out clearly enough. To find the three highest P -values = 1500, 2000, 3000 grams in the zweihnditions row in the center, the values hD = 4342, 4500, 4908, 5682 used with one hand, 5639, instead of 6152. While P from 1500 to 3000, ie from simple goes up twice, increasing hD relatively moderate only slightly, namely respektiv onto 1.13-fold or 1.08-fold from simple. It now seemed of interest, this, for the probation of the law most important, approximate equality of hD 2000 and 3000 again to be stated at higher weights for the two highest Hauptge weights in particular, and I took this oppor-tunity for a series of experiments, the was also determined to compare the one-handed and two-handed method in alternating attempts by the previous two series, as a whole employed one after the other, no security of such a comparison grant (see above); incidentally also, already stated by other large trials, proportionality of t -values with the applied D to prove further. This series also 32tgig is in Dec. 1858, Jan. 1859 given under (below) normal circumstances, so even though much later, but quite comparable with the earlier employed. Each experiment comprises 8 departments with 64 elevations, the whole series so 32 . 8 . = 64 16384 elevations. Between the two main weights were changed from one day to another, between one handed and two-handed method of two days, in addition to every day after two departments between an additional weights D = 0.04 P and 0.08 P changed, so that at Prespektiv 80 = 2000 and 160, with P = 3000 respektiv 120 and 240 grams, respectively. Also changed with the one-handed method, this is how I always think so, lefts and rights to each a department of 64 italics. To distinguish it from the previous test series I call this the two-and onehanded. First place, I give in Table VIII, the added numbers r the 4 main cases to a preliminary aperfu, in Table IX, but, quite comparable Tables VI and VII, separation of the four main cases from fractions 64 calculated values of hD, without also here because their comprehensiveness to announce the documentation of this calculation

in specie. VIII number of correct cases r the two-and one-handed series. Two-Hand Left p n = 2048 n = 1024 Handed Rights n = 1024

D = 0.04P D = 0.08P D = 0.04P D = 0.08P D = 0.04P D = 0.08P 2000 3000 Sum 1280 1297 2577 1503 1536 3039 708, 737 1445 840 882 1722 681 703 1384 863 847 1710

The sum of r at P = 2000 5875 = 3000 ----- - No 6002.

IX. Values of hD and the two-handed set. n = 64

Two-Hand p ( v = 32) Left D = 0.04P 2000 2461 3000 2702 Sum 5163

Handed ( v = 16) Rights

D D = 0.04P D = 0.08P D = 0.04P D = 0.08P = 0.08 P 5018 5326 10344 3456 4270 7726 7078 8310 3709 4212 9464 8028

15388 7921 17492 The sum of hD at P = 2000 is 31186 ------ = 3000 - 32938th

For strict comparability of external circumstances and the calculation of that row

with the previous series, the figures of Table IX should be consistent with those of Table VI and VII for P = 2000 votes to 3000. However, they are considerably smaller in the two-handed series, and agree with the one-handed while close to the figures for 0.08 P, but are considerably smaller for 0.04 P, where to remember that the numbers of Single row at D = 0 , 04 P and 0.08 P itself is not comparable with each other, which proves the fact that the last two times are noticeably not the first, and (so) as already noted, depends from the fact that they are available in different weeks . This can be a proof to what was said, give that one must not count on a comparison of dimensional values obtained in different eras, even if the external circumstances were the same. Meanwhile, does this comparability in each row with respect to the conditions to which it is here, no entry. That in our present series, where the exchange between the two D's was on the same day, from the r values calculated hD noticeably proportional to the given D's show, is one of the confirmations of our invoice rule. Definitely after the results took so hD of P = 2000 and P = 3000 only in ratios to 31186 32938 to. The difference between the two figures of the equality means the deviation from the direct exposure of Weber's Law, which is explained by us by entering the cabinet arm weight. The number 9464 in the previous table, but after comparison with all other numbers disputed by coincidences too large, and thus failed the deviation slightly smaller than they would be ohnedem. Moreover, the main result of this series is the perfect confirmation of the result of the former. Since the relationship part with which the momentum of the upper arm is attributed to the superior weight, probably not possible to determine in from the front, partly because the moment the survivors do not want to be to determine precisely measuring, partly because it is not known exactly in conditions which undergoes the action of the muscle feeling in the total effect, one might think, to the P value attributable to our values of hD to determine the validity of our assumption of the law itself, but shows some consideration that they are not sufficient to ease. Based on the respect to the interaction of each independent precision conditions valid in the probability of error principles as a basis, would, if the muscle feeling alone, the value t ' =H'D and the feeling of pressure alone, the value of t "h" D at a certain Additional weights D would have produced, from the interaction of a same value t = be expected, and thereafter as a result versachte Rechnungzu. Now is t 'according to our laws in the inverse ratio of P + A, where A is understood as above, t " only in the inverse ratio of P, therefore, one has

if c 'and c are constants. The three unknowns c ', c ", A would then be out of our for the various P's obtained values of hD to be determined. Yet even if the difficulty of

this calculation would be overcome, would the anomaly at small P, of which the same shall speak, an exact calculation in the way. That in passing from P = 300 to P = 500 grams to tons instead increased slightly rather shows reduced is an anomaly that can not be explained from the above mentioned, so far. I do not think it due to not yet sufficient number of observations rests on contingencies, though not absolutely exclude the possibility of it, since they effect is small, and very large trial numbers are required to keep certain reasons small differences, but apart from the agreement between the two series of experiments in each of which a large quantity of experiments one should also just for the smallest values of P , the increase of t with growth of P proportionate most by the increase in the moments of P by the moment of the arm here relatively is greatest. And unless special circumstances interfering with the smallest weights are available, which are surpassed by their influence on the larger, it would have had to make in my opinion necessary to the extent claimed. However, I now can be no safe light on this anomaly, whose Konstatierung safe by new tests would not even be desirable rather, but following some probability for the case seems to me to perform, that they really inventories in nature. It can be imagined that an increasing pressure even apart from the reduction of sensitivity that is proportional to our laws with the increase of the stimulus, codesigners by the mechanical compression of the nerve endings or in the apperception of pressure auxiliary plant expresses a diminishing effect on the sensitivity that with larger weights against the following influence our laws, which must have a wider and deeper reason disappears, but could make for smaller predominantly law. Thus, the reduction of would be t , the onset Wachstume of P explained. I'm not averse hereby put the fact in relation to, the otherwise also puzzling seem to me that we find a faint tickle touch more, and be more excited to reflex movement characterized as a little more pressure, although the preponderance of feeling always remains a very strong pressure. But I freely admit that these are just thoughts that require further examination and may provide ideas to do so. It is very likely that, as the field of weight tests shares the lower limit of the law to the field of light experiments, this will be the case in regard to the upper limit, only that the experiments do not resumed until such a limit of mine have been where the load begins to have a detrimental effect, and also, of course, could be continued sufficiently long without permanent disadvantage not by the method of right and wrong cases, which requires a tremendous amount of attempts to secure results. But would it make you leave make demonstrative experience in this regard by the method of just noticeable differences to be able to get without disadvantage; since the degree of accuracy that is at all to gain by this method is less tied to the number of attempts. Let us review the previous thing, the investigation on the validity and limits of our law in the areas of weight tests is still far from being completed, and my own attempts to solve the problem according to which Weber's only a second step to the first, yet some with new modifications of the method is to follow. One can only say after been accomplished so far, that the observations generally agree so well with the

law that you can not doubt his approximate or exact validity within certain limits, but the anomaly at the lower limit, the question of the upper limit that more Konstatierung and determine the influence of Armgewichtes, the complete and accurate divorce feeling the pressure and muscle feeling, are still points that await the completion by future experiments. Weber's attempts to have the law first proved in general, without that the method was suitable to be stated which ensure the deviations, my experiments have shown those without added rich, they thereby eliminating again that the circumstances on which they depend, could take into account exactly. While there can be no doubt that the isolation of the pressure feeling is achieved by an experimental way, Weber's, where the weight is placed on the last phalanges of resting on the table, hand, seems to me, however, the isolation of the muscle feeling not quite as safe by the other , in the treatise on touch and common sensibility p 546 reaches specified by him, where the observer by hand includes the combined tip of a cloth in which a weight is dependent; since the weight the more necessary must act to that corner by the hand down to let the heavier it is, if not the, thus countered by a stronger biting a stronger pressure. If, however, the pressure can be kept constant, a constant pressure by would not occur as a complication of the experiments less charged. A method to isolate the muscle feeling exactly in the experiments did not want beifallen me. To isolate the pressure feeling perhaps likely, while maintaining our method, the use of balls or hammering, falling from a given height to the skin, even more suitable than applying static weights, and a comparison of the obtained results with those which raise the grants of weights to be of no small interest. Regardless of the question of our law is the direct result of the reported explained previously attempted as follows can express. If you comparatively lifts a given weight of another, which a certain amount of additional weight is added to the previous one, so the extra weight is taken absolutely to have to be more so, the greater the emphasis is to more equally noticeable as the difference of the two weights in the sensation to fall. Allowed to the additional weight increase proportionally with the main weights, so that not its absolute, but its relative size in relation to the main weights remains the same, the noticeability of this relative excess weight increases somewhat with upgrades to higher main weights, but tends always more to equality, so that the difference of the weights of more noticeability same relative weights of main frames 1500 and 3000, there is only small, as the ratios 10 : 11 corresponds. That is, the relative surplus weights of 1500 and 3000 grams emphasis would instead be equal to about as 11 : 10 act to still appear the same remarkably, so to provide an equal ratio of correct to incorrect cases in demgemen method. However, this rising transition of noticeability same relative more weight with the size of the main weights suffers an exception at very low emphases by the noticeability when rising from 300 to 500 grams rather down somewhat as increases, while more than 800 grams of the ascending passage continues gehends observed.

The reason for the exceptional transition at lower primary weight is virtually unknown, and only (so) issued a casual supposition, therefore, the reason for the deviation from the same noticeability relatively equal more weight during ascent to higher head weights can be searched with probability is that the weight lifting and at the moment of the elevation with raised arm comes as an extension of emphasis in attack, which translated to the relative equality of, actually increased in relation to this main weights, doing more weight entry. Applying more different weights for one and the same main weights, the noticeability is growing with the size of the additional weight. This increased noticeability has an increased ratio to correct the false cases, as for the total number of cases to follow when applying the method of right and wrong cases for comparison of the weights. The number of correct cases but does not grow in proportion to the size of the additional weight, but in smaller proportions. The (Chapter 8) given rule, by means of the fundamental table to see how the correct number varies in accordance with the additional weight, is confirmed by the experience. These results are the main by experiments with weights = 300, 800, 1000, 1500, 2000, 3000 grams and more weights equal to 0.04 and 0.08 of emphasis, consistent with uplift of the weights with just one hand and with both hands, with precipitation constant error is found, which depend on the time and spatial position of the upper weights. 4) temperature. 39) The question of whether our law will suffer temperature sensation on application, yet includes darks. EH Weber 40) is inclined to accept, "that we rather the act of rising and sinking of the temperature of our skin than can perceive the level is increased or decreased the temperature to which we do not consider such as whether our forehead. or our hand is warmer until we put her hand to her forehead, where we often perceive a big difference between the two, and at times the hand, find warmer to other brow, "what other, Weber asserted experiences can add, which have just gone. Meanwhile, it seems that we are to perceive a persistent heat as heat, cold and persistent cold as able, if they sufficiently different from the ordinary or average temperature.
39) 40)

The tasts. and the Gemeing. P 549 In terms of S.165.

Anyway, so, if you want to pull the question of Weber's law in terms of temperature differences into consideration, not as a stimulus in this case the temperature of an absolute zero are in question, but merely the difference between a temperature at which we feel neither heat nor cold, because the size of the heating and cooling sensation depends just on this. This difference can now increase and decrease, and the question of Weber's law is whether an equal relative increase is not the absolute temperature, but this temperature difference equal to a conditional noticeable or equal general increment of temperature sensation.

According to some, but by no means sufficient, experiments which I made on this issue, which seems to be within certain limits, average temperatures, while it is not more decidedly the case in very cold and very hot temperatures. My attempts are also made on 6 days (in December 1855) by the method of just noticeable differences, as I always used the same depth up to Weber's method of alternate immersion of two fingers of the same hand in two vessels with equal warm water . For observation were a few very precise and accurate compared, divided in half degrees, Greiner'sche thermometer with Reaumur'scher scale of the physical Cabinets Leipzig, where tens of parts of the half, so twentieth of a whole, the degree can be estimated very well. As the one of them to Hankel's statement, who had the kindness to let me have the same for the tests, as according to their own Konstatierung by 0 , 05 or 1 / 20 stood degrees higher than the other, so each observation has therefore been corrected. About the other conditions of the test series I will cite the needful after the results. Within the temperature of about 10 to 20 R. I found the sensitivity to the temperature differences so great that the just noticeable differences did not allow for accurate determination. A maximum of sensitivity where evanescent or almost vanishing differences apperceived, in any event within these limits without allowing direct estimation. About 20 to blood heat, do not go beyond that my efforts considerably, I found the results to the Weber's law very well according to when I (quite empirically) as a measure of the temperature stimulus, the temperature excess over the mean temperature between freezing cold and blood heat = 14 , 77 R. 41) adopted by the just noticeable difference in temperature of this survey showed proportionally on the mean temperature. Here are the before all computation as just noticeably recorded, temperature differences D with the temperature T at which they were observed, they reported as the mean between the two temperatures between which the difference D was observed and the calculated assuming values of D that the just noticeable differences 77 go to excess temperature above 14 , proportionally. The first side (I) of this table, because the observed differences are here at all is too small, no account, and can only serve to prove the insignificance of the just noticeable differences within the limits of the temperatures of this part of the table, while one second like to take side (II) of 19 , 13 R. at their consistency between observation and calculation into consideration. I D R. Date Date of t R. observed. calc of Vers Vers Decbr. 2 15.03 0.19 Decbr. 0,009 26 19.13 0.15 0.16 t R. II D R. observed. calc

26 26 26 21 26 21 21 21 26 21 26 26
41)

15.40 0.10 15.55 0.09 16.18 0.15 16.70 0.20 ** 16.71 0.09 16.75 0.10 ** 16.88 0.25 * 17.00 0.00 ** 17.20 0.20 17.30 0.10 ** 17.69 0.23 18.78 0.15

0,023 26 0,028 26 0,051 26 0,070 26 0,070 21 0,072 21

20.45 0.20 20.63 0.15 21.20 0.20 21.73 0.25 23.30 0.30 25.35 0.40

0.21 0.21 0.23 0.25 0.31 0.39 0.42 0.51 0.57 0.60

0,076 21, 26 26.80 0.40 0,081 21, 26 28.80 0.60 0,088 26 0,092 26 0,106 0,145 30.50 0.60 31.35 0.60

This temperature is based on the heat requirements of the human body by Lichtenfels and cheerful in the Abhandl. of Vienna. Academic Gives the calculated values of the table by the excess temperature above 14 , 77, so t - 14 , 77 multiplied by 0.03623. This constant is only of the observations of t = 19 , 13-31 , 35 derived, but are the observed and calculated after that constant values of D for 14 , 77 and less than 19, 13, which, as I said, only traces are attached on the first page of the table.The observations of the table belong to only 3 of the 6 test days, by the observations of the other 3 refer only to temperatures below the mean temperature that I particularly give below. What the designated with an asterisk values of D As to the first side of the table, there are those that are not just listed as just noticeable, but as significantly (one asterisk) or significantly (two asterisks) in the observation register, which is more than just is markedly. One of these significant differences for the sensation (at 17 ) could be on the thermometer (which required correction by 0.05 made it) no longer recognize. In general, one might be inclined to accept the mean temperature of greatest sensitivity to these values at 16 rather than 14 to 17 , 77 and it is possible that she is there. But you can on the almost vanishing values of D building near the mean temperature at all nothing certain, considering that apart from the variations in the sensitivity of the scale of noticeability, the errors of reading a very small difference between the temperature of the water and thermometer is sufficient to cause such differences or obscure, albeit possible care was taken to reduce these sources of error on the smallest. The output of the calculation of 14 , 77 but on the whole corresponds better to the observations. Incidentally, though those traces of D below t = occur almost in the order of the error of observation 20 , it can not come as such are applicable, because the exam generally happened without my knowledge, for which water is a preponderance of the

temperature took place, and decided only after repeated alternate immersion when I believed to be the result quite sure what took place to the extent that I have cheated in a very large number of experiments only once near the middle temperature where the just noticeable differences are almost negligible by the was found in the ex post Konstatierung than just noticeably assumed difference in the opposite vessels than where I adopted him, while very often darboten cases where I could find no difference between the two waters, and afterward always really or not a zukommenden under, this area limit of lichen Wish lying on the thermometers found what also proves by a kind of checks and balances that the thermometer information and that the information of the feelings were generally reliable. With the apparent from the table, the Weber's law sufficiently relevant, swing the just noticeable differences above the mean temperature as far as it can be judged because of the smallness of the differences, but no symmetry was held below it. To about 10 down the just noticeable differences were still too small to give up their means something, but further down they went without comparison with rapidly increasing cold, as with the above way and with the Weber's law is compatible; so that they were empirically quite well represented when a proportionality same with the third power of T - t supposed, where T = 14 , 77, t the temperature at which the just noticeable difference was observed, and the 0.002734 value, with which ( T - t ) 3 has to be multiplied to obtain the just noticeable difference on the thermometer, which is based on an indisputably strong decrease in sensitivity to the cold.Probably you would find a similar difference when the temperature approached about blood heat outside, where the feeling of burning occurs, however, remains striking that the deviation above the mean temperature begins only at higher degrees, however, they immediately below the mean temperature begins. Here follow the formula D = (14.77 - t ) 3 . 0.002734 computed values in combination with the observed usually within the temperature limit +10 , 5 and +4, 5 Deep down, I received a few days at very differing from the other values in order to build something on it. Date Experiments December 5 23, 23, 21, 4.60 5.32 5.43 5.65 10.17 9.45 9.34 9.12 2.80 2.54 2.40 2.00 2.88 2.31 2.23 2.07 0.08 - 0.21 - 0.17 0.07 D calculated Difference

14 , 77 observed t R. -t

23, 5 2 5 2 2 1 25th 25th 23, 25th 25th 2 23, 26th 5 23, 23, 23, 26th 23, 2 15th 2 25th 5

5.69 5.73 5.81 5.85 5.88 6.11 6.98 7.15 7.18 7.20 7:21 7.64 8.18 8.20 8.43 8.56 8.71 8.73 9.15 9.77 10.5

9.08 9.04 8.96 8.92 8.89 8.66 7.79 7.62 7.59 7.57 7.56 7.13 6.59 6.57 6.34 6.21 6.06 6.04 5.62 5.00 4.27

2.54 2.22 1.62 1.80 1.75 1.55 1.06 1.40 1.49 1.30 0.91 0.93 0.75 0.80 0.65 0.61 0.53 0.45 0.48 0.40 0.40

2.05 2.02 1.97 1.94 1.92 1.78 1.29 1.21 1.20 1.19 1.18 0.99 0.78 0.78 0.70 0.66 0.61 0.60 0.49 0.34 0.21

- 0.49 - 0.20 + 0.35 0.14 0.17 0.23 0.23 - 0.19 - 0.29 - 0.11 0.27 0.06 0.03 - 0.02 0.05 0.05 0.08 + 0.15 0.01 - 0.06 - 0.19

33.38 33.40 In view of the many difficulties which present these fine attempts, and especially that the values of completely different days are combined therein, not sure to expect some to complete comparability of sensitivity, partly accurate maintaining the same subjective scale for the Ebenmerklichsein, this offer an agreement of the calculated results with the observed values and a change of positive and negative differences between observation and calculation represents what one may be well pleased. Of course, the agreement would be increased still have a lot when I would want to skip some not very appropriate values, but I have given all that was listed as just noticeably from the calculation. But I am far from the formula given for more than an empirical, sufficient within certain limits, to see. For completeness, I have finally joined the more than 10 , 5 up to 14, 20 observed values of D at if nothing else to have seen it with safety, as they are very small. However, they are even larger than they should be according to the calculation when it applies the previous formula as the compilation shows the calculated afterwards with the observed values.

Date Experiments December 25th 23, 5 5 5 25th 21, 21, 5 5 10.88 11.36 11.45 12.15 12.40 12.50 13.30 13.40 13.50 13.90

D t R. observed. calcd.

0.15 0.13 *) 0.30 0.30 0.20 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.15 0.25

0,161 0,108 0,100 0049 0,036 0,032 0,009 0,007 0,006 0,002

5 21, 14.20 0.15 0,001 *) Significantly instead of just noticeable. Although these tests are done with great attention, they can still a repeat from the point of view desirable that the experiments were below the mean temperature with the temperature just low, hired descending on the mean temperature, which comparability can do some entry. Also would be to ensure the Weber's law above the mean temperature even a much larger number of observations needed than are present here so that I can give the result of these tests only as a preliminary to everything that might possibly still subject to modification. I call it explicitly as such, and think that Weber's law within the specified limits of which although quite likely for ge-making, but by no means proven. It was my intention that these trials relations remain to be completed or replaced. But I have been interrupted in it and have since not found time to return to it. About the modality of testing I still wear the following to: The two vessels, in which contain the water of different temperatures, were large earthen ports to slow the temperature change as possible. They were so far filled with water, that when dipping the forefinger and middle finger of the right hand to the bottom of the water just up to the joint between the first and 2 Member of the index finger (counting from the palma at) filed. Thus is the contact size was always made with the water. The thermometer mounted in suitable racks, dipped the balls into the middle of the water which was stirred well before each observation. The temperature of the water was, partly modified by stirring with ice, some with metal or Tongeschirren, which stood on the hot stove. The two fingers, which first names the

trial were only so long immersed in both vessels up to the ground, left, until it assumed a constant temperature, then immersed alternately into the one and the other vessel until a judgment had formed. The temperature was feeling about the one I called just noticeable, the temperature was changed by Stir in the opposite direction, so I do not know whether the excess of the temperature passed over to the other vessel or not, and repeated the observation until , mostly assembled at after several repetitions of this amendment, a newly significant difference, a process which is of course quite tedious. The temperature was read immediately after setted judgments. Although I have only accepted the sensation just noticeably value as authoritative, yet I have to register my observation also, as much as possible constant detained, sensation values for the ascending series of its size recorded. Imperceptibly, almost imperceptibly, just noticeably, noticeably, significantly, decided, strong, very strong. Of course it is not expected to sharp distinction of these values. The values were barely noticeable ones where I was not quite sure not to deceive me, and although this could be controlled by the observation, but an accidental coincidence was then possible, so I used those values only insofar as I, if ever so slightly or significantly coincided with noticeably close to the same or different days of observation, the mean of these provisions as just noticeably took into account what is happening several times. Common ground, it will be desirable if more being added also occur in this area attempts to the other methods by the method of just noticeable differences. Volkmann Mr. Lindemann stud. causes med to make experiments by the method of average error, and his doctoral dissertation to write about, which is the same under the title: "De.sensu caloris Halis. defended in 1857. " But from these experiments suggests not much, because the temperature scale is indeed through respektiv of 7 and 14 , 6-45 , 55 C twice ascending and two descending, but so that only come a few attempts at each temperature interval what not to use to the principle of the method of average error allowed. The right hand appeared like an up to the wrist, and indeed in the ascending series, always turn warmer in the beginning, in the descending always first in the initially cooler water, which then respektiv of colder or warmer water one by Zugu for feeling the same was taken. In the two ascending series, ie where Lindemann caused the equalization of the temperatures of both water masses for the sensation in successively higher temperatures, a positive error was always committed in the two descending conversely always a negative error. It can be questioned whether this stemmed from that was advanced in the ascending and descending series in inverse sense the temperature scale, or that in each separate experiment, the transition in inverse sense from the beginning of warmer and colder water happened.But from the fact that the first trials of each of the same 4 rows show the specified ratio, the latter is close. Incidentally, there is a lack here, as in some respects, to more details about the circumstances in question. So you have here results that are affected significantly with constant errors, and after the regularity with which to change the individual errors in each row in

ascending or descending by the temperature scale, all the errors seem to be almost purely constant, since variable error would need to show large irregularities in detail. The insignificance is strikingly the same. Between 26 and 38 4, 8 C. 42) (both inclus.) gave the first 23 trials ascending series regular 0.05 as errors with the exception of only 5 attempts. At higher and lower temperatures the increased error, but a little bit irregular and to top, so that in the interval from 39.4 to 45.5 merely error 0, 5, 0.8 occur, more, 0.6, 0.7 down (+ 0.5 to 14.6, bringing the ascending series began + 0.4 at 16 and 18 , 2 etc). In the second ascending series was 31.35 to 42 , 9 + 0.05 found in 14 ascending trials without exception error, which climbed higher up to 0.1 at 44.8 and 45, 1, and lower down to + 0.25 at 7 , 9 and 8.4. In the first descending series of error was - 0.05 41.5 to 19.5 observed in 22 descending trials with the exception of three, he grew up - at 44.7 and 0.1 to 0.29 at 7 , with the second descending series of error was - 0.05 41.65 to 19.35 invariably observed in 21 descending trials, and rose to - 44.9 and 0.1 - 0.25 at 7.55. I always quote here only the two lower temperatures, between which there was a difference. These experiments agree with mine agreed that at intervals of one, where the errors almost disappear after the errors increase as the frost side by side to the heat, to a greater or faster conditions. Enter much smaller errors than from me, and earlier by Weber, the just noticeable differences were found, but this is not a contradiction, because the errors everywhere must fail on average less than the just noticeable differences after the point (Chapter 8); some may also be due to the fact that only two members of my two fingers, Lindemann was immersed the whole hand. A more fundamental difference is that Lindemann he finds the smallest interval failure to heat the blood around, instead of with me, the interval of smallest noticeable differences to the average temperature is. In the meantime can be, since its error appears in the main, are constant, not judge whether herein lies a real opposition, and there are new experiments on this subject in any case necessary. From the previous experiments, however is already evident that the insignificance of the differ-ences that can still be detected, as the errors committed on average, the exact measurability opposes big trouble. Perhaps the most appropriate would be to try on this subject an analogous application of the method of right and wrong cases, as has occurred in my Gewichtsversu weeks. Of course, you will thereby can not easily get to constant temperatures and temperature differences than can be obtained weights and weight differences, and if you now reduces the causes of the change in temperature as possible, and, for example, after every 10 observations, the temperature re-recording and, if necessary, adjusted so but it seems, especially in view of the reduction, which permitted the fundamental table that useful results would be obtained. 5) Extensive sizes. 43) (Judgment and Tastma.)
42)

Apart from the general indication Weber's, have for the judgment Hegel F. Mayer 44) , stud. med given in Tubingen, an approximate confirmation of Weber's law by the method of right and wrong cases, but both in regard to the small number of trials too, as the lack of comparability, from which the funds are drawn between several , obwaltete to leave much to be desired, but that they could be considered as very relevant. In essence, the experiments were to compare lines of a given length, some horizontal, some vertical, seen before with other lines that were different to some greater or smaller fraction thereof, to amend the meantime, to investigate their influence, the main intention of the observer was, and to count how many times the estimate, whether larger or smaller, was true, or was mistaken in suspense remained. So much allow to conclude his observations, the ratio of right and wrong cases was not significantly dependent on the absolute, but only on the relative size of fractions, which result Hegel Mayer himself draws, but the results are generally very irregular, and I therefore go beyond their specific message.
43)

When it comes to 174-178. About pp. 334-358 audit judgment. About Tastma loving. Pp. 423-427. About the Mabestimmungen sense of space, Abhandl. of the Royal Saxonian Total dW XXII, No. II, pp. 111 ff About validity of Weber's law in the area of the sense of time S. 419-423 revision, Abhandl. of the Royal Saxonian Ges d W. XXII. No. I, pp. 9 ff
44) Vierordt's Arch XI. p. 844th 853rd

My own and Volkmann's experiments by the method of average error, with distances between small peaks or parallel threads were observed, giving a very definite confirmation of the law for all irgends considerable distances, ie from 10 to 240 millimeters and an eye distances of 1 foot to 800 millimeters by the pure error sums or mean error, which were obtained in this case, the distances go so exactly proportional, as you can only ever expect. This counter can Volkmann's experiments as that caused by it attempts Appel's (a student with particularly sharp eyes) with micrometric distances from 0.2 to 3.6 million for eye distances, which adhere to the usual visual range not find this proportionality; it can, however, divide the thus obtained (after elimination of the constant error) pure error sums or mean error into two components, one of which I the Volkmann's constant call 45) , in the various normal distances constant, the others I the weavers' call cal variable, in the sense of Weber's law is proportional to the distances. Former is probably also in the experiments with the larger distances in the games, but it is so small that it noticeably disappears against the latter, the distances proportional, component at greater distances, and the uncertainty of their determination goes, however, it at all small distances forms the larger part of the total error variables. At the smallest distances of 0.2 and 0.3 mm for Volkmann's eye, the error was as it seems abnormally increased by irradiation.
45)

It is not to be confused with a constant error in the sense of Section 8, but as good variables arising from errors than the other component, and therefore only constant called her over because she is determined in the above manner,

consistent with variation of the normal distance is not, as the Weberian variable that changes with it. So we see that we have here to do with a lower limit of the law for the trial, and would probably very large distances can also find a top. The main results are contained in the following. They all refer to the pure variables error in the earlier (Chapter 8) specified purposes, and be everywhere the pure error sum , mostly well (where I intended it) the pure error sum of squares ( 2 ), for any distance in particular derived from made after the time period fractions of m observations 46) so that the total number of errors which have contributed to any special sum m is. The numbers and m are particularly indicated for each series of observations. For the horizontal split the double sum is , if the sums therein is always of two special sums, or respektiv for L. and R. O. and are contracted U.. Namely, it was always the same amount of observations in the left and right position of the normal distance (L. and R.) when the distances were horizontal, or top and bottom layer (O. and U.), if they were vertical, hired, what The results are specified.
46)

It makes some difference to Chapter 8 in the absolute values of a pure error sum, whether it is derived from fractions or from the totality of the context. Only the micrometric range V with vertical distances di between horizontal threads, all others with horizontal distances di between vertical threads (where threads were used), employed. The proportionality of the distances can be directly to the simple sums of prove without first the mean error to derive from it.

The error sum of squares, if one wants to derive the mean square error are used, which is located on the constancy and the governor have the normal relationship so far permit the contingencies, can convince that investigation, however, I'll go over here. Just as they may serve to prove what is easy to deduce from the previous conditions, and is elsewhere considered in more detail by me, that the sum of the squares ( ) , divided by the square of the error sum ( ) 2 and multiplied with twice the number of observations, so here with 2 m , the approximate number Ludolf'sche are. Only that the observations of Series I and II with the smallest distance to be here because of a circumstance probably not going to suck. However, these conditions go here in more detail. All rows that are mentioned here, held more or less constant with error indication

thereof in this place has no interest, but will be in my "measurement methods". Series I Fechner (9 Dec 1856 to 17 January 1857). 5 horizontal distances, through the little protruding (needle) Spitzchen two way concealed, adjacent from me on the table, circle determined, and for the clearest visual distance of about 1 par. Foot considered. Distance determination by means of a scale with transversals, one of the ten parts, here the unit Fine, half par. Dezimallinie (which is itself equal to 0.72 Duodezimallinie) are. The covering of the circle was done to exclude the influence of the angle in the estimation. However, the method retains the small deficiency that are protruding from the ceiling Zirkelspitzchen slate at greater distances than smaller, a defect which is avoided in the following series of experiments by the use of parallel threads. But it seems that lack a substantial influence rather only on the constant error than to have expressed the pure variables error, as the following table shows the distances behaved very accurately proportional. To no doubt about the interpretation of the numbers in this table can be, I admit, the first in particularly, after which all other light is able to interpret. In the distance D = 10, which half on the previous 10 paris. Dezimallinien, = 3.6 duod. Lines was, was in the position of the normal distance to the left (L.), a pure error sum =20.27 obtained, ie, when all (L.) with D = 10 received positive and negative of the sum of absolute errors for the same pure calculated values together, as is the sum of half a par 20.27.Dezimallinien out. The specification m = 60, = 2 on the table then it means that the sum of errors, just like everyone else in the columns L., R., out of 2 . composed 60 = 120 individual errors, but that not every such error sum in connexion is derived from 120 observations, but from two fractions of 60 observations, particularly, and for each of the mean error distance and here against the pure error were particularly determined. m = 60, = 2 unit par. Dezimallinie.

D Sum

10 L. 20.27 R. 18.37 38.64

20 35.98 40.87 76.85 17.36 23.06

30 60.42 60.49 120.91 50.56 47.11

40 85.29 69.19 88.41 57.74

50 85.85 99.55

Sum 287.81 288.47

154.48 185.40 576,28 105.99 266.94 122.47 254.44

( L. 4,621 ) R. 4,056 Sum

8,677 40.42 97.67 146.15 228.46 521.38 Series II Volkmann (22 March-1 April 1857).

8 horizontal distances determined by three parallel, tensioned by means of weights, and the other hand displaceable on a vertical, horizontal white scale, viewed against a

black background, threads of 220 million in length of distance 800 million of the eye. The scale is directly millimeters, between what is valued. I give the sums here by double calculation, for m = 48, = 1 and m = 16, = 3, which gives the opportunity to convince themselves of the again hanging differences (see Chapter 8). 1) m = 48, = 1 . unit 1 millimeter. D Sum ( ) Sum L. L. 10 7,552 R. 5,050 1,657 2,678 20 7,914 40 80 120 75.05 58.70 160 93.82 200 96.63 240 117.96 145.82 Sum 464.7 478.2 942.9 1271.41 1459.46

26,95 39.90

102.30 87.11

10,800 24.50 42.89 2,558 3,406 5,964 22.66 48,67 18.11 60.47

12,602 18,714 51.45 82.79 R. 1,021

133.75 196.12 183.74 263,78 199.96 371.83 229.63 394.45 117.37 314.56 331.57 612.95

40.77 109.14 317.33 686.39 561.20 1007.40 2730.87 2) m = 16, = 3 Unit 1 millimeter.

10 L. 7.13 R. 4.86

20 7.59

40

80

120

160

200

240

Sum

20.08 39.79 75.45 103.65 86.40 108.92 449.01

11.06 23.58 42.10 58.45 77.23 96.20 140.20 453.68

Sum 11.99 18.65 43.66 81.89 133.90 180.88 182.60 249.12 902.69 It is seen that the difference between the two calculation methods in most of the values very low, with D = 40 R and D = 1 60 R but is very significant, which is connected with a proven in detail the series of strong variation constant error that occurred here had 47) . Since this variation is better eliminated by fractionation, the calculation 2) earned before 1) the preference.
47)

The fact that some of the values of Table 1 are a little smaller than the table 2 is dependent on a particular mode of distribution of the errors. Series III. Volkmann (6th and December 17, 1857). This is a later repetition of the previous row in the same circumstances, only with the omission of the two smallest distances. m == 16, = 3 Unit 1 millimeter.

40

80

120

160

200

240

Sum

 L. 21.1 42.4 R. 8.4 32.1

57.0 63.5

90.0 63.2

81.4

98.2

390.1 391.4

106.3 117.9

Sum 29.5 74.5 120.5 153.2 187.7 216.1 781.5 Is not without interest to see in the previous series, the close match between L. and R. in the final sum of vertical columns, a proof that the pure error variables of the situation and R. L. are independent, however, the constant errors that are not here are cited, showed very dependent and attached great differences in the raw error totals L. and R.. The three rows consistently show the proportionality of with the distance, which most easily seen when dividing the sum of the distances, where each row shows a remarkable constancy of the quotient. Thus obtained from the sums for L. and R. (on the second row for m = 16, v = 3), the following values for in

II

III 0,738 0,932 1,004 0,958 0,939 0,900

3,864 1,260 3,843 0,936 4,030 1,286 3,862 1,035 3,708 1,114 1,226 0,919

1,099 To win the average error that one commits the unit of distance, an observation, or the fraction of the distance, is what the error average of an observation can be the average of the previous values, divide each number by the number of observations, have contributed to a range of values, for which the product is from the m and has to take over the observation tables twice, since the there especially true for L. and R., but here both are summarized. Since, however, the larger error sums at greater distances promise more accurate values than smaller, it becomes more accurate method 48) when you add all the error sums which addition will be made as early as the vertical end summary columns, the sum thereof divided by the sum of all distances, which gives the error sum for the distance unit, and those with 2 m divided. One obtains

I. II 1) 2) III.
48)

The method of least squares is a principle somewhat more accurate, but more cumbersome method of determination by the hand, but the result differs so little from the above that it is not worth the trouble to take it. Thereafter, I guess even average a distance by about 1 / 60 Volkmann in his earlier experiments (II) by about 1 / 90 , in his later (III) by about 1 / 100 wrong, and this ratio remains the same for different distances. If one wants, one can derive from this the mean error probable error by simple multiplication by 0.845347, ie the error exceeded as often as not be reached, which is therefore smaller than the mean error, because minor errors be made more frequently than large, but with the specified normal relation thereto has, what details in my "measurement methods". It is seen that the accuracy of the estimate was significantly greater in Volkmann, as with me. This may either have been because the distances between three parallel threads may be easier to compare than between the tips of two lying side by side circles, or on a really major focus of proportion as for me, which seems in fact take place, or together to both; decide what further comparative trials would have required. And common ground is a broader study of extremes and averages of the field for a greater number individuals and for different conditions of observation, whichever you happen to lateral threads, as in Volkmann's experiments, or the middle wire shifts, depending on whether one only or both eyes used in the observation, whichever is subjected to vertical, horizontal or angular distances between points, between the lines, and the size of circular, square Umringe and areas etc which attempts to offer no small interest, being everywhere on the size and type of to take constant error carefully with consideration. Here, however, it was merely to pursue the subject in relation to the law, what concerns us now. If the second set of observations Volkmann has a non-negligible lower average error, and thus result in greater accuracy than the first, the difference can be written to the success of the exercise, as between l and 2 Series, etc. have all leading to micrometric folgends, located even some rows Augenmaversuche, although in the Non-wise treatment of the first For a series of such progress has not shown how the special investigation of the fractions obtained. Maybe you can find it of interest that the average error Volkmann's page for extensive facial sensation coincides remarkably with the just noticeable differences of

intense side to him, but one can see in such an agreement not universally valid. I have the numbers 1 / 60 , 1 / 90 , 1 / 100 specified in the Raw by the previously given accurate figures appearing 1 / 62.5 and sf itself can not yet be fully comparable as accurately and as, because a different m has succumbed to its derivation, and that m is finite everywhere. After the point (Chapter 8), but you get the smaller the error sums and hence mean error, a smaller per m the derivation is carried out. The document is to set II, where you to 1) or 0.01187 = 0.010808, to 2) is obtained as average error for the distance unit. Two provisions are under the same observations, but at 1) in fractions of m = 48, at 2) in fractions of m = 16 observations were shared, from which the deduction was made. One can see the difference in results is not significant, but still available and taken into account. Now due to all the values in the normal case, that would be an infinite number of observations, one has after Korrektionsformel that I will (see Chapter 8) stated briefly and justify theoretically in my "measurement methods", each of the values obtained earlier with by: to be multiplied to give as m respektiv 60, 48, 16, 16 is replaced

I. II 1) 2) III. This correction should be quite sufficient, as in Series II the results would l) and 2) be thereby brought to perfect agreement. In fact, one sees that they are so close that you will not find the difference is very remarkable, and might be inclined to write to him that this correction is not absolutely accurate and reliable, but only a summary of probability laws which may be small differences remain after contingencies. However, the difference is in fact not random, like me a reasonable investigation of other analogous cases taught by he always finds himself in the same direction 49), and this depends, as I can prove, and also in the 8th Chapter've noticed short, the fact that our correction that never entirely absent variations of the constant error not to take that with a larger m contaminate the pure error variables. In this regard, the corrected value is preferable. at m = 16 the values for m = 48 may be

49)

Should we therefore put distrust in the above correction, so I realize that is accepted by all mathematicians and astronomers nuclear correction of the mean square error, which I stated (see Chapter 8), the same dissatisfaction same reason shows how I can prove sufficient for experience and will also prove. Because of the constant errors in my observations in Series I had no considerable size, and any variations thereof, are the result not very influiert, so that the corrected value will be accurate enough to see. In a special investigation about I have not mentioned. I'm going over to the presentation of the results of the micrometric series. All of these rows being made with a micrometric screw apparatus, which are by readings at the screw head parts of 0.01 mm, or between what Ten parts have been estimated, making up the unit in the following table, so that, therefore, 0.001 million everywhere folgends the unit, and for example, a distance equal to 300, a real distance = 0.300 mm, an error such a sum equal to 265 millimeters equal to 0.265 means. Where else happen fractions, which are incidentally quite pointless, they are created by recycling the raw pure error. The distances in the apparatus 50) are defined by three fine parallel silver threads of 0.445 mn thickness and 11m length, which were viewed at different viewing distances which are indicated throughout all millimeters against the frosted glass screen of a lamp or a bright sky.
50)

Closer described in the reports of schs Soc. In 1858. p. 140th

Volkmann in the series we find the values at the smallest distances bracketed as those that emerge from the laws of the series are therefore not taken into consideration in the subsequent calculation. The reason for this difference was that the irradiation is made here so strongly asserted, and the threads were so close to the flowing of that Volkmann during the experiments themselves felt the incomparable to the other distances uncertainty of the estimate. In Appel's very sharp and very little affected by irradiation eyes such exclusion is not presented as necessary. Addition to the information here micrometric two rows are like before I go on, because they were made with too few, and the other to nearby distances and included in to discordante values. Series IV Volkmann (22 March-1 April 1857). 7 horizontal distances. Visual distance 333 million m = 30, = 4

D L.

200 (694.5)

400 534.0

600 630.6

800 740.5

1000 824.2

1200

1400

Sum

1023.2 1057.6 5504.6

 R. Sum ( L. ) R. Sum

(630.5) (1325.0) (13439) (11134) (24573)

611.3 8327 10968

672.3 11721 12504

801.0 14344 17655

952.8 16561 22564

1097.6 1218.1 5983.6 29964 32419 31144 38835 69979 125500 146079 271579

1145.3 1302.9 1541.5 1777.0 2120.8 2275.7 11488.2

19295 24225 31999 39125 62383 Series V. Volkmann (April to June 1857).

6 vertical distances. Visual distance 333 million These experiments with vertical distances are employed with the glasses, since this is an estimate of the more difficult otherwise insufficient clarity took place, while all attempts are made with horizontal distances without glasses. m = 96, = 1 D Sum ( ) Sum O. U. O. U. (400) (1429.2) (1563.0) (2998.2) (28170) (50708) (78878) 600 1645.3 1335.0 2980.3 42981 27011 800 1000 1200 2388.2 2810.3 5198.5 89314 128531 1400 2993.6 3150.0 6143.6 155248 176638 331886 Sum 12492.6 12843.3 25338.9 458256 528098 986 354

1618.9 2417.4 1998.7 2070.0 3617.6 4487.4 45016 72011 97527 73199

69992 117027 170726 217845 Series VI. Appel (May and June 1857). m = 48, = 2

7 horizontal distances. Visual distance 370 million

D Sum

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

Sum

L. 592.44 508.00 653.02 643.90 726.64 739.12 716.00 4579.12 R. 594,20 679.00 681.00 575.50 719.52 649.00 778.61 4676.83 1186.64 1187,00 1334.02 1219.40 1446.16 1388.12 1494.61 9255.95 Series VII Appel (October 1857).

6 horizontal distances. 300 million The visual distance computation of follows here twice, for = 2 and = 6 m = 33, = 2

200

400

600

800

1000

1200

Sum

 Sum ( ) Sum

L. 442.6 R. 450.6 893.2 L. 4773 R. 4385 9358

647.8 623.9 10046 8620 18666

661.9 715.8 9805 11895 21700

929.2 720.5 18422 13149 31571

941.9 838.8 19899 15810 35709

1070.8 4694.3 1027.0 4376.6 23595 22901 46496 86540 76960 163500

1271.7 1377.7 1654.9 1780.7 2097.8 9070.8

m = 11, = 6

D L.

200 422.8 R. 455.2

400 646.7 620.4

600 661.9 688.8

800 848.4 691.2

1000 901.3 812.0

1200 976.0

Sum 4243.6

1049.1 4530.2

Sum 878.0 1267.1 1350.7 1539.6 1713.3 2025.1 8773.8 If one looks at the results of these rows, the bracketed values from the specified reason once and for all may fall out of compliance, we see not only between the rows of the same observer, but also two different observers to bereinstimmendsten transition, ie an increase in the error sums with the distances, but much slower than in the same proportion, and the two skipped rows show up here quite unanimous in this general results with the other. However, as noted, can represent the error sums as resultants of two components, one of which is constant at different distances and under the name of Volkmann's constants V will be referred to, while the other is proportional to the distances, and under the name the Weberian variable for the unit of distance with W will be referred to, according to W even with the distance D is to be multiplied by the same proportionate value for each distance WD to give. The composition of the pure error sum for any given distance from the two components V and WD is not to represent to the theory of how to combine the effects of error sources by a simple addition of the two components, ie you can not put = V + WD but the sum of the squares of the two components is the square of to put the same so that one has ( ) 2 = V 2 + ( WD ) 2 therefore . Since the square of a sum of errors, di ( ) 2 according to the theory of error one a priori determinable relation to the sum of the squares ( 2 has), we can replace sums of squares in the previous equations instead of the squares of the error sums. The physiological interest that I come down, but is expected to build on the

former shape I have therefore initially set to the following reason more. In fact can easily be theoretically demonstrate and to prove by experience that when two independent of each other error sources are given, the one for a sum of errors A, the other an error sum B would have produced, from their meeting is not an error sum A + B may emerge, but only a small error sum, because on average as often as meet errors of opposite sign of the same sign from both causes, but only the latter give a resultant error equal to their sum, the former such equally their difference, and the theory of error but shows that the sum of the squares of the components normally (ie, for an infinite number of similar circumstances obtained error strictly) equal to the sum of the resulting squares, as that the sum of the squares of simple error sums usually the squares of the errors resulting sum is equal to and a confirmation of this result to the theory of experience, you can easily find it when you two the error composed independent of each other somehow gained error rows as components by algebraic addition to resulting errors, obtaining an equivalent for the meeting of the success of each other independent sources of error . In fact, I have convinced myself that way of confirming the theoretical outcome both in terms of error sum of squares as the square of the sum of errors due to multiple samples and elsewhere will provide the relevant supporting documents. In this respect should now have an independent and a dependent of the distances of the distances in the sense indicated source of error for the eye, and the previous will need to find the dependent component application, and the above equations are to be justified by it. But whether the condition of such errors is cogent, will be determined from the observations themselves, provided that in the case of cogency such values V, W must be calculated from the fact that the observations can be represented again by using the above formulas backwards. To such calculation of V , W rich from the observations at two different distances. Suppose in series IV, the error sums for D = 800 and D = 1400, respektiv 1541.5 and 2275.7, summarized by R. L. and so we have to put V 2 + 800 2 W 2 = 1541.5 2 V 2 + 1400 2 W 2 = 2275.7 2 this are V 2 and W 2 as easy to find two equations with two unknowns certain what a Wurzelausziehung V and W are themselves. This respect are experiments with more than two distances to determine to bid, you can V and W directions of several such combinations, then where the admissibility of the condition also before the reverse calculation of the error sum of V and W must be justified by the fact that the values of V , W, which is obtained from the various combinations, close enough match in to the deviations, which are left to write on unbalanced randomness of observation. By means of multiple contraction as specific values can then V and W determine more accurately. This method only has the drawback that the choice between the observed values, which you want to combine two is arbitrary, and any other combination of style can

find a slightly different Definitely means; though, if the observations are really accurate enough for the condition, the differences Definitely outcome of the hereafter are so small that a value can be as good as the other hand. Meanwhile, in any case remains the calculation by the least squares method is preferable, which excludes all arbitrary, and can find the most accurate result possible, what is actually derived from the observation series. She told me after the combined totals for R. L. and without reduction to the same m and given the same visual distance, which only follows below, immediately following results 51) , the probable error of the determination with is attached, and the for the summary of L. and R. valid, ie twice as large as the over the observation tables.
51)

The same was applied so that the equations in the form of V 2 + D 2 W 2 = ( ) 2 were recognized, which is directly linear unless V 2 , W 2 are sought as unknowns. From the thus obtained values V 2 , W 2 are then V, W derived by Wurzelausziehung. The probable error of V, W are in accordance with the deviations of the calculated from the found ( ) 2 for V 2 and W 2 is calculated, and the principles of error calculation by dividing respektiv with 2V, 2 W on of V, W reduced. Values of V and W for the unreduced error sums, according to the Equation V 2 + D 2 W 2 = ( ) 2 . Visual range. 333 million 333 370 300 -

Series IV Volkm. V. Volkm. (Vert) VI. Appel VII Appel

V 974.36 34.34

W 1.5008 0.02628

30 4 96 2 48 4 33 4

1398.20 49.35 4.2411 0.01332 1169.90 33.76 1.1603 0.10008

1008.60 1.5668 0.051576 121.97 In order to decide thereafter whether Volkmann confirms our assumption of constant and variable in the Weberian sense indicated, we can first and foremost pay attention to the probable error of its determination that, in general, relatively to the values of V, W is very low show. Second, we can according to the values of V, W to the various in previous Table D'sattempt tables corresponding values of ( ) 2 or calculate the former according to the equation V + D W = ( ) , the latter after equation , and compare the result of the calculation and observation, which shows a very satisfactory agreement. I give folgends the compilation of
2 , where I for the sake of brevity, the leadership of the ( ) distances go over that which can be suppliert with bracketed values from the

observation tables with exclusion. Composition according to the observed and the values of V and W calculated in the previous table values ( ) 2 . IV observed. calc V observed. calc VI observed. calc VII observed. calc 1210970

1311700 1309780 8882200 8430000 1408000 1422444 797 820

1697600 1760270 13087000 13466000 1409000 1489750 1617300 1392280 2376300 2390980 20137000 19940000 1779600 1583980 1898100 1861120 3157700 3201880 27023000 27855000 1486900 1705130 2738700 2517500 4497800 4192980 37744000 37208000 2091500 1853200 3170900 3361400 5178800 5364280 1926800 2028200 4400700 4392900 2233900 2230110 The agreement between calculation and observation is very satisfactory with the exception of a few outlying values, something the series VII. And thereafter it may be said that Weber's Law is in the areas of proportion to the smallest distances, only that it is subject to a complication that you only have to resolve in order to recognize it. It has seemed to me of interest to carry out the calculation of the observations even in some modified methods, which do not lead to significantly different values than to show the previous one, but just can thus serve, such as the possible choice between these different methods of calculation no significant difference justified in the results. These different methods of calculation were applied to the Series IV. 1) Instead of calculating combined as above L. and R. I have both separately, by the way based on the same shape, so I got VW Links 436.82 0.7540 500.23 0.8005 Right ------------937.05 l, 5545 2) Maybe you stop in principle the approach of the equation cogent for the calculation by the least squares method as the above underlying set, since not ( ) 2 , but is directly observed. But this way, the equation loses its linear form, and one must expect corrections, which, as the expert will easily find leads to great spaciousness. Meanwhile, I have performed especially for the series IV of this bill for L. and R., which has given

VW L. 441.1 0.7517 R. 0.7970 502.0 ------------946.1 1.5487 These values differ only very considerably from those found in 1), and it would not be worth the effort to adhere to the cumbersome way. 3) Instead of the squared error sum ( ) 2 I have the sum of the squares ( 2 ) to calculate the constants V , w according to the equation V ' + D' W ' 2 = ( 2 ) the basis.So I got for L. and especially V' W

L. 6084 0.013591 0.016234 R.7429 ----------13513 0.029825 Well, according to the theory of errors ( 2 ) with ( ) by the equation

connected, where Ludolf'sche the number, which approximate the values of the previous V and W is recycled. Also for the series VI and VII I particularly made the statement after the first used (less than 1) approaches for L. and R.. I got for VI VW L . 507.88 0.69166 R. 609.47 0.41611 ----------1117.35 1.10777 for VII VW L . 515.66 0.81175 R. 0.75605 447.48 ----------963.14 1.56780 The table of values V, W, which we have given above, are the same for the error sums, which were obtained at each error number in specie, and hereby proportional to these sums.However, since the different rows a different number of errors for each

distance subject, which by the product m is given the same table, so must the values of different rows to be comparable with each other, with their number of errors, respektiv 120, 192, 192 132 are divided to give the values V , W receives as they fail in the averages for one observation. Next is to take into consideration that as a distinct m took place in the observations, due to the finiteness of m nor the correction by multiplying to install is that there is very little way, and finally it should be noted that the visual distance from which the distances were regarded, not everywhere was the same, which is based on the value though W may have no effect, except in larger distances small appearing distances but always the same ratio error W will be, but probably the error V must participate, which one for all distances same absolute amount of error is that in order to be comparable for recovery from various visual distance, must be reduced in the same visual range of reciprocal ratios of each held visual range, but with each, measured in relation to the cornea, eye distances 7 million of the distance of the intersection point inflict direction lines of the cornea, so that 340 million is to be taken in the reduction eg for visual distance 333 million in series IV, usf
52)

Cf. In terms of p 216 p 110 f 339 f revision

Taking these three reductions or respektiv corrections before by reducing all values to the case of a single observation as a means of infinitely many observations at 333 + 7 Mill.Weite, we obtain instead of the values in the above table following. Corrected and reduced values of V and W for a fault at 340 Mill Dist of intersection points of the lines of sight.

Series. IV Volkm. V. Volkm. (Vert) VI. Appel VII Appel

V 8,210 7,319 5.5331 8.5476

W 0.01265 = 0.02220 = 0.00608 =

0.01172 = The values in this table show some interesting things and some things Flashy. The value of Volkmann Series IV with micrometric horizontal distances is not very much different from that obtained shortly before von Volkmann at much larger distances values of Series II, which nothing but a value of W is derived from a series where the complication with V disappears. The difference that exists between the two values still may very well be written to the exceptionally different

experimental circumstances. This counter is between the micrometric Series IV with horizontal distances (between the vertical threads) and the micrometric range V with vertical distances of the striking difference in the values of (between horizontal threads) W, not very lie Nevertheless, both in the time apart by W in vertical distances is almost twice as large as in horizontal, so the less accurate estimate for the former, which was itself also felt immediately in the experiments. Also, not listed here, constant errors were much larger than the horizontal with the vertical distances. The Appel'schen values W in the two BeobachtungsreihenVI and VII for horizontal distances diverge so widely from each other off, and the value when VI is so small that it arouses suspicion. In the observations themselves but there is nothing that determines the justified suspicion, or explain the difference. The value in the series VII agrees very closely with the

Volkmann match; without a knowledge of Volkmann's results obgewaltet and has contributed to approximately match. Takes a special interest Volkmann's constantV to complete. Apart from the somewhat more divergent Appel'schen series VI, which also regard W has something suspicious, the other three values of votes V for two quite different observers, for vertical and horizontal distances as close agree that it may be assumed that there was here one in nature at all reasonable absolute constant before, because of the difference of 7,319 and 8,210 between V for horizontal and vertical distances no greater than that after accidents of observation and considering that the complication of size V with the constant error and W in the raw errors 53) makes the same exact excretion, probably still be regarded as random. The Appel'sche value agrees surprisingly 8,546 with 8,210 Volkmann. A perfect ensure constancy of this size in different individuals or at different observation conditions would certainly even more duplication and further extension of the experiments require a present for now.
53)

The raw error consist of the pure error variables and the constant error c as components together, and V and W are again pure components of the error variables . The question is what can have this size for a meaning. I want to own in anticipation of future representation, which will be Volkmann of its investigation, indicating the point briefly, the Volkmann from the outset the existence of such a constant suggested, and led to his appointment painstaking efforts. Because in fact was the existence of the same in advance a suspected if already remained questionable whether what has been found, which is really just what has been suspected. If Weber's view is correct, that the size of a distance on the number retinal elements is estimated that they understood between them, a line or distance on the retina must appear the same size, like their ends facing each other next or most distant points of two Meet retinal elements, and therefore a smaller line may look the same size as a

larger, as in, expressed by the following equation, cases, where the imaginary circles to be circular imagine sensory retinal elements,

which scheme is easily overlooked, that a line or distance, which is to noticeably two diameter of a retinal element is greater or less than another, but can maintain under circumstances as big a mistake that with larger lines or distances that many retinal elements comprehend in itself, but is negligible, but not so with micrometric lines and distances. With micrometric Try using the method of average error so thereof a noticeable error must depend in direct estimation of distances, and the size of the dependent thereon mean error must have a relationship to the diameter of the retinal elements; Volkmann's constant could represent this average error, and thereafter a conclusion as to the dimensions of the retinal elements permit if the dependent relationship between the two would be known. To examine the question now more precisely whether the average error can be represented by Volkmann's constant, is 1) to determine the magnitude relationship that must have the current flowing from the specified circumstances mean error to the diameter of a retina element was, 2 ) to investigate whether the same can also be really accurate or sufficiently approximate constant for the various normal distances to a constant, as what is V to identify, so has shown can, 3) whether the magnitude of this constant is sufficient with respect to those related to the anatomically determined dimensions of the retinal elements right. The first and second questions are in themselves matter of probability, and the principle of calculation indeed very well indicate the execution itself but too difficult for experienced mathematicians 54) . However, you can supplieren by a Versuchsweg, which, outside the manufacturing conditions which take place voraussetzlich in mind, and what Volkmann has taken. The third question suffers from the difficulty that the last perceiving retinal elements are not yet known to you. But I go through this whole subject here in any further discussions in order not to far ahead of Volkmann's own message whose property is this investigation. The previous thing should have been enough to attract the interest of the constant in question.
54)

Apart from my own judgment I can rely on me in this respect the judgment of Prof. Mbius. To a conclusion of the previous consideration of the Volkmann's constant, only the calculation may be mentioned, by means of which the size observed in the experiments of which is attributable to that which it represents on the retina itself, a reduction which is of course necessary if one wants to study the question of their

relationship to the size of the retinal elements. According to the table (point V) Volkmann's constant was at a visual distance = 340 millim., These calculated with respect to the intersection of the lines of direction, di 0.008210 8.210 millim. Unless the unit in terms of all the results of the micrometric experiments are, is 0.001 million. Referring now to the distance of the intersection point of the lines of direction of the retina, in round numbers about 15 million, it behaves the size which V represents the retina to the observation V for 15 : 340, ie, the constant V in the given row represents the retina size = 0.0003621 million This assuming that the linear size which assumes the image of a viewed section at the retina is given by the distance of the retina, which by the boundaries of the outer track the intersection of the direction lines drawn rays hold between them. So the ordinary account. The question is of course, - a remark which I owe EH Weber - whether the intersection of the lines of direction here is determining. In general, we measure distances using the eye movement by leading the eye axis of a boundary point to another, and thereafter rather the turning point of the eye seems to take than the one through which the radiation must be taken of the limits of the outer track to the track which takes the image of the same on the retina to be determined. But this is 55) 5.6 Lin. = 14.224 million behind the foremost points of the cornea, it would be 7,778 million front of the retina, so that the previously calculated value would be reduced to about half. I must then ask the question this decision on my part.
55) According

to Volkmann in Wagner's Dictionary on. See Art. P 234

One might think that would depend on constant Volkmann that an error in the estimation of pitch'll committed, the course can not depend on the size of the observed distance, and therefore give a constant at all distances resource error. But our V this is much too large for the direct reading of the micrometer screw was 0.01 million, or 10/1000, V but averaged about 8 million thousandth as much order can not be mistaken by estimating the average far . It is not disputed but the constant Volkmann received a small increase due to this source. If they really in the main have a fixed organic reason in the eye, then showed us here in the areas of extensive sensation of light a remarkable analogy to what we have found in areas of intensive, provided also that Weber's law only insofar confirmed when we take on an added through internal organic reasons the outer variable action constant size with respect. Before using the method of average error I have also done some experiments by the method of just noticeable differences on the distance measure with the eye, which I, though they are by the more accurate and safe by that method actually antiquated, here just wants therefore lead to because it does not exist otherwise determined by this method. After some preliminary experiments on the sharpness of my eyes measure a circle a span of L was par. Duod. Inches, plus another 1 1 / 40 inch was added and the sector

so confused that I did not know which was the more asked. Well I was looking by means of the naked eye measure to discover who was the other. I decided right every time, but only after a longer test for the other. The circles were held here next to each other in the clearest visual distance from the eye, so that the distances to compare the compass points were horizontal in the same.But exactly the same difficult but definitely the right decision I also precipitated after the span along with the difference once doubled, which was anderemal quadrupled, so that the span of the last recorded case was a circle 4.0, that of the other 4.1 inches. This small series of three experiments has been repeated to me three times with equal success, twice in one day, even the day after. Also, it made the difference in the feelings of the span no difference whether I kept the Circle in greater or lesser distance from the eye, except that the Accommodationsgrenzen of the eye were not exceeded. I would probably still slightly finer than 1 / 40 have always distinguished correctly. But I've noticed that if you do not take the limit of lichen just wish a little high, you put the device in but in many more observations, but with little lengthy and uncertain experiments method of right and wrong cases. But the difference was small enough that if I halved it, took no decision more reliable, and required way more time with my untrained eye attention to be detected. This is how well the Weber's law has also confirmed the areas of proportion, we must improve but the question of what this actually means for the confirmation extensive sensations.In the sense of Weber's views on the mediation of the size of extensive sensation would be the fundamental question we want to know answers about the meaning of Weber's law in this field, which, if differences of geographical distances appear equal or equally noticeable when relatively distinguish the figures of the nascent sensory circles in the distance by the same amount, and that, accordingly, the size of the stimulus during intense sensations by the number of undertakings active in extensive sensory circles can be represented for our law. But here passed all specified tests on the eye no explanation, as they are designed according to the natural manner of use of our eyes all under the influence of the movement of the eye, the smaller and larger distances have not been following the different number of sensory circles, which they combined in themselves have been compared, but according to the circumstance that the same point of clearest vision has been guided by a greater or smaller distance. Yes when, from the axis points of the retina at decreasing, density of nerve distribution would not even have the direct confirmation of the law by our experiments may be expected if they were not running with motion. After this, one might speculate that our confirmation rather that, in moving active, muscular sense, insofar as this helps convey the distance estimation with, as the number of sensory circles, which are addressed by the estimated distance is to relate, and in this respect , they should be able to really justify the probation derived for the law would always be important, but in any case, the above fundamental question that remains unanswered, and the relationship to the muscular sense is subject to difficulties, which I want to address in detail for now. It now presents itself the way, the answer to that question to try on the skin, the

analogy has been highlighted with the face of institutions in regard to the opinion of extensive quantities of EH Weber as well, and where there is nothing to do with the influence of the movement has . Only that one has also nowhere to be expected in a uniform nerve distribution. However, it seemed useful to see how make the successes in this regard on different skin sites, and are demgeme attempts by myself on the forehead, which with a hard surface, the lowest field of observation seems darzubieten because of their large smooth surface of Volkmann been hired by the method of average error at the front joint of the left middle finger and back of the hand. The matching of these attempts, however, that not only approximate proportionality of pure error with the distances occurring but generally they take up much more slowly, and not at all beyond certain limits or at longer intervals with the distance, so that not is to think about the fact that it what was found at the micrometric Augenmaversuchen by analogy which can be represented by a composition of the proportional distances and distances with respect to the constant component. What are these trials if they can not as sharp with respect to the question of our study are also due to the non-uniformity of distribution of the nerve, but do not let the slightest probability of the existence of the law in this area left when you look at it this way. Which of course for the first sight, of course, seems if you requires an analogous application of the law in areas of extensive as intense sensations, unless in; Meanwhile, the new question of whether you really have to look for it in areas of extensive sensations in this way creates the latter is found in this way. But one must not overlook the fact that the distances, we define in the eye and on the skin, are defined only in the given facial and Tastfelde, and the expansion of this field thus nothing accrues, whereas the intense light stimulus not only limits set in intensity determined, but not a pre-existing intensity of stimulation produces only what the situation is different. In a chapter of the next part where I come back with some comments on the extensive sensations in particular, I will come back to this point, the test series but on which the above pronounced negative result is due, I will tell to the "measurement methods". 6) Fortune physique et morale. You can follow Weber's law still in a more general area inside. The physical goods we possess ( fortune physique ), have no value and no meaning for us as dead masses, but only if there are external means, a sum of valuable sensations ( fortune morale ) to produce in us concerning them which hereafter take the place of the stimulus. A Taler now has not noticeably felt in that respect, much less value for the rich than poor, and if he makes a beggar happy for a day, it will increase as the wealth of a millionaire from it. This can be subordinated to the Weber's law. By an equal increase to what the Laplace fortune morale to grant calls, which must increase to the fortune physique in the ratios of these fortunephysique standing. This principle has been first suggested in a paper by Daniel Bernoulli in the Comment. Acad. scient. imp. Petro Polit. TV in 1738, which bears the title "Specimen theoriae novae de mensura sortis." Later it is by Laplace in s theory of

analytique probabilits p. 187th 432 been reproduced and developed in further inferences, and mentioned by Poisson in s Recherches sur la probabilit with its conclusions and accepted. The expressions fortune fortune physique and morale are not yet used by Bernoulli, but only by Laplace. Bernoulli says after some preliminary discussions, "Nempe valor non est aestimandus ex PRETIO rei, sed ex emolumento, quod unusquisque inde capessit Pretium ex re ipsa aestimatur omnibusque idem est, emolumentum ex conditione personae Ita procul dubio pauperis magis refert lucrum facere mille ducatorum.. quam Divitis, etsi pretium utrique idem sit, "and further (p. 177)" Ita vero valde probabile est semper lucrulum quodvis emolumentum afferre summae bonorum reciprocae proportional ". Then he founds p. 181, the differential formula and p. 182 the logarithmic formula, which we generally support later on Weber's law. Laplace says (p. 187): "On doit distinguer dans le Espre Tuen, relative sa valeur, de sa valeur absolue: celle-ci est indpendante des motifs, qui font le dsirer, au lieu que la premire croit avec ces motifs. On ne peut donner de regulated gnerale apprcier pour cette valeur relative; cependant il est supposer naturel de la valeur d'une somme relative innniment petite, directe en raison de sa valeur absolue, en raison inverse de la personne du bien totally intresse. En effet, il est clair qu'un franc a trs peu de prix pour celui qui en possede un grand nombre, et que la manire la plus naturelle d'estimer sa valeur relative, est de la supposer en raison inverse de ce nombre. "p. 432: "D'aprs ce principe x tant la fortune physique d'un individual, i'accroissement dx, qu'elle Recoit, produit l 'individual moral rciproque un bien cette fortune; I'accroissement de sa fortune morale peut donc tre Exprime par , k tant une constante. Ainsi en dcignant par y la fortune morale correspondante la fortune physique x, on aura y = k log x + log h, h tant une constante arbitraire, que l'on dterminera au moyen d'une valeur de y correspondante une valeur de donne x. Sur cela, nous observerons, que l'on ne peut jamais supposer x et y ou nuls negatifs, naturel dans l'ordre des choses, car l'homme qui ne rien possede, but existence regarde comme un bien inoral, qui peut etre compar l'avantage que ceci procurerait une fortune physique, dont il est bien difficile la valeur d'assigner, mais que l'on ne peut fixer au-dessous de ce qui lui serait rigoureu lading ncessaire pour exister, car on Contoit, consentirait qu'il ne point recevoir une somme modique, adjusting que cent francs, avec la condition de ne rien prtendre, lorsqu'il l'aurait dpense. "
Kapitel erst nur im Allgemeinen als eine Hauptunterlage des psychischen Maes ausgesprochene Gesetz, welchem ich den Namen des Weber'schen gebe, soll jetzt nach Seiten seines Sinnes, seiner Begrndung und seiner Grenzen nher errtert werden, insoweit die bis jetzt darber vorliegenden Untersuchungen einen Anhalt dazu gewhren.

Text original
Contribuu a millorar la traducci

Poisson says, p. 72: "Comme l'avantage, qu'un gain procure dpend quelqu'un de

l'tat de sa fortune, on a distingu cet avantage relatif, de l'esprance mathmatique, et on l'a nomm esprance morale. Lorsqu'il est une petite quantit infiniment, on prend son rapport la fortune actuelle de la personne, pour la mesure de l'esprance morale, qui peut tre d'ailleurs positive ngative ou, selon qu'il s'agit d'une augmentation ou d'une diminution de cette any fortune. Par le calcul intgral, on dduit suite de cette mesure of Consequences, s'accordent qui avec les rgles, que la prudence indique sur la manire dont chacun doit diriger ses spcult! ons. "

X. The fact of the threshold. 1)

A sensation, a sensation difference increases generally with the size of the causative stimulus, stimulus difference, and it seems to take for the first sight of course, that the point where, at the sensation that starts to become noticeable sensation difference, with the zero points of the stimulus stimulus difference coincide. But the fact is contrary to this assumption, it is now apparent that each stimulus as stimulus difference must have reached a certain finite size before the noticeability of the same only just begins, ie, before it generates a our consciousness noticeably affizierende sensation or evidences a noticeable sensation difference. Conversely, the noticeability of the stimulus, stimulus difference shrinks even more when he came down to zero values. The zero point of the sensation of feeling the difference is far above that of the causative stimulus, stimulus difference, a fact that will be immediately detected closer.
1)

In terms of p 7.82 revision ff p 177-180. Psych Maprinzipien, pp. 196 ff over the mixture threshold (see below, pp. 330 f): In terms of p 105 f, p 179f revision. Psych Maprinzipien, pp. 204 f The point where the noticeability of a stimulus or a stimulus difference begins and fades, we briefly mention the threshold, which is expressed equally well on the sensation and the sensation difference at the boundaries of noticeability, as the stimulus or stimulus difference, or the stimulus money, which sensation the or bring the sensation difference on this point can be obtained, so that we can just speak from both the threshold of a sensation or a sensation difference, as the threshold of a stimulus or stimulus difference or stimulus ratio, short threshold, difference threshold, ratio threshold of the stimulus. Since for given sizes of two stimuli from the differences their relationship and vice versa follows of itself, it is generally sufficient to refer to one of the two last-mentioned thresholds. Respect, extensive quantities and differences of such a certain value need to be conceived of skin or eye as the extension or expansion difference, we will be able to transfer the concept of threshold it, and while we respect on intense sensations threshold mention the intense, the related to extensive sensations that call extensive. Insofar finally out of sensations, other, more general and higher mental phenomena, such as the total consciousness of the people depending on sleeping and waking, the consciousness of individual thoughts, the attention in a given direction have a point of extinction and origination, we will use the term and expression the threshold can

also generalize therefor. In these cases no threshold of an external stimulus longer present, the conditional, the elevation of consciousness to the threshold or which they correspond, but it can raise the question whether we are not in favor of adopting a threshold value of the underlying psycho-physical movement, and if not the threshold, difference threshold, ratio threshold, only in so far consist in feelings when they can be translated into such a question to which will be discussed in the introduction to the inner psychophysics. For now, however it will only be the discussion of purely empirical relationships, which can be stated directly, and indeed I will demonstrate in part the generality of the fact of the threshold and difference threshold in this chapter and to explain search, partly to discuss the implications and applications which carries the existence of the threshold in the areas of experience, but go on special provisions relating to thresholds below. l) The intensive threshold. a) threshold. In areas of intense sensation of light, the direct proof that only a certain intensity of the light stimulus needed any thing, to awaken feeling, that there is a threshold for the perception of light at a finite value of the light stimulus can not be performed because the eye as repeatedly discussed , by an internal excitation is always above the threshold, including any external light stimulus is only one grant. The facts, which teach that this grant requires a certain strength to be noticed are, rather hereafter in the section of the difference threshold. In regard to the modification but which we call color, one can establish the following conditions for the visibility, 1) that the frangibility and hereby vibration frequency on climb a certain limit, and 2) that the intensity or amplitude of the oscillations about climb a certain limit, and 3) that the Color Cast in a sufficient extension, which must be greater, depending on seitlichere parts of the retina, the color falls, and 4) that it was not mixed with too much white. As regards the first, so you know that no color can be seen beyond the red limit of the spectrum, or to somehow make visible, but regardless of heat phenomena prove the existence of radiation beyond this limit. Now, the red rays have the slowest vibrations, and it seems the inability to perceive ultra-red rays to be written on anything else than that their oscillations are too slow. On the other hand you have the so-called ultraviolet rays which are not visible under ordinary measures when applying ordinary prisms, and was formerly included on the existence only of their chemical effects, more recently, been able to make it visible by appropriate penalties by only necessary to is to bring them in sufficient strength to perform, bringing at the same time gives a proof of the second condition. In fact, the ultraviolet part of the prismatic spectrum with the use of rock crystal prisms, which the color rays in question allow a more affluent passage than glass prisms still get visible where with the use of glass prisms nothing is to perceive it, especially if you him from the isolated by means of a quartz prism spectrum designed by a screen with column and viewed through a telescope lenses made of glass with projecting second glass prism. A proof, but that by going even through glass prisms

on violet rays, and are no longer recognized only because of low intensity, is that you can make them visible in the generated by glass prisms spectrum nor discovered by Stokes fluorescence. The Third anlangend, as noted EH Weber 2) that you do not see a green area as green by a very narrow gap, and he concludes that a colored area must have a certain amount to make their specific color impression. However, one can make while stating that one sees some fixed stars, dyed something, but the coloring is very little prominent, and to take into consideration that the image of the stars, as indeed also the gap, always expands slightly by irradiation, as that it can not be considered as a very punctate.
2)

Muller's Arch 1849. p. 279th

Detailed and careful tests on the subject with regard to the behavior of the lateral parts of the retina, Aubert 3) were drawn up, but probably not special results in this general representation can be accommodated.
3)

f Graefe Arch Ophthalmol. lIl. 38 ff

As to the fourth, so it is always possible to dilute a color liquid so far, or to mix a color fabric with so much white that the color is imperceptible to the eye. This case is discussed in more detail in future the chapter on mixture phenomena. In regard to the intensity of the sound, the fact of the threshold is slightly konstatierbar. If a sounding body become more and more removed, so finally we did not hear him, regardless of the sound waves hitting our ear, but did not become zero. The approximation of the sounding body has just the success, the impression is unnoticeable because of his weakness, but not because of his absence to make significantly by reinforcement. So we do not hear too distant bell. But should Bell 100, which no individually we hear, ringing together in the same distance, so we would hear them. So but also every single bell in the distance, their contribution must be to hear, is not sufficient by itself only to produce a noticeable sound sensation. A caterpillar in the forest does not stop eating it, but when herbivory is common in the forest, you can hear it very well, but the sound is what make many caterpillars, only the sum of the individual sounds of the caterpillars. So there must also each individual bead, regardless you do not hear for themselves, to contribute something to listen to the entire track, but this is not strong enough in itself to bring significant auditory sensation. At all times of the day a certain sound fills the air, but if it does not exceed a certain strength, we believe nothing can be heard. In homeopathic dilution can no longer taste the bitter substance. It is sufficient to

focus the resolution, and the taste is noticeably. Common ground that there is at all times very many odorous substances in the air that we do not smell it because they are too dilute. But the dog and the wild smells with his organs geschrfteren really the track that we no longer smell it would smell the same if it was reinforced. A single galvanic pair of plates are not any noticeable sensation, however, which consists of individual plate pairs column gives a blow. Any pressure on our body needs to be sufficiently distributed only to be imperceptible without him nothing would be. b) Difference threshold. Difference that a stimulus must have a certain size to be perceived as a difference, is not generally doubted, and applicable in all sense modalities, method of just noticeable differences, rests entirely on. Not beautiful, simple and striking but may be observed in the existence of the difference threshold, as in the realm of perception of light by the shadow test, we spearheaded to probation of Weber's law. Let us recall the circumstances of the experiment: Place two lamps next to each other and before they have a shade-giving body. Each of the two lamps are a shade that is only lit by the other lamp, while the surrounding ground is lit by two lamps. Is screwed now the wick of the down deeper a lamp, or remove them and farther from the shade-giving body, so you can see the shadow that it casts, are getting weaker by the illumination of the surrounding space differs less and less of it, and finally this shadows disappear, as it will be absorbed by the general enlightenment of reason, but regardless both light sources are still there. I was quite amazed as I was aware for the first time to see two lights only cast a shadow. Both lamps burn clear, but is merely a shadow there. In a word, if the difference between the enlightenment of a shadow and the surrounding space goes below a certain limit, the difference disappears totally for the sensation and can certainly no longer be perceived. Therefore, this test is notably very striking, because here you have the components at the same time in the eye, and the eye sharp, smoothly and steadily may, upon the boundary line of the same, while bringing their difference to disappear, so neither of the forgetting of the earlier impression, not overlook the difference can be no question what one might be inclined to push the imperceptibility and the disappearance of the difference with other experimental methods. The experiment permits some amendments. General: is one of just noticeably shade, so one needs his lamp only slightly lower or the other to screw something up, it is imperceptible, and he is imperceptible, so one needs his lamp only requires higher, lower or the other according to screws, it will noticeably. Instead of higher and lower screw is the same: more approaching and removal. The same as this experiment teaches also been asserted, experience that we are able

to perceive no star with the most precise attention to the daytime sky. Just as common as the fact of the difference threshold is the fact of their increase with the size of the stimuli. As far as the Weber's law is, is the size of the still just noticeable difference, and therefore the difference threshold in direct proportion to the size of the stimuli, the difference is to be understood, if it does not exist, there is still a function of the size of the stimuli, which not only is the simple proportionality. If the size of a relative stimulus difference remains the same if the ratio of the stimuli remains the same, and vice versa, can just be said both that the just noticeable sensation differences occur at the same relative stimulus differences than in the same stimulus conditions, regardless of the size of the stimuli. But when both come out virtually the same thing, but it can be from formal considerations sometimes be more convenient or proper, but rather to follow the other as a mode of expression. Accordingly, we call on all the future with absolute difference threshold, coinciding with just noticeable differences, the absolute stimulus difference, with relative difference threshold or difference constant relative stimulus difference, with ratio threshold or ratio constant, the ratio of stimuli in which a sensation difference occurs on the threshold, and need respektiv the letters , , v it. So the difference is constant for the light intensity according to Volkmann's method constant . v = 1 + and = v - 1 Several contributions in the wake of the logarithm of v are needed. If now in the expression v = 1 + is always a very small size, the higher potencies against the first can be neglected, one can by known mathematical theorems for log (1 + ) substitute M , where M is the modulus of the logarithmic system is so set log v = M . It is important to keep in mind that if the relative stimulus difference and the stimulus money, and therefore the difference constant and ratio constant, always stay together constant modification of the stimuli, but not when one of these values changes, the other proportional to change. In contrast, the logarithm of the ratio constant grows according to the above equation is proportional to the difference constant, and it can be anywhere where it just comes to relationships, log for v be substituted. 2) Extensive threshold. If a white circle on a black background or vice versa is too small or too large is viewed from afar, it is no longer recognized. If two points or parallel threads are too close to each other or to be viewed from a great distance, they become blurred to the eye and the distance thereof is imperceptible. The boundary where the first occurs, Generally one has , the ratio

may be referred to as the apparent threshold distance as the threshold of detectable size, which is where the last occurs. On the skin elapse known each other for close to two compass points to a common impression, and so there is also a threshold of detectable distance. No less elapse two impressions into a indistinguishable impression when they happen too quickly after each other. So there is a threshold with respect to the extensive time distance. When an object, such as the hour hand of a clock, a star in the sky, moves too slowly, the movement is not detected with sufficient acceleration it is detected. So there is a threshold of detectable velocity. Here, time and space is also considered. Most likely the speed begins as to be visible when the time threshold coincides with the space threshold, ie. The smallest period of time which does not flow to the core in a time a space is described, which does not flow to the eye in a point in space 3) More general considerations regarding the threshold. In fact the threshold is a priori paradoxical. The stimulus or stimulus difference can be increased up to certain limits, without being felt, from a certain point on, he is felt and will be felt growth. How can that which works in the consciousness of nothing, when it is weak, start to act by increasing something in it? It seems as if the summation of zero effects could give a bit of action. But if this relationship can make a metaphysician difficulty, so it has no difficulty in mathematical aspects, and this would indicate that the mathematical point of view, according to which the size of sensation as a function of the size of the stimulus (respektiv triggered by the internal motions) can be considered is the right metaphysical as well. In fact, if y is a function of x is to y for a certain value of x vanish, pass into the negative or imaginary, however, it suffices x to increase beyond this value to y to see regain positive values. With the threshold is related to the fact of itself following fact. The lower the size of the stimulus or stimulus difference falls below the threshold, the less able the stimulus or stimulus difference to be felt, all the more it will only need to Zuwchse before his sensation occurs. As long as the stimulus or stimulus difference remains below the threshold, is the sensation of the same, as they say, unconscious, and the unconscious deepened more and more, according as the size of the stimulus or stimulus difference descends deeper below the threshold.Thus, the distant sounds, the smells wafting remain in the atmosphere below the threshold and thus hereby aroused sensation in unconsciousness until the intensity of those stimuli exceeds a certain size threshold. By itself is already here, when we consider the threshold of sensation as a zero value and the conscious sensation values as positive values for which the term unconscious dar. by negative values, but we will discuss only the future precisely on this view offers. Ties in the imperceptibility small differences from a fine and even not unimportant question for the sensitivity of the measurement procedure by the method of right and wrong cases.

Set, the difference of the weights, or more generally of the stimuli, which is taken in the trial, is so small that it falls within those limits where it can be identified with consciousness, then wonders if he on the number of correct and incorrect cases may gain influence at all or if it was not for the ratio of both just as good as if no difference was present, until the difference is the boundary where it is felt as such, passed, and whether or not there the influence, instead of the absolute magnitude of the difference, according to the difference of the values of the same, where it begins to be really noticeable, had to be assessed. This seems obvious, because as our consciousness can not determine our judgment affizierende difference? Nevertheless, it can not be accepted without question Maverfahrens with the principles of both the principles by which one the probability of error with respect to the same size calculated and what is that measurement procedure is based entirely, to annul; also performs a precise depth look at a seemingly self-evident that quite opposite results. Nevertheless, that a difference is imperceptible to themselves, but it is possible to find a preponderance of real cases in favor of the heavier weight, generally the larger stimulus is a sufficient number to compare. It has to be considered, namely, that along with the differences that needs to be interpreted, random influences act, which would average the judgment as often determine with equal weights in favor of one than the other. The difference now fits but the influences which determine the judgment in favor of the one who added, and makes some that such influences that would have been imperceptible without that noticeably be in favor of this site, some of it reinforces the already significant influences on this site and makes that they outweigh the opposing influences the less. This will not prevent that in many cases the effect of the additional weight stays together with the currently existing problems with the shopping lichen, in which case the judgment is ambiguous cases that occur very often in this kind of experiments, but in principle on the other cases can be recycled by being the right half, half zuzhlt the wrong cases. One sees a in this way, as a imperceptible in itself difference in that it adds up with other influences, however, can give significant effects, and the likelihood that proportionate number of right and wrong cases with a very large number of experiments depends the size of the difference in such a manner from which permits to derive a measure of the sensitivity thereof, as shown earlier. The threshold of both stimuli as stimulus differences is capable of conditions of fatigue, habituation, exercise, internal causes of excitement or paralysis, medicines, the periodicity of life, individual constitution etc of the largest and most varied modifications, ie only to be considered in so far as constant, as these conditions produce no change in it. The study of these dependencies is one of the most important tasks of psychophysics, and coincides with the general study of the relationships of dependence of the absolute and differential sensitivity or irritability and excitability by the absolute sensitivity of the threshold, the difference in sensitivity of the differential threshold is reciprocal.

If the fact of the threshold can be transferred from the stimuli on the psychophysical motion thus induced, - is trying to prove what later - this is according to our general assumption that a fixed relationship between physical and psychological changes in us taking place, and the threshold of the psychophysical activity, which corresponds to the beginning of a certain sensation, be regarded as immutable, so that the sensation begins sure if the activity to which it is linked, has reached the threshold level. But by depending on the changing state of the organism, a stimulus may find it easier or harder to trigger the psychophysical activity in this strength, the threshold of the stimulus that is linked to this point, not immutable, but of the state of excitability of the organism with dependent high in blunt, low to high irritability. This distinction, if we relate the threshold, where the sensation to the stimulus disappears or it provoked movements is well to keep in mind, using only the threshold in the latter sense, it can actually be constant, while in the former sense, the Reizempfnglichkeit and attachment style of the stimulus changes. 4) Consequences of the existence of the threshold. Are some consequences of interest and importance to establish the existence of a threshold and difference threshold. , If ever any smallest stimulus size are detected, we would as minima of stimuli of all kinds always swirl around us, must feel an infinite mixture and an incessant exchange of soft sensations of all kinds, which is not the case. That each stimulus only must exceed a certain limit, before he awakened sensation, the man backs up to a certain limit state undisturbed by external stimuli. He needs the stimulation does not bring down to zero, which he is not able to abide by them undisturbed, but to withdraw from those who are weakened by distance, just in sufficient distance, or bring down generally those up to a certain limit . Just the way us Unmerklichwerden each stimulus when it falls below a certain limit, an undisturbed state of strange perceptions secures, the Unmerklichwerden each stimulus difference when it falls below a certain limit, a uniform state of Perception. Due to internal and external stimuli causes will never act quite uniformly through time and space, but that does not preclude that we see both clear and colored surfaces, listen uniformly sustained notes, etc. The well-known experiment of rotated disk with white and black sectors is a simple proof to it. Sufficiently rapidly rotated, it appears uniformly gray. Only the intensity of the impression on both edges of a sector not really be the same, because it is progressively lost in the passing of a black sector of impressions, and is obtained in the preliminary suffering a white. But as the difference of two edges is less than the difference threshold, the appearance of the uniform gray occurs. And the uniformity appears completely at a sufficiently rapid rotation, so that it is not possible with the strictest attention to discover a variety. An analogous situation occurs when the edge of a rapidly rotated gear (spur gear)

holds the finger. Meanwhile you with slow rotation, the individual teeth yet different, this is no longer the case quickly. Valentin 4) has done extensive testing on this. Among other things he noticed here is that, when the widths of the teeth offer only minor deviations, it carries no substantial interference, while if in a wheel of 160 teeth 3 or 5 directly adjacent 3 - or 4 times as small as the are remaining, the uniformity is not completely to gain even at high speed.
4)

Vierordt's Arch in 1852. p. 438th 587th

Just like a slice of white and black sectors in rotation with reasonable promptness appears uniformly gray, an area with regularly alternating white and black squares of a sufficient distance appears uniformly gray. This can have a double reason; either that distances under too little face angle can not be especially conceived then executed the appearance of the extensive threshold, or that the irradiation of the white squares the same to flow into each other with very little face angle; then executed the appearance of the intense difference threshold. Both causes might be able to work together; through the previous observations seems nothing has been decided about me. Let's take these facts from the outer psychophysics again a fleeting foresight on the importance that they can win on the inner. If the stimulus is translated into psychophysical movement, so also the soul is able to move in a perceptually uniform and free state, despite a presence and game psychophysical motion when only certain limits are not exceeded. The first case, as I show in the future, realized through sleep, the second by the fact that the psycho-physical movements may be their nature not uniform. Probably they are oscillatory nature. But the changes of the psychophysical motion are not perceived when they exceed a certain limit, and so uniform sensations due to non-uniform motions are possible. This will also facilitate us to take an idea, followed forges a different quality of the sensation. While the non-uniformity of the psychophysical motion is not perceived as non-uniformity of feeling, but the same quality may depend on the same way. However, this version is a hint not here, and also in the inner psychophysics can now be received for it only with great moderation and support. The multi-noticed fact that the eye by virtue of respecting the intense sensation of light of a weak inner excitement is always of itself over the threshold to a particular remark raises teleological. It should only require a certain strength of the external light stimulus, so would dimly lit and black objects are not seen and here the effect of the blind spot of the retina caused the inner movements, to which our perception of light linked to lift up to the threshold, what would unquestionably very disturbing. If on the other hand, the eye be lifted by internal excitation far above the threshold, according to the Weber's law of Zuwchse low light would no longer be recognized clearly. The black in our externally unstimulated eye is so, if it represents a very weak light level, indisputably the most advantageous, which could take place in the establishment of our sense of

sight. For the ear is no corresponding teleological motive, but rather, it may seem rather disturbing here, when every little noise should be heard. In fact, we have, even if we turn our attention to the ear, in the normal condition nothing to Analog Black Watch, but only the feeling of silence. But the virtue of inner ear abnormerweise irritation over the threshold may be raised, then where showerheads, blades etc occurs, it can also be dropped by virtue of blandness deep below the threshold. Here are the experiences that now only find their true interpretation that people who suffer from torpor of the auditory nerve, only a noise, as drums, riding in a carriage, the speakers are good. Apparently, the strong noise must serve to lift the ear to the threshold, which also increase the noise that would not have been sufficient by itself to cause this, can be heard. Yet I will remember the following applications of the fact of the difference threshold. If, as is well now pretty generally recognized, the so-called irradiation in the eye depends rather on the optical aberrations of the eye and diffraction phenomena as adopted by plateau spread of the light effect on the retina, so that physical irradiation can not with increased intensity of the light expansion, but only increase in intensity. But Plateau's experiments have 5)demonstrated that perceived by the eye irradiation not grow far from the ratios of the intensity of the light, but not negligible with this intensity up to a certain maximum can not be exceeded.
5)

Pogg. Ann. L. Sup. Pp. 412 ff

It namely to meet his attempts following light intensities i the following visible Irradiationsbreiten j on a black ground, where the maximum of i = 16, the intensity of a (calculated against the mirror surface) of a mirror under 30 mirrored sky was bright: i= 1 2 4 8 16 j = 40 "9 47" 6 55 "56 7" 56 0 "0 With regard to the difference in threshold results in the result found by plateau that the visible irradiation with the intensity of the light grows in extent, but to a lesser conditions and not beyond a certain limit, for a truly remains constant physical Irradiationsbreite as a necessary. The widest possible limits of the visible irradiation must in fact be necessary at the boundary of the physical. But by over low intensity of irradiirenden light must be the same become the black of the ground as close to the same already in closer proximity of irradiirenden edge to impossible to distinguish them to the border of the visible irradiation must move the irradiirenden edge closer to such the weaker the light irradiirende. Babinet 6) has, in a treatise on the mass density of the comet indicate that reliable,

named by him star astronomers of the 10th, the 11th Been size and even lower still observed by the comet nucleus through are no noticeable weakening of its splendor, whereas after an observation of a star Valz 7 Size of the splendor of a brilliant comet wiped out almost completely.After this he is referring to the difference Bouguer'sche constant consideration to the following: Puisque l'interposition d'une comte claire par le soleil pas n'affaiblit sensitive element l'clat de l'toile laquelle devant elle forme un rideau lumineux, il s'ensuit que l'clat de la comte n'est pas le soixantime de celui de l'toile, car autrement l'interposition d'une lumire un gale soixantime de celle de l'toile eut t sensitive. On peut donc admettre tout au plus que la comte galait en le soixantime clat de la lumire de l'toile. Ainsi, dans cette hypothse, Rendant de la fois plus comte soixante lumineuse, elle aurait eu un clat gal celle de l'toile, et si l'on EUT Rendue soixante fois plus qu'elle n'tait lumineuse, c'est- dire -trois mille six cents fois, la comte eut t alors soixante lumineuse fois plus que l'toile, et, son tour, elle fait EUT disparatre l'toile par la supriorit de son clat. ".... On peut admettre que le clair de lune disparatre fait toutes les toiles au-dessous de la quatrime grandeur;. Ainsi l'atmosphre illumine par la pleine lune acquiert assez d'clat invisibles pour rendre les toiles de cinquime grandeur et au-dessous
6) Compt.

explanatory. , 1857. p. 357

Babinet linked thereto other considerations, making it extremely low to be adopted, density and mass of the comet is for those from other considerations, in fact, a vanishingly small size, but which do not concern us further here. Also I give the previous observation as an example of possible application of the constant difference, but consider the application of Bouguer'schen value on stars not permitted for reasons that I discuss in the next chapter; also what the whole bill Babinet's result is precarious. XI. For more information about the size and

dependencies of the threshold values in different sense modalities.

Absolutely fixed and universal rules on the size of the threshold and difference threshold are possible in any sense sites, where the threshold depends very much on the outer attachment, the stimuli and the condition of the sensitivity of the organs, which is very variable elements are, what there is the difficulty of value, a feeling or a sensation difference begins to accurately determine. Meanwhile, here is what is in this regard (see Chapter 6) of the Mabestimmungen the sensitivity has been said in general concerning. Which, even if only approximate, determining average values for commonly occurring conditions on the one hand, extreme values on the other hand, always keeps their interest, and in many cases can not even be spared. The dependence on the circumstances but is not itself to be regarded as an object of examination. The lower the threshold, the greater the sensitivity under the same circumstances. It is common ground there after the establishment of the human organism is a limit,

which may in this respect be kept; whereas many circumstances, some abnormalities of the Constitution, the institutions, accidents of any kind can increase back the threshold, all thresholds actually obtained are therefore only as an upper to consider limits below which, so to speak, ideal threshold, which would be found under the absolute best circumstances. The smallest threshold, insofar as they are based only on good monitoring, therefore have the most interest by bringing the upper limit of the actual border the next. The following contains indisputably not a complete compilation of what is present in different areas of information about thresholds, yet, the following information may provide a starting point for further completion. Most of this information will but can only refer to the difference threshold as the absolute threshold have little present. 1) Intensive threshold. a) light and color. That a threshold in brightness sensations could not fall into the attempt has been discussed earlier (Chapter 10). Regarding the difference threshold, the previous data in the 9thCommunicated the following chapters and the resum. Bouguer found by experiments with shadows questionable whether with or without exercise, the difference threshold equal to 1 / 64 of the intensity; Arago without movement in different individuals 1 / 39 to 1 / 71 , with movement 1 / 58 to 1 / 131 (see chapter . 9) Volkmann by experiments with shadow in different individuals with agitation approximately 1 / 100 (see Chapter 9); Masson by experiments with the rotated disc in different individuals 1 / 50 to 1 / 120 and above (see section 9). Masson, the value of different colors remains the same, but is different for the eyes of different individuals. In the experiments, which have been obtained by means of the above provisions, light or shadow areas were applied with a certain extension and direct vision everywhere. But it is certain that the difference threshold at least to a certain extent also depends on the extent of the apparent sizes, and behaves differently on the lateral parts of the retina than in the central. Generally, a small black area disappears on a white ground, or vice versa in the bottom of the lighter, that is indistinguishable from it, depending on a smaller face angle it is viewed, and in each part of the retina seitlichere hits them. Lines are still detected at the same thickness with points where they are no longer recognized. Also the color makes a difference. As for the influence of size, the irradiation has already act as meaning that objects of very small dimensions disappear at the same distance of the eye more easily in fact, larger than what is required not always taken into consideration. It should be noted that a black line or a black dot on a white ground propagates through irradiation equally well while reducing the blacks, as a white on a black background with

reduction of the brightness, which the fact and theory stated by Volkmann accurate and is designed 1) .
1)

reports the Leipz, Soc. In 1858. Pp. 129 ff

In fact, of course, is that light which dispelled by the irradiation, thus diluted, or black, which is characterized overrun with light, may be less easily respektiv distinguished from the black or white ground, nor must this circumstance points to a greater ratios than lines concern. Common ground so the difference threshold of the fixed stars is considerably larger than the Bouguer'sche value, the Babinet after a basis for calculation presented, ie a fixed star is already at a much greater differences in intensity as 1 / 64 can not be distinguished therefrom against the sky reason and it would be very important for some astronomical proportions, to him directly by experiments on artificial stars determine 2) .
2)

It will be useful to Masher's experiments with respect to a related task in the Proceedings of. d Vienna. Academician in 1852. p. 504th 511 to take into consideration. The previous suffices to show that intensive and extensive threshold of perception of light can be determined only with reference to each other. Therefore, for now I leave this subject, and then continue to discuss under 2), in consideration of the extensive threshold to return to it, and also the influence of irradiation. Thus it has been noted that even color to be recognized as a color, to be presented to the eye to a certain extent. Even with direct vision is the case, even more in indirect.Indisputably play Irradiationsverhltnisse and induction ratios (in bridge's sense) of the reason for a small colored surfaces play a role in the disappearance of the color, which until now is still completely unresolved. The most careful observations about the actual, Aubert hired 3) , but would to draw definite conclusions, its observations on the behavior of colored squares on a black and white ground in the lateral parts of the visual field corresponding white and black on the behavior squares on color basis yet to be added.
3)

Graefe's Arch Ophthalmol f .. III. 38 ff b) sound intensity and pitch.

Schafhutl 4) presented by consultation of appropriate measurement devices attempts over the limit of the audibility of sound to when the same by dropping a bead 5) generated on a detained at their nodal points by screws rectangular plate of ordinary mirror glass with tightly against the record of fixed ear position from measured height was. The horizontal distance of the center of the disk where the auftraf beads from the center of the orifice of the ear, which was determined to hear the sound, it was 55 million, 74 million, the vertical, the straight line 91 million

"Experience I taught, the author says that this is the best distance at which the ear of the quietest sound that it is still able to affect us, surely hears. " The main result of this (not described in detail) tests are the author of this: "In my experiments to determine the sound quantity, which is my ear still audible, I have found that the sound produced down fall of a 1 milligram heavy cork granules by l mm height, average for my ear with perfect calm, so at night, even is heard. At 30 experiments of this kind in the night 12 clock in perfect calm I have the sound generated by the above experiment is still with full decisiveness 25 times, a similar relationship was also held in some musically trained ears of younger people. differs from older individuals were only a few before that were able to hear this sound even if they had not practiced her ear,. however, managed a few more times after exercise, the above still sound to be heard with certainty " Abhandl. d Munich. Academic VII p 501 5) By dropping the same is taken from a pair of tweezers, which you open by means of two handles. "I therefore have no hesitation in the sound variable, caused by the fall of 4 milligrams heavy Korkkgelchens of 1 mm height to accept as acoustic dynamis, which means the average limit of the healthy human ear under the influences of our civilization still audible sound values." Common ground tests with a more significant sound values would be desirable at a greater distance of the ear, as in this case of course lose small interfering effects and measurement errors influence. Also it should be noted that the hearing could happen only with one ear noticeably according to the circumstances of the previous experiments, however, we generally use both ears to the hearing. For differences in sound intensity given by the (chapter 9) Try Renz and Wolf seems like Volkmann to pass a much lower sensitivity than for differences of light intensities, if indeed sound levels that are about as 3 : act 4, more be sure distinction, in accordance with uncertain but, as they get closer from there. As for the pitch, there is general acceptance of an absolute lower limit of audibility of tones, and although it is usually assumed at 30 oscillations (Chladni) or 32 oscillations (Biot) in sec. Meanwhile, would by the recent experiments of Savart 6) with the rod Irene a sound or be heard, which corresponds to 14 to 16 vibrations per second, and he is inclined to believe that it is only that matters is the individual impressions to extend necessary to make even deeper tones audible, so that there is no actual limit is. However, contradicts Despretz 7) , the Savart's has repeatedly attempted with care, with certainty to his information, and draws as a result ". that there is currently no evidence that the human ear can hear and identify sounds of less than 32 simple vibrations" Savart was probably directed by the great intensity of the sound of his telephone mistaken, the giving very strong, but not more musical tones or identifiable by their height in fact which would thus hereafter rather have the character of the noise.
6) Ann, 4)

de Chim. et de Phys. XLVII. p. 69 or Pogg. Ann. XXII. Pp.

596 7) Compt. ing, XX . p. 1214; Pogg. Ann. LXV . p. 440th In fact, if Despretz's right, it was the sound, which already gave every single beat of the bar siren for themselves at each other because of the closing period of beats in continuo part, which gave the illusion of a tone. As it may behave with the difference between Savart and Despretz, it would be absurd to suppose no lower limit of the sounds of a human ear. A sound that would be generated due to vibration, which would have the duration of one hour, could, of course, not heard by people as sound. I thought of differently organized beings, but certainly not by people. The audibility of sounds seems to have not only a lower but also an upper limit. Sauveur in the Mm. de i'Acad. Ann. 1700 sets the upper limit at 12400 Sr. in the second. Wollaston believes the voice of the bat and the Feldheimchens formed the boundary of the highest perceptible sounds. From the deepest tones of the organ to the highest vibrations of insects were 600 to 700 times faster, which would put the upper limit on 19000-22000 simple vibrations. Biot takes even only 8192, Chladni 12000, Olivier 8) 16000, 18000-20000 Young as the upper limit of.
8)

primary matter of meters. Spr p 12

Savart found now that if you created only the high notes in sufficient strength, for which he used a toothed wheel whose teeth anschlugen to a thin body, even tones that correspond to 48,000 simple vibrations (shock = 24000), can be heard Despretz and draws from his experiments with small forks the result that the ear hear sounds up to 73,000 vibrations still determine, classify (entender apprcier, classer) can, "but that the hearing is not very high notes as soon happens that one the same could introduce into the musical scale. " It can even be questioned whether the limit of audibility of high tones is already reached, and not even higher tones would be audible at higher gain after all. On the other side is very possible that either the nerves themselves are unable to hear highpitched sounds to, or the tympanic membrane with its annexes unable to accommodate such. The Previous concerned the absolute audibility of tones. As for the distinction of pitch, the sensitivity of this seems to be greater without comparison than for the distinction of sound levels. A. Seebeck 9) was able to two tuning forks, which were almost exactly in harmony, so that the one 1209, the other 1210 vibrations per second made (determined by the shocks at the same time sounding), still noticing 10) that the a trace deeper "than the other was." "It was (says Seebeck) this small interval not just distinguished from complete harmony It does not need to be reminded that this distinction already requires a well-trained ear,. Solely although I have reason, my hearings on this site be trusted out pretty much sharpness, I can not doubt that the ear of a tuner's, a violin

player usf is able to go further. Two excellent violin player, which I have just presented those two forks were not in the least doubtful which of the same which was higher. fact that in this case by the sound of two sounds were the same, may be beneficial for a more precise distinction of their height well; also might not quite the same at all altitudes focus to achieve ". Pogg. Ann. LXVIII. P 463 10) common ground like if he let them be heard by each other, although this is not explicitly stated.
9)

Earlier data on the sensitivity of the ear for rich tonal differences not as high by far. W. Weber 11) occasionally noticed that the ear is able to take under favorable circumstances directly (ie, without the help of the shock and without means) to determine the sounds so well that the error at 200 oscillations is never more than one oscillation.
11)

Pogg. XIV, 398 pp.

Delezenne 12) has not only determines the just noticeable deviation from the purity of the consistency or, as in the previous case, the provisions, but also by other intervals as the octave, fifth, major third, major sixth. It may be noted that this does not determine the just noticeable difference of a sound from another, but a Tonunterschiedes or Tonverhltnisses of another, by representing each perfect interval between two successively stricken tones a difference, the impure a slightly deviating difference . But it may be the case where one determines the just noticeable deviation from the purity of the unison, as a special case of the general case will be considered, as the fact, where the deviation from a zero differences between two tones.
12) Recueil

des travaux de la soc. de Litte. 1827. p. 4

The experiments were made. A taut on a monochord (sonometre) over two ridges string whose length between the lands exactly 1147 millimeters was, and made the 120 vibrations per second, was so divided at a point of its length by a under set mobile web that both parts of the string gave their sounds through one of the above sound intervals. The movable bridge was sharpened: he was placed under the string so that it is not the same voltage increased, and pressed by another sharp edge against it. Delezenne now assured only by the purity of Tonintervalles. Then, the movable bridge was a little, or a few millimeters up to 1 moved left or right, and judged by the observer when a deviation from the purity of the interval was noticeable, other times even without that the observer could see the bridge as long adjusted until the purity of the interval seemed achieved, and watched how far went to the error. Although these attempts seem employed with great diligence and with care, unfortunately, a really accurate method but it is missing, so that you can not give too much confidence in the comparability of the figures found. It would therefore be

highly desirable that this bad for the musical exercise like the theory of musical sensations equally important provisions in part by the method of right and wrong cases, some of the mean error in more detail with each repeated ensure comparability with different people from and good hearings were repeated because the method of just noticeable differences or limit mistakes one commits used by the author may not provide sufficiently sharp result. The following is the result of Delezenne's experiments. If a little this way of keeping the two parts of the strings was crazy and disturbed in a string length of 1147 mm, which was 120 oscillations per sec, set in the middle of a bridge, so were very keen ears to make a difference between belonged to the tones of both parties perceive each other when the bridge was moved away by only 1 million of the middle part of a string of words their lengths, while their frequencies million situation , the other , hence the ratio of

, respectively. In one

, the difference was also recognized by all untrained ears.

Si l'on le DEPLACE chevalet mobile millimtres de deux ou gauche droite, la diffrence devient sensitive aux moins les oreille exerces, ainsi que je m'en suis assur sur plusieurs personnes. Si le dplacement you chevalet n'est que d'un millimtre, il faut avoir l'oreille dlicate assez pour s'en apercevoir immdiatement. La soumise cette personne preuve ferme les yeux, soit pas pour n'tre distraite par les objets environnants, soit pour les ignorer dplacements feints ou reels you chevalet viter et ainsi de se prvenir dans le sens du changement qu'elle verrait oprer. Est donc une oreille trsdlicate sensitive lgre cette diffrence. Admettons que ce soit la limite de la extrme sensibilit de l'oreille humaine et calculons les rapports entre ces deux sens si peu diffrents. Nous verrons

organise la mieux est l'oreille donc sensitive une diffrence de 1149 sur 4 vibration! " "Pour cet intervals comparer celui represente par le comma , et que nous prendrons partout pour unit, dirons nous, que l'oreille est peine un quart de sensitive comma, sur l'unisson. " "Nous avons vu de qu'an dplacement 2 millim. sensitive aux personnes qui tait n'avaient essay jamais de comparer des sons. - Nous trouvons, ainsi pour les sons compares, l'intervals

Ces personnes sont l sensitive donc une diffrence de 3 vibration sur 1151, ou un intervals un peu au suprieur demmi-comma. " We draw the corresponding specific results for the other intervals to with so able at all to Delezenne a very sensitive ear, a deviation from the following intervals to distinguish just yet, if the ratio of frequencies is the beistehende, and the tones are heard by each other. Consistent Octave 13) Quinte major third major sixth 14) or

As you can see, the deviation of the fifth is relatively felt most clearly. For people who were very inexperienced in comparison of notes, there was 14) Depending on the Verrckungsweise the ridge to the right or the left.
13)

c) weights. About the smallest absolute weights, the pressure will be felt on different skin sites, Kammler has done a series of experiments in conjunction with some co-workers (Aubert, foresters, Trenkle), and the results in s dissertation: Experimenta de variarum cutis regionum minimal pondera sentiendi virtute . Vratislaviae published in

1858. The experimental way was that light weights of elder pith, cork, card paper, from 9 Qu Mill size and different, enlarged on the circumstances through a pad weights were quite slowly and vertically lowered to the part to be tested, for which purpose a fine curved brass wire or a pig bristle was attached to two lying in a diagonal corners that Gewichtchen took the shape of a stirrup on the upper curvature of a cotton thread was attached to hold the Gewichtchens. The special release of all results would lead us too far, the whole surface of the human body by different observers with experiments is diameter sen. I note only the following: The order of sensitivity of the parts has nothing in common with that which Weber has been prepared according to his experiments with compass points on the sense of touch. She agreed at the 4 observers close, but not quite the same. The most sensitive parts included forehead and temples, eyelids, dorsum of the forearm, where usually 0,002 grams have been felt, and the fingers were much less sensitive in general. The following are at all the special details for the most sensitive parts where the lightest weights were as flat felt. 0,002 frames have been felt by Aubert to: forehead, temples, right and left forearms with the joints on both sides of Volar and dorsal, outer parts of the metacarpal of my thumb and back of both hands. - From Kammler to: forehead, temples, dorsal side of the right forearm, back of both hands. - From Rangers to: forehead, temples, upper and lower eyelid, nose. - From Trenkle at: nose, lips. 0,003 grams, of Aubert to: outer parts of the metacarpal of the right thumb. - From Kammler: to: Volarteil both forearms and Dorsalteile of the left forearm; outer parts of the metacarpal of the left thumb. 0.04 grams, of Kammler to: outer parts of the metacarpal of the right thumb. 0.05 grams, of Aubert to: nose, lips, chin, upper and lower eyelid, middle of the abdomen, etc - from Kammler to: nose, lips, chin, upper and lower eyelid, middle of the abdomen, etc - From Rangers to: Lips , stomach, etc - From Trenkle at: forehead, lips, upper and lower eyelids, abdomen, forearms, etc. The heaviest weight, which had just still feels, 1 gram is listed on the nails of the fingers and (at Aubert) of the right heel. In regard to the differences in weight already (see Chapter 9) are informed of the results, which occasionally EH Weber won the probation of Weber's law. His treatise 15) , however, contains detailed experiments on the smallest detectable difference in weight depending on the concurrence of the mere pressure feeling or feeling of pressure and associated muscle and depending on the difference of the parts to which the pressure is raised.
15 ) Programmata

collecta p. 81 sq.

In the following experiments, the two weights to be weighed against each other were the two hands and the just noticeable difference of these was determined after

the indicated comparatively (see Section 9) methods: a) by the mere pressure feeling, while the hands on the table remained resting b) by means of the combined pressure and muscle feeling, by the hands were raised. Now, while each of 32 ounce weight was assumed on each hand, the difference was noticeable when the weight was reduced on the one hand to the following sizes: ab ---1) Businessman, untrained. .... 6 1 2) scholar, mathematician. . 6 2.5 3) EH Weber himself. . . . 16 2 4) Businessman, untrained ..... 8 4 5) Virgin ........... 16 2 6) woman ............. 16 4 7) woman ............. 12 2 8) Student .......... 8 3 9) Student ........... 12 2 10) Student ........... 8 1.5 11) ................ 15 1.5 12) ................ 10 1.5 13) ................ 18 8 14) ................ 12 6 15) ................ 6 4 16) ................ 8 1 17) ................ 8 4 -------funds 10.88 2.93 In following experiments, 16) , the observer weighed with the same hand weights two alternating from which hung two towels together beaten whose lobes were united together comprises of hand. "From the 10 people who were half male sex, which compared 78 and 80 ounces to the manner described in towels to raise the weights were only two who could the heavier weight of the lighter does not distinguish, 7 of them in particular 3 Each experiments made with every right, which weight is heavier. Some of them 4 to 7 experiments were made, and in all these cases, they determined the weight properly. certain one seven times in eight hired him attempts of the 10 observers correctly and a wrong time. "
16)

tasts. and Gemeing. p. 546th

Weber has it that in this experiment, the muscle I'm feeling alone systems, in which

I after the note (see Chapter 9) would not quite agree with him. In following experiments, 17) was applied to the same parts on both sides of the body (in the last two parts placed on the midline), the constant weight of each 6 to piled-species taler, each of which weighed a little under 2 ounces, so that the total weight on each side was close to 12 oz. Of these species taler was one taken on the one hand to the other until the weight difference was noticeable. The following table (p. 96) gives the number of species taler, which had to be removed, so that the difference was noticeable (is the subject of trials not identified). Volar surface of the fingers ...... 1 palmar surface of the hand 18) .... 2 dorsal surface of the finger ..... 2 inside arm surface ......... 4 foot in capitulis metatarsal. 1 Concave part of the sole of the foot. . 4 heel of the foot ......... 3 17) Progr coll p. 96 18) superficies volar metacarpal manus.

Gastrocnemii ........... 4 parts of the front side ...... l Haired part of the back of the head 4 Front part of the breast .... 4 shoulder blade ............ 2 sides of the abdomen ... 1 midline of the back at the shoulder-blade ...... . . . 5 median line of the abdomen ... 5 These tests can still see the place according to the method of equivalents in relationship, which in the 12th Chapter are given. d) temperature . About the size of the just noticeable differences in temperature has EH Weber 19) reported some information, which you can discover in the method of alternating hands-dipping in two vessels with equal warm water with great attention with the whole hand or the difference between two temperatures only 1 / 5 to 1 / 6 R. degree is, but he has the series of temperatures in which these differences are noticeable, certainly not accurate. I have found that still show minor differences in mean temperatures, and that they be very different according to the temperature. It is used to see what the 9th Chapter p. 202 et seq been notified.
19)

The sense of touch and the sense of community, Wagner's Words to live by. P

534

About the degrees of heat and cold, which are able to cause pain, the trials and discussions of EH Weber in the same paper read pp. 571 ff.

2) Extensive threshold. a) vision. Basically, all the dimensions that we consider on the retina, defined in the general field of vision, and you can raise the question of what number sensation circles would belong to produce ever a field of noticeable expansion of the sensation, a question that probably is to be distinguished from: wherein one fraction of the number present is to be understood a part of the overall field of vision as distinct from the other when it is excited in differentiated manner from the others. To decide that question, however, is so far no way to go, and so I abstract here from the same, regardless of it actually is the basic question of an extensive emerging to come back with some in a later chapter of theoretical viewpoints on it, and turn to the investigation the extensive threshold in the following sense. What are the smallest with the eye still just recognizable sizes, distances, sizes, and distance differences? The task of determining the smallest yet recognizable distance, actually coincides with the to determine the smallest yet recognizable size, together, if you yes the diameter of any one still just discernible size at the same time as a still just discernible distance between their boundary points, conversely, can still look just noticeable distance as a still just recognizable size.However, the experiments differ in those where a dot, a line, a yarn, a small area viewed on a broad uniform basis and has been watched, wherein eye distances and hence in which viewpoint this small size is not identified or disappeared, and in those where two or more distante points, lines, threads, small areas were viewed on a given reason, and was watched at which point of view of their mutual separation occurred uniform fusion. The former attempts may be referred to as such even on the smallest detectable quantities, the latter as such over here specifically smallest detectable distance. The experimental conditions are different in that in the former the success of the experiments very much mitbeteiligende irradiation of only two boundaries, the latter of four boundaries can be considered. Each size to be detected with the face is ever to appear on a certain reason, and are therefore recognized only on the basis of the difference from the bottom, after which the question of extensive threshold for the face with the question of the intense difference threshold related, and in this respect already came up. A distinction is made visible size the easier for the same extension, the greater the relative brightness difference is, on the other hand (at least up to certain limits) with the same relative differences more easily, the bigger it is. May be the reason black and distinct, his face white, or vice versa, it will remain valid. Twining 20) has intentionally directed experiments on the determination of a legal

relationship in this regard by certain black round regularly ordered patches to appear at what distances a illuminated lamp on a white ground, which received its light only of this lamp, as separately stopped when the eye was placed in different distance from it, whereby it is guided to the laws that, while the distances of the eye decrease in geometric progression, the associated lamp distances in arithmetical progression grow 21) .
20)

Twining, Enquiries Concerning Stellar Occultations by the Moon and the Planets, - experiments upon Light and magnitude in relation to vision in American J. of sc, 1858. July, VC XXVI. [2]. p. 15th
21) The author himself says, the result of these tests (p. 23) like this:

"That while the distances of the eye diminish in a geometrical ratio, the increase enlarge CORRESPONDING distances of the light in a arithmetical ratio. In other words, the distance of the light is a logarithm of the linear magnifying effect." "One remarkable result of this law is that a small fractional change of a faint light poss esses a great efficacy to balance a givenName magnifying effect as a large fractional change of a much brighter light." If, now, the illumination intensity J the squares of the lamp spacing L, and the apparent diameter D of the black spots eyes intervals A reciprocal, so you can for L substitute andA substitute , according to which the expression of the

law translated into that same ratios equal Differences belong. Such a law is in itself not likely, and the question raised by Twining assumption that A reciprocal of D is, because of the circumstances of these experiments impossible to negligible influence of irradiation, which will be dealt with immediately, indisputably not allowed. Therefore, notwithstanding the attempts of the author, as you can see below, agree very well with the given laws, but it is probably rather just an empirical expression to its universality under different experimental conditions one can still doubt, as a true law of nature. Meanwhile, yet these attempts are not without interest, unless it is apparent that the light intensities at which the clear identification of the stains loses or increase in very heavy conditions when a large viewing distance is increased in a given situation, whereas in low ratios, when a small eye distance is enlarged in the same proportion. Thus, corresponding to the two largest eyes intervals 107.29 and 134.11 Engl. Inches, which applied the author whose ratio 4 : 5, the lamp distances 29.5 and 15.5 Engl. Inches, ie, a ratio of the light intensities 1 : 3.62, while the two smallest intervals eyes, which he applied, 28.12 and 35.16 inches, the ratio also 4 : 5 is the lamp distances 131.6 and 110.5, ie, a ratio of the light intensities 1 : 1,419. And here you will always be able to find a general reference. The essence of the system, the anwandte the author, is in a within and without blackened, by the way everywhere sealed box, but which on its front side has a

square opening through which light enters from one side, however, is rendered into it seen from the other side, the illuminating light and the eye are just as far to the side (on the opposite side of the opening) so as to not hinder with the lighting and the person looks. On the back wall inside the box is a paper with small round, regularly arranged equidistant from each other distant black spots 22) , which receives the light, and what is seen on. Now, while the eye is located in different experiments in different distances from the back wall of the box, the lamp is always moved closer or further moved until the black spots clearly but begin to indicate or distinct separation thereof just stops 23) . The lamp was coated on to the force required to open the light exits, and the eye by a saw, mounted on a frame tube (tube-eye) circular opening of 0.16 inch (circular aperture) and 3 inches in length. Tube and the air were displaced on graduated long boards or slats, which converged at a small angle to the box, and that was the board on which the eyes tube was moved to a geometric progression with an exponent 5 / 4 divided. Before the square opening in the box was still attached to a blackened screen with a corresponding opening of said aperture to prevent scattered light room.
22)

"A paper Regularly marked with small black round spots equidistant and Regularly arraoged." About size and distance of the spots from each other not specified.
23)

"Till the cluster of black spots Became just resolved -. thing or just ceasing to be visible as a distinct cluster"

The following table contains (English) inches, the results of observations of 24) . With every eye distance to the specification in the original four pairs (four pairs) were made observations, but are merely the table each 4 numbers that are so well means of two. The successive eye distances are in the geometric relationships 4 / 5 , and the last column gives the lamp calculated distances, calculated by assuming that that geometric conditions of the eye distances in an arithmetic difference of the light been listening to 16.0 inches distance. Eye Relief 134.11 14.5 107.29 34.3 85.83 68.66 54.93 43.95 35.16 40.5 57.4 74.9 99.0 Lamp distance 14.8 29.5 51.7 69.2 77.1 90.5 18.2 27.6 50.6 61.9 74.7 88.3 14.5 26.4 46.5 64.7 79.1 90.2 Aver.Lamp calculated distance 15.5 29.5 47.3 63.3 76.5 92.0 14.8 30.8 46.8 62.8 78.8 94.8 110.8

114.1 106.5 110.0 111.4 110.5

28.12
24)

138.4 122.6 132.1 133.4 131.6

126.8

With regard to the last, smallest, eye distance, the author noted "At the nearest station (and greatest CORRESPONDING lamp-distance), the faint illumination and consequent straining of the eye created occasional letter paroxysms of distinct and magnified vision Which Introduced uncertainty." Earlier, it was argued that the differentiation is less visible depending on the sizes of basically very Irradiationswirkungen with. This influence will be to consider now in more detail.We combine it with irradiation of optical aberrations along the dependent physical and diffraction of light propagation of the impression on the retina. In all experiments, the smallest detectable size or distance you go to such a small size with the size or distance down, or removed themselves so far from it, that apart from the irradiation the image on the retina to a point or a line of pulls together a very considerable diameter, and generally has one up on Volkmann in his recent treatise on irradiation 25)calculated the diameter of the smallest recognizable image or the smallest detectable distance regardless of irradiation. But Volkmann's fine attempts to follow the results below have no doubt discovered that even with the best and bestaccommodierten eyes a noticeable and measurable spread of the light impression held by irradiation, and keeps one's data on the size of the Irradiationskreises in clear as possible seeing together, be it with his or with data from other observers still recognizable smallest sizes, it is found that the diameter of the diameter of the Irradiationskreises apart from irradiation calculated images of the smallest detectable size (or the minimum detectable distance) is not only a very considerable win ratio, but generally at much the same even exceed, after which the light impression considerably extended, but also by virtue of the dispersion should be less than let him find this calculation for the minimum detectable sizes.
25)

reports the schs Soc. In 1858. P 129

In fact, after Volkmann's measurements below following the edge of a light appearing in glossy silver thread on black ground by the side of the Black widens out to 0.0012 to 0.003226) million Lin = 0.000532 to 0.001418. in min and max of 6 people in the best possible accommodation of the eye, and when the black thread is seen against a bright background to from 0.0003 to 0.00185 million, however, such as the angle of view by Hueck, under the a white line on a black background just disappears, thus denoting the limit of still just discernible line width, 2 seconds is what represents 0.000145 million on the retina
26)

As specified later half of the value of R.

Since made after (see Chapter 10) Note the expansion of the dependent physical circumstances of irradiation can not grow with the strength of the light, the light of an

intense and one faint spot is thus spread over the same space, but the light of the weak can be weakened to the imperceptibility against the base, while the light of the strong still remains markedly characterized. If ever a point of light is not intense enough to still be distinguished by the difference in threshold from the bottom in the center of the Irradiationskreises, he can no longer be detected. Turning a black dot on a white ground rather than vice versa, so make analogous considerations eligible, provided that the surrounding light points be diluted by irradiation, and overflow the black dot of light, which just as the spread of the black dot by irradiation with mitigation blackness arises as a spread of white dots on a black ground, as has Volkmann closer (op. cit 120) discussed and demonstrated by experiments. Bergmann 27) noted that the points or lines that are used to try on the smallest detectable quantities appear in the greatest distance very pale, so that is strenuous eye easily could any confuse a light shade it, and that every time you look a grid drawing of millimeter wide black and white stripes on the distance to where they were first recognized gradually approaches, the white of purity, the gains black depth. These are circumstances that easily explained by the fact that at a greater distance than the distance of distinct vision, the propagation of light through the optical aberrations grows.
27)

Henle and Pfeufer periodicals. III. F. Vol 11 P 93

Easily explained because of the great, and to the foregoing, influence which the intensity of light has on the detectability of very small sizes, you have explained the tests on identified suitable for the smallest distances to test the sharpness of the mind space 28) . Meanwhile, the influence of irradiation is only complicated, not missing. When two bright points or lines are so close that their Irradiationskreise are engaged, and the minimum of the brightness in the intermediate space is no longer different from the maximum at the center of the irradiirenden points to the difference threshold, they can also no longer be distinguished. Also here is experiential rather than a certain influence of the intensity of the light. Because I think in Steinheil's photometric treatise (p. 17) to remark that weak blackened lenses express a surprising success in terms of separating the very near double stars, but confess not be able to derive this effect from me known ratios of irradiation. For it seems to me, under the condition that the expansion of Irradiationskreises not grow by increasing intensity, the ratio of the minimum and Maximumordinate the intensities that same need to remain in strong and weak light, which would allow the noticeability of the difference unchanged, with regard to entering the cabinet, the intensity of the reason but to have held a certain advantage of distinctness with greater intensity.
28)

Weber, reports the schs Soc. In 1853. P 141

The previous combined, it is apparent that the previous experiments on the smallest visible sizes and distances on the retina are not usable to draw firm conclusions about

the fineness of the spatial sense or degree of extensive sensitivity so far from the question of how much share of the irradiation thereby, brought to Pure, and this proportion is eliminated, and that the calculation of the size of the smallest images on the retina of size and distance of objects and the classification of the relationship in which such to the last elements of the retina are illusory and is erroneous in so far as the irradiation is not taken into account. In this respect, Volkmann concludes his treatise on irradiation (p. 48) as follows: "All the foregoing observations, the size of the smallest yet perceptible network pictures are noticeably wrong, are all to be great by the bills on which they are based, the Influence of irradiation can be ignored. " The question arises whether the influence of the dimensions of the components comes back to the noticeability their differences entirely to the influence of irradiation, which would imply that he soon finds his limit with increasing magnification. Over here, it unfortunately lacks intentionally directed to the subject matter sufficiently resounding trials. Only some, but not particularly respect the fact employees, attempts forester's 29) I knew to refer to the question of which seem to show that the influence of size on the noticeability really goes beyond what to write on irradiation. These experiments were made. "An inside blackened, parallelepiped, closed on all sides box of about 36 inches long and about 8 inches width and height is the dark chamber in which the object to be illuminated is situated at the one square end thereof are two round openings of 2 -inch center distance for the eyes and next to the same level a larger, 25 > Zentim. in the square holding the light source. latter opening is spanned on the inner wall of the box with fine white office papers, and 1 inches away from her There is a (very uniformly burning preserved) burning wax candle 30) . The so-lit square of paper is used as the light source for the inside of the box on the wall vis--vis to be attached objects., the size of the light source was diaphragms (cards rails with opening) of specific dimensions, which were pushed tightly against the same, changed at will. "
29)

About the Hemaralopie. In 1857. p. 5 10 30) 12 pieces per pound, 4 long, "in diameter.

The weakest light, which is required for Distinction of 1-2 Zentim wide and 5 Zentim long (vertically placed with the long side) black rectangles on a white ground "(at a distance.. Now noticed the author (p. 10) par of 12. inch = 32.5 Zentim. eye on) is represented by a source size of 2-5 Qu-Mill If the light source under this number down., the objects must be significantly larger. " It can be calculated that the image of a 2 Zentim. wide strip at the specified distances Eye, 0.9 million is on the retina, which exceeds the value of irradiation in accommodierten eyes after the above data far. If now be visible in low-light still larger objects, the influence of the size can not depend solely on the irradiation. Meanwhile, but broader, particularly directed to the object, size and

modification of the tests with absolute brightness need to be desired. With everything previous is only ever claimed that the present provisions of the minimum detectable sizes and distances, without regard to the irradiation are not valid, but not claimed that there was no independent irradiation threshold of the extension to the eye. It may be that the extension of an impression on the retina or skin shrink arbitrarily and still could a sensation arise when only a living nerve terminal is made and the impression exceeds the intensive threshold, but that is not to say that this impression really as an extended, ie get so felt that a majority of points is in distinct if the extension of the impression falls below a certain limit, as well, which significantly associated with, that distance vary arbitrarily small on the retina and still could be perceived as a distance by such a feeling presupposes the distinction between two boundaries and hereby also a majority of points. It is in fact one in the physiology of the nervous system now generally regarded as valid viewed assumption that impressions are only distinguishable if they are made in various circles of sensitivity when under sensory circle the end or in the case of branching all the ends of a primitive nerve fiber is understood . A sensory circle, he is an unbranched or branched fiber belonging, but necessarily has a certain diameter, and hereafter can, impressions, fall on the same sensory circle next to each other, no longer be distinguished. In areas of the face now seems indeed the experimental evidence that this really the case is to be subject to insurmountable difficulties because of Irradiationskreis a point of light should always be greater than the diameter of a sensory circle, but we can here with the skin, the analog of the retina look across, for extensive body sensation. Although the irradiation also plays a role in the Tastversuchen, provided that the pressure of a contact tip needed to neighboring locations on Plant has more or less. But neither it is possible that observed by Weber flowing of two 30 Lin. compass points away from each other on the back, upper arm and thigh in a single impression, even to make the observed in regard to the just noticeable distance between different parts of skin differences depend on it. The analogy of extensive sensation ratios of the retina with the skin is but too well established by Weber for other relationship than that we should doubt that she would make this claim. The so far shows that the evaluation and interpretation of the study of our subject on the one hand, knowledge of the absolute size of irradiation is important, which can occur in the best possible accommodation of the eye, on the other hand, the knowledge that retinal elements one has to be regarded as representatives of the sensory circles reason and what dimensions they have. In the first respect, I will reclose as follow the results that Volkmann has received in themselves and some other persons, in the last relationship I note briefly that, the cones than the empfindungsperzipierenden retinal elements are considered with predominant probability now, and that after Klliker's measurements of the diameter a pin on the yellow spot where the clearest seeing takes place, is 2-3 thousandths lines. Bergmann 31) was confirmed by the smaller of this information in a measurement at the fovea lutea outward.

31)

Henle and Pfeufer periodicals. III. F. II BS 37 Volkmann's experiments on irradiation 32) .

Silver threads of 0.445 million in diameter from the following clearest visual distance S passed (in millim.) in the eye, gave, according as they a) as black strands against a bright background, like the sky, or b) in a striking gloss light as white threads against a published black background, the average number of the following Z trials, of which the first number on a), going to the second b), from the following Irradiationskreise diameter R in millimeters. R a b 0.0035 0.0046 0.0037 0.0064 0.0024 0.0058 ? 0.0051

Observers AW Volkmann (Author). . His son Otto V., 23 years, good eyes ............ His son, Edmund V., 26 years, good, very experienced eyes. . . Dr. R. Heidenhain 33) ..... E. Appel, student, very sharp eyes ............ Young girl, 16 J,, very short-sighted, otherwise good eyes. .
32) 33)

ZS 39th24 333 10th15 250 15th12 250 ? 40 100

20th20 300

0.0006 0.0025

10th15 112.534) 0.0017 0.0024

reports the schs Soc. In 1858. P 129

a) were at Heidenhain not uniform, therefore, not listed, results, but the majority of the experiments was the adoption taking place Irradiation is not cheap, which Volkmann referred to as an exceptional case, which did not occur to him again.
34) If a) was S = 115 at b) = 110

Volkmann noted that it except the series of experiments whose results are reported here, many (sometimes caused by him) individual observations of the professors garlic, Hankel, Ruete Czermak and others possess, which all corresponding results (ie a proof of existing irradiation) supplied. These results were obtained as follows. The observer brings the micrometric instrument of which (see Section 9), the speech was parallel with silver thread diameter of 0.445 million in what he sees most clearly the lines in the distance from the eye, and looking through the turn of the screw to give a distance parallel threads which is equal to the diameter of the threads. It is found, however, that each time it establishes a distance much larger than the actual diameter of the corresponding threads because this diameter will widen the irradiation. This arises on account ways as follows: It is possible with respect to the date that the intersection of direction lines in the axis of the eye 9 million behind the foremost

points of the cornea, and 15 million is in front of the retina, after removal of the micrometer threads of eye and their mutual distance not just the diameter 2 r of the retinal image of each micrometer thread, but also the distance of the axis of a wire from the other in the retinal image, apart from the scattering by the irradiation, calculate, according to which for by a simple consideration the, the realized tests, the case that the distance between the enlarged images of the wire diameter 2 a widened wire image appears the same, the diameter of a = Irradiationskreises is, namely by = + 2 2 and = = . Now Volkmann took a mean of 39 experiments, a bright distance = 0.207 million, 0.445 million from the dark thread width at a distance of the eye = 333 million equal appearing, after = 2 = 0.0055

million; 2r = 0 , 00199 Mill, and consequently - 2 r = 0.0035 million to control Volkmann put on another 10 trials so that he was looking for the distance between the threads seem to produce twice as large as the diameter of the threads. According to the results of previous tests can be calculated (p. 144) that this distance should be 0,328 million, which the company resulting from the average result over 10 trials corresponded noticeably 0,337 million, which proves that these Tentatively earned confidence. Still deserve consideration the following points: The irradiation behaves differently in the vertical and horizontal direction. If Volkmann the wires in the horizontal position viewed from the same distance, as in previous experiments at perpendiculrer, the picture in the highest degree was unclear, so he had to pull a weak Konvexbrille to have the same visual distance to maintain 333 million, where in sparse the background in the middle of a diameter of 10 observations Irradiationskreises = 0.0047 Mill revealed that he held (without glasses) was only 0.0035 million in perpendiculrer location. The specification of the 5 days of the experiment in a method with regard to brightness returned for Volkmann following distances D between the micrometer threads in which seeming equality with the wire diameter takes place (which at bottom D appended number indicates the number of trials): 1 Experiment (without specifying) D 9 = 0.1897 2 Day, cloudy. . . D 10 = 0.2271 3 Day, bright sky ... D 10 = 0.2153 4 Day, very bright sky. D 10 = 0.2074. Heidenhain's experiments by the method b) gave the

1 Day (no details). . . . D 20 = 0.111 2 Day, very bright light. . D 20 = 0.153. Special provisions smallest detectable sizes. If the existing provisions on the minimum detectable sizes and distances appear unsuitable already on the previous to let pure results of any kind, they are important in that they partly determine a limit below which any rate the performance of the eye is not enough, sometimes have a practical interest, and therefore should not be unwelcome to a compilation about it. Unfortunately, however, this compilation shows little agreement between the results obtained by different observers. And since the precarious value thereafter can only attach to them, would completely disappear if the circumstances of the observation would not specify exactly, I give so much practicable the same with their own words, the observer again. Insofar as it applies here, face angle in sizes on the retina translate, or vice versa, is the basis of Listing's provisions, the distance of the intersection of the principal rays of the retina = 15.1774 million = 6.735 par. Lin., And par of the cornea = 7.4696 = 3,315 million. Accepted lines, and thereafter for l sec visual angle 0.00007357 0.00003265 million or par. Lin.substituted. Almost most commonly find the following entry in Smith's used look which I share here my command after the French translation of his work (p 40 TI.) "Le Dr. Hook assure que nous l'oeil le pins subtle ne peut pas une distance distinguer bien dans le ciel, comme une tache dans le corps de la lune, ou la distance de deux toiles qui comprend dans l'oeil un angle moindre qu'une demi-minute (Voyez ses remarques sur la machine Cleste d'Hevelius p. 8). Si l'angle n'est pas plus grand, paratront les toiles l'oeil nud, comme une seule toile. Assist j'ai une exprience o l'un de mes meilleurs amis qui avait les yeux de la compagnie, pouvait distinguer peine un cercle blanc sur un fond noir ou un cercle sur un fond noir ou blanc oppos la lumire du jour , lorsqu'il comprenait dans son oeil un angle moindre que les deux tiers d'une minute; ou ce qui revient au mme, Lorsque sa distance l'oeil surpassait 8156 fois son propre diamtre; s'accorde assez avec ce qui l' observation de Dr. Hook. " Tobias Mayer 35) indicates the result of several experiments as follows: Prima experimenta facta sunt in loco Umbroso, apertis fenestris a sole growth meridiano aversis; objectis atramento Sinico, ink vocant in Charter plana et albissima PICTIS. 1) punctum nigrum, rotundum, diametri lineae Paris. oculo myopic, sed convenienti equivalents munito spectatum, cum distaret oculus 10 pedes Parisienses, adhuc satis bene distingui Poterat. In distantia 12 pedum dubie videbatur in distantia vero 13 pedum jam prorsus evanuerat. - 2) Simile punctum, sed decedent diameter 0.44 lineae, adhuc videbatur distante oculo 14 pedes; distante autem Same date 17 A certain degree of influence of the lighting shall not entitle.

pedes, vix vestigium adparebat ejus, sicut remoto intranasal ad 18 pedum distantiam omnino evanuerit. - 3.) Punctum aliud diametri 0.66 lin cernebatur adhuc in distantia 24 PEDD, aegerrime autem ac dubie PEDD in distantia 26th oculo et paulo plus remoto nihilum eius spectari potuit. "
35)

Comment. Soc. sc Gotting. T. IV, 1754. p. 101st

After several more experiments with narrative lattice figures of which will be discussed below, he adds: Puncta et figurae, quae sunt in superioribus adhibitae, quamvis luce solis aestivi meridiani et, atque adeo Fortissima collustrata in iisdem tamen quam proxime distantiis, sub quibus supra incipiebant confusa apparere; discrepantia Concertos, si qua erat, repetito saepius experimento modo majores distantias, modo minores arguere videbatur. " This result that the level of illumination had no effect on the recognition of the points, however, is in contradiction with the resolute down following results of Plateau's experiments. If the points in the three tests could e conspectu eripere the distance of the eye, which, according to Mayer's prints (p. 101), is respektiv 12,17 and 26 feet with it, so the diameter of the image in the eye was this respektiv 0, 000973; 0.001126 and 0.001186 par. Lin;. The angle of view 30, 35, 36 seconds, or at various distances substantially equal to this size. Plateau 36) considered in his experiments both color and light level. Small colored paper discs of 1 cm were attached to a vertically mounted outdoor table. Of these, plateau as far removed successively until the colored disc completely disappeared more than just a small, barely perceptible, cloud appeared, and some steps on this measure the distance of the objects and then calculated the visual angle. The results in the two cases were the following: In the shade. In the sunshine. White 18 "12" Yellow 19 "13" Red 31 "23" Blue 42 "26" the difference that color makes this probably is due only to their different degrees of brightness.
36)

Pogg .. Ann. XX. p. 327th

Hueck 37) experimented in the following manner to: a fixed point is clearly seen sharp eye of a normally formed; gradually removed the observer until it disappears from the objects, and the table on which the point is located or stroke, quite purely appear.

37)

Mueller Arch 1840. P 85

"From several hundred individuals employed by various observations now revealed that a non-glossy white dot on a black field with 10 seconds viewing angle disappears," what 0.00033 par. Lin. or 0.00074 million on the retina corresponding to. A white line on a black field is seen by him nor under 2 sec viewing angle, contrast, found the visual angle under which black dots disappear on a white field, 20 seconds. The former corresponds to 0.0000652 par. Lin. or 0.0001470 million, 10 times the latter thereof on the retina. For details on the number of attempts and the degree of match, which was obtained here is not informed regarding the latter indication. Also on the lighting conditions in the experiments nothing is said. Volkmann 38) could a simple spider thread to a distance of 21 inches, and another led to the observation by him perceive the same thread up to 22 inches away. A 0.002 in. thick hair recognized Volkmann 39) to 30 inches width. A student Bear's recognized
38) 40) of

a hair

thickness even at a distance of 28 feet.

Volkmann contrib page 202 39) Wagner's word. Article. Watch. P.331 40) According to a statement from Volkmann see Article See p.331

More detailed information with some interesting side rules are Ehrenberg ) , which I find rarely been taken into account. They do not refer to observations with modified distances of the eye, but to the clearest visual range (Ehrenberg 4-6 inches) in the generally very small objects are visible. I share it here with his words with: "With the multiple opportunities - he says - which I had to watch inquisitive people to whom it was pleasant to learn the marvelous structure of infusoria familiar with me by his own observation, I found to my surprise the difference in eyesight of the individual far matching, when I pronounce it expected and than you commonly. Had I once set the so-delicate subject in the correct viewpoint of the instrument (microscope), or I had directed the naked eye on a very small object thoroughly, so saw 15-20 people which I sometimes at the same time these things demonstrated perfectly equal and with equal clarity the same as what I myself saw,. rarely they took another highly insignificant different distance of the object from the eye to their needs To be sure, not by courtesy or shame not want to admit of such to be deceived, not to see something like, I often record the objects seen by the observers, or let me describe cumbersome, so I learned with conviction that they looked completely the same and just as sharp, what I had seen, and mostly without that it was necessary in the former case, to change the microscope. This attention to a large number of people with different viewing distances continued observation made me likely that of a rather solid general limit for vision unadulterated and healthy human eye give, which

would allow a conclusion as to the highest power of the microscope. hereupon I made many observations to average out to what extent the differences and presbyopischer myopic eyes on the general expression of the force have an influence, and have often convinced myself that the opinion is not rare, as people saw more myopic or sharper than others, unfounded is the result of my experience is a double.: 1) There seems to be a normal force to the eye of the people in regard to seeing the smallest parts to give, and the deviations from them appear to be much rarer than is commonly believed.
)

Pogg. XXIV p. 35th

It may be the only such speech ever be able to see clearly in any distance. Among more than 100 people, I have observed, were in the normal viewing conditions of the sharpest unseeing able to distinguish more than I myself saw, and they were themselves holding for schwachsichtig or farsighted usually able to see the same thing that I saw it only required a more definite statement, and particularly in seeing with the naked eye usually a slightly larger towards or away from the object of her eye than I do. 2) The smallest of the natural human eye usually achievable size of both the white color on a black background, as for the black color on white or lichthellem basically 1 / 36 of a Parisian line in diameter. Is still possible, by Lichtkondensierung greatest attention and excitement of the sizes between 1 / 36 and 1 / 48 of a line, but without sharpness and doubtful to see41) .
41)

"The fact that 1 / 49 to maintain the effort would not be worthwhile, wellunderstood. Upcoming worth the effort ratios were 1 / 60 or 1 / 72 line, and also I can not make any experiences that they have seen from anyone would. " This is the limit of the power of the natural human eye for color body that everyone easily, as I have tested, can verify, by on very white paper, very fine black dust particle, eg, of dry ink, ink, etc. brings, and the smallest of which receives a very fine tip and puts on a glass micrometer, which is at least 1 / 48 indicates line directly. Sun and lamp light also allow easy, with or without a mirror, the black bodies like on the glass micrometers in light basically look at. Bodies which are smaller than the specified, may in spite of all efforts, not be detected separately, but in a simple straight line with the naked eye. The like are also several together in close proximity and in several series, they make a common impression on our mind and deceive us, as we would see a larger single body or area 42) . The usual distance that good eyes if they want to see these tiny body, watch, I found by measuring 4-5 inches, sometimes 6 inches, which latter is the usual distance for very perceptive. Myopic people approach the same objects rarely more than 4 inches, 3 inches or less, etc, and then the rest are mostly the same. Someone whose sharpest visual distance is 4 inches, can

through greater convergence of the eye to the subject matter does not raise his eyesight, but feels pain and looks blurry.If you have fixed the object once, so you can remove it much more without losing sight of the same. I can even 1 / 24 of a line at 12 inches distance not see in black and white, but I have visited it at 4-5 inches away, so I can remove it down to 12 inches and can still see it clearly. This phenomenon is based on the known power of the eye to accommodieren after some distance. Often you can see small objects at a greater distance, as soon as one is made aware of their location, or if they move. Similar phenomena give a balloon at the bright sky and a ship on the horizon, light one sees it, once you are made aware of, but the ability for quick reference based on habit and mental acuity without allowing a conclusion on vision in general.If someone is excited by vivid visual impressions than another, it is oriented towards faster, but he sees no reason more than any other, which, because it takes less lively these impressions, slower-oriented. I often Operating the the agent, only to find very small objects with a magnifying glass if I want to see with the naked eye, to give them about a different location with a fine point. This phenomenon is only for the rear orientation clearly the location of the body, and carried only the speed of this orienting. Myopic eyes are oriented more easily because they are less distracted by their field of vision is a smaller one. Is likely to finally have a higher power of the absolute vision of the human eye to add, that is the luminous bodies for the recognition. Small glowing in the dark body appear known to be much bigger than they are and this, whether they self-luminous or light be reflectorized, can easily at a much smaller size than 1 / 48 line, depending on the light intensity, has an effect to the human eye yet. I have never had occasion to observe yourself glowing sizes that were really so small in diameter, so that I could draw attention to a limit in this regard ..... Metallic luster, which is a very powerful light reflex, can be made according to Goldstubchen my observations with the naked eye at normal daylight up to 1 / 100 see a line that is twice as far as colors. ". "It is different with lines Opaque threads of 1 / 400 . line thickness can be seen to light with the naked eye cobwebs measure 1 / 300 to 1 / 2000 lines; threads of the silkworm 1 / 200 The latter are in cocoon twice.. "
42)

., "I'm used to identify in this way very fine infusoria eyelashes Once they move, they form a small apparent area, which is siehtbar; soon as it is but often rest their fineness such that the sight of them the microscope not be achieved. " If the size of 1 / 36 Lin. transforms at 4-6 inch eye relief, which indicates Ehrenberg as the limit of vision for nonlinear bodies in lines on the retina, we find from 0.0039 to 0.0025 Lin., which noticeably larger (10 times as large) than Hueck's 0.00033 Lin., notwithstanding both results from a large amount tests are derived, and Mayer's result exceeds by more than twofold. Just so Hueck and Ehrenberg deviate from the fact that after Hueck black dots on a white ground, a larger visual angle demand, as, according to Ehrenberg, however both are inversely indifferent.

A difference of circumstances may lie in the fact that Ehrenberg's experiments are done with consideration of tiny particles from close, but because both the observer is evident from the points vision gradually the Mayer and Hueck points of considerable dimensions from a greater distance, until the disappearance point can be removed. Although now makes to Mayer's experiments, the distance no significant difference, but since its distances 12 feet and be about it, so could be a lot closer, as it took place in Ehrenberg's experiments, but make a difference, and what is yet to be investigated in more detail. Wofern it is important not only to detect the existence of a visible size, but also to determine the shape, a greater angle of view is required. After Hueck 43) was a square of 1,2 '"diameter at 11' distance, ie at a visual angle of 2 35 "still recognized as a square. Just so, a line of slate 1.5 "'length 13', less than 2 '45" still recognized as wrong. Document (double agent) with a width of 1.5 letters' "and spaces within the letters 0.5" 'read Hueck using a suitable for his eye glasses in 13' away. Bergmann 44) found that "short lines were seen far less than equal width longer." EH Weber 45) notes: "According to my tests, a white line on a black ground from a more to be seen than three times as great distance, as an equilateral rectangle of the width of the line, and the brightness of the illumination of the line and a very abstechender background can still increase this distance. " Muller's Arch 1840. Pp. 88 44) Henle and Pfeufer, Journal III. F. Vol II, p 92 45) reports d schs Soc. In 1852. Page 142
43)

Special provisions smallest detectable distances. The experiments here are employed in various forms about what is changing the results.

) Two distante dots or squares.

The statement regarding Smith's two stars (see above) already reported. Volkmann 46) dropped to a small bulb of 0.15 inches in diameter, the flame images of two lights, which were removed under 8 inches to 4 inches from the ball .... He realized, with the help of glasses, complete separation of the little picture in the glass up to 20 inches in the middle and touching, but clearly double, thumbs up to 26 inches .... One of his friends repeated the experiment, and recognized the thumbs up to 37 inches away. To fully realize the duplicity without spectacles, Volkmann had to approach the glasses down to 12 inches.

After Hueck 47) merged two black dots on a white background of the 0.45 "'desisted from each other, with each other at 10 feet distance of the observer, the angle of vision for what their distance 1' 4" there. The same result gave strokes that just stuck out so far from each other. EH Weber 48) adds his (as) communicated, added ratio determining the distance at which white lines and squares on a black background vanish from sight, "however, two white, equilateral rectangles on a black ground, the of by a black space are divorced each other, which is just as wide as the squares, or as two distinguished from a distance that is almost equal, from which two white lines on a black ground even as two distinguished, which are just as wide as those squares are separated by an equally broad and black linear space of each other. "
46)

N. Contrib page 202 47) Muller's Arch 1840. Pp. 87 48) reports the schs Soc. In 1852. Page 142

) Two distante threads.

Volkmann 49) spanned two spider web threads in the parallel direction and at a distance of 0.0052 "next to each other, and found that he was the same on 7" recognized as a distance twice, but no further. The perceptive among his friends recognized the duplicity at 13 "distance. Two parallel black lines on a white ground with mutual distance 0.016 " recognizes Volkmann using the glasses at a distance of 27''. Valentin 50) was able to distinguish two lines even if their images on the retina desisted only 0.0009 '"of each other. Hueck found for bars the same result as for points (see above).

) Stripped and wrflige figures.

Tobias Mayer 51) describes experiments in the common light of day as follows: Figura L. striata, decedent nigri ductus, aequales Albis interpositis, lati erant 0.36 lin paris. spectata in direct distantia PEDD. 11 jam Aliquantum confuse videbatur, ita ut vix liceret alba intervalla a Nigris discernere. PEDD in distantia 12th omne discrimen inter strias aberat. Certe nonnisi aegerrime sentiebatur. Paulo remoto plus oculo tota figura eundem colorem quasi cineatium mentiebatur. 2 Figura itidem striata, sed decedent atrae striae duplo crassiores erant, quam albae, harum enim erat latitudo 0.2 0.4 illarum lin lin, incipiebat Videri confusa distante oculo 9 vel 10 pedes. 3 In eadem distantia alia figura striata decedent albi ductus duplo latiores quam nigri, nempe praecedentium inverso ordine, desiit distinete Videri; latitudo striarum albarum erat 0.4 lin, lin nierarum 0.2.
49)

Wagner's Dictionary on. See Art. P.331 50) Valentin textbooks. d Physiol. II, pp. 428, here's to Weher Article touch pp. 634 51) Comment. soc. sc Gotting. T.

IV p. 102

Notandum, binas has figuras (No. 2 et 3) etiam in experimental mentis sequentibus 52) eandem semper oculi distantiam requisivisse. Quare Commodum erit, de iis in posterum conjunctim referre. 4 Figura cancellata lineis Nigris, quarum latitudo 0.44 lin eadem, quae interstitiorum alborum, spectata e distantia PEDD 15 . incipiebat Mentiri equal houses ubique nigredinem, ut dubium eat, illa num aibi quid in contineatur. 5 Figura aleae similis aleatam dicere brevitatis causa liceat, quadratulis Nigris albisque varia, quorum Singula latera aequalia 0.52 lin distante oculo 12 pedes, extremam visionis speciem praebebat, paulo enim plus oculo remoto confusa alba cum Nigris apparebant. "
52)

Employed by candlelight

After comparison of No. 1 with no. 2 and 3, and no. With No. 4. 5 Mayer concludes that inequality of white and black intervals facilitates recognition. The experiments with the streaked and wrfligen No figures. 1 to no. 5 were then in the dark under direct illumination with a tallow candles at different distances L of the same repeats of the figures, where the following distances A of the eye of the figures as a border width of cognition (termin. visionis) were (unit of Parisian feet): LA Distance removal of the eye of light no. 1 No. 2 and 3 No. 4 No. 5 7 6 12 9 16597 25476 34465 44364 54 64 73 83243 13 3 2 3 3 Mayer represents the law according to which A with L changes by the following formula , where n is dependent on the nature of the character constant in the various figures, it

becomes as follows: No. l 2 and 3 4 5 79 52 73 99 It is a compilation of statements and observation that the formula is true, within the limits of these experiments is close enough. Hueck 53) studied the means of a dashed manner of a machine engraved coins, medals and gems in the trsor de numismatique et de glyptique. Paris, 1834, and could in this case intervals of 0.0727 "'to 22" 3' "distance, ie under a visual angle of 56.8" still differ, so some pretty clean with very sharp lines on quite pure smooth white surface printed still under 44.3 "viewing angle. At slightly greater distance, the dashed yellow stripe appeared gray area. surface appeared red on orange in a retinal image of 0.001", just as yellow stripes on a blue surface green. Marie Davy 54) drew black lines on white paper in such a way that the spaces were just as wide as the lines themselves, he manufactured a number of such sheets with stripes of various widths and then tried each of them how far he had to remove from the eye, by no more black and white stripes, but a monotonous gray to see. He found that this happened when all the leaves at such intervals that he calculated width of the retinal image of a Streifes almost to 0.0011 millim. revealed. This was namely 0.00109, 0.00113, 0.00113, 0.00112 mm at distances of 5.8, 0.75, 0.53 and 0.41 meters. - The type of calculation is not specified. EH Weber 55) turned to black lines, which were very tight and pulled evenly by machine stitch and printed on white paper. They were 0.025 par. Lin. wide, and just as wide, the interstices between them. His son, Th Weber recognized the lines even par at a distance of 9th 2 inches Lin., Where the face angle at which there was seen a gap was 45.3 sec. The same experiments he did not hire several others, where the greatest focus was found in twos, one of which (No. 9) is also still in the lines 9 inches, the other (No. 8) detected in 11 inch spacing, which respektiv 45 , 3 and 36.5 sec visual angle of the space or 0.00148 and 0.00119 par. Lin. equivalent.
53)

Muller's Arch 1840. Pp. 87 54) Instit. XVII. p. 59th 55) reports the schs Soc. In 1853. Page 144

Bergmann 56) turned lithographed grid drawings, the bars and spaces each 1 millim. wide, in the following manner. In the middle of the lid of a round Pappschchtelchens a hole diameter of about 20 million, and the grid was cut from the inside panel fixed against the lid, so that only a part of the same circular came to light from outside. "Hereby we get the opportunity, by means of rotation of the lid to give the bars any inclination so that the man whose eyes are checked, can lead by indicating the direction in which to run the lines, to prove that he really sees it . "

56)

Henle and Pfeufer, Magazines. III. FBKs 94 f

"The success of a significant number of experiments was now that the selected good eyes of several individuals never required a larger approach, as it corresponds to the experiments No. 8 at EH Weber;. Strips with their millimeter wide spaces were always in 8.5 meters recognized. " .... "Often the way the direction of the strokes was repeated correctly detected already at greater distances, even now and then even at 7 meters distance. Too, the experimenter made often remarked that if they knew the direction of the strokes, they the same in these greater distances sow. An earlier experiments it met even that a 10year boy who had become aware of its occasionally excellent eye author, the (modified each time) in the direction of the strokes correctly three times in a distance of 8 meters stated. then followed a false statement. " Bergmann raises (p. 97) emerged as noteworthy "that regularly seen in the distance of 5.5 meters, in which fairly good eye for sure the direction of the lines, the images of the same slightly wider than half have a pin diameter, from which one always could suggest a significant relationship between these dimensions. " In, addition, distances higher than 5.5 meters, which often occurred in a correct recognition of the direction of the lines, sometimes running errors were very often is peculiar in that the direction of the straight lines is perpendicular to the given real. In the same distances, the lattice panel also appeared frequently piebald. A man who did not know the object, holding it at a distance of about 6 feet for diced, a second, which is about 2 feet behind him, then explained that he saw already from there. Miner sets these circumstances shrewdly with a likely assumption about the shape and arrangement of the pins as percipient retinal elements in the relationship, yet it would be too cumbersome, commenting here on. In certain directions of said detecting of grid bars seems to be easier than in others, however, this change to the eye of individuality (see Miner p. 1041). Behavior of the side parts of the retina in the detection of the smallest sizes and distances. With the previous information was considered the apparent sizes and distances with the deutlichst seeing, central, provided part of the retina. Toward the periphery increases the visibility of both sizes as distances from, but by no means in all directions at the same conditions. Observations above are from Hueck, Volkmann with cottage home, some of Bergmann, the most detailed of Aubert with Ranger, is among other factors, specifically demonstrated that the impossibility of two points to be distinguished at some distance from the axis of the eye, not to optical aberrations of the eye can be pushed, and that large numbers of different or squares as viewed under the same angle with different sized face distance of the eye can be detected in the vicinity of the optical axis on distant parts of the retina, as in the distance. To extend the detail of this chapter not too far, I think in terms of the qualifiers

these tests need to refer to the original papers. Hueck Muller's Arch in 1840. Page 92 Volkmann, in Wagner's Words to live by. See Art. P 334 Aubert and Frter, f Ophthalmologist in Graefe Arch. III. Pp. 14 and Moleschott Unters. IV p 16 Bergmann, in Henle and Pfeufer periodicals. III. F. Vol II, p 97 With this, set the tests to determine the size of the part of the retina with which to see clearly enough to read publication in relationship, what. EH Weber in the reports of schs SocIn 1853. Pp. 128 ff, Aubert and Foerster have to look in the mentioned papers. Distance differences (eye). About the fineness of proportion has EH Weber 57) the following information: "Dissecui chartam papyraceam scriptoriam magnitudine maxim consueta in octo partes aequales et cuilibet parti lineam rectam co-equal houses inscripsi, curans simulated, ut omnes lineae aequali crassitie et nigritie, diversa autem longitudine essent. Brevissima linea 100 millimetris alia quaedam linea longior 100 mm, alia longior 101 mm constabat. Ita diversae lineae usque ad longitudinem 105 millimetrorum ductae sunt.
57) Progr

coll p. 142

lam duae chartae iuxta se positae homini proponebantur, cuius subtilitatem visus Examinare cupiebam. Homines arti delineandi operam navantes, ideoque visual exculto gaudentes, lineam perpendicularum 100 mm longam a linear perpendiculari 101 mm longa discreverunt, et experimenta ter, quater et semper quinquies iterators longiorem lineam recte indicarunt.Accidit disguise his ut et defa-tigati nonnunquam errarent. Plures homines vero lineas 100 et 104 mm longas non, sed certo non nisi lineas 100 et 105 mm longas distinxerunt. His experimentis intellectum est, a nonnullis centesimam, from aliis vero vigesimam lineae partem, qua linear alterative alterative parallela maior est satis certo visual cognosei. Some own experiments on the just noticeable differences of circle distances I mentioned (see Chapter 9). b) touch. About the size of the just noticeable distance from compass points on the skin is known to EH Weber first made studies, and found that this distance is exceptionally different on different skin areas. He found the greatest sensitivity par on the tip of the tongue, where even at . Lin. Distance the compass point was recognized as double, soon on the volar surface of the last phalanx (l par. Lin.), The red part of the lips (2 Lin.) On the volar aspect of the second Phalanx (2 Lin.) Etc, at least at the upper part of the spine and on the middle of the upper arm and lower leg (30 par. Lin.). His observation table is the most detailed in s Progr coll p. 50 sequ., shorter product

contracted in touch and sense of community in Wagner's Words to live by. 539 and p given in s Abhandl. in the reports of Leipz. Soc. 1853 p. 85 ff 58) been reproduced; at which latter place he also various supplements on the general conception of space sense and the methods to determine the fineness of the same, are. The Weber's observations are first of all Thomson (in Edinb. Med and Sug. Journ. no 116), and later by Valentin (d Lehrb. Physiol 1844. U.S. Vol 565), finally of Czermak Physiol. Studies or Sitzungsber. of Vienna. Academic XV. S. 425 XVII. S. 563, Moleschott, Various. Been p 183) confirmed and extended by the latter after several relationships.
58)

excerpt from it, but without the tables in Fechner's Zentralbl. In 1853. No. 31, The table is also in the Physiologic Czermak. Stud p.54 given. Very interesting experience to properly Chloroformierung and anesthesia, the just noticeable distances much larger circle on the skin, Lichtenfels has the Sitzungsbe messages of Vienna. Academician in 1857. VI. p. 338 made known. Paralytic conditions of the skin have the same success, what the experience of Landry in archive. gn. de md. XXIX. Juill. Sept.(Cannst. Jahresber f., 1852. p. 189) and especially Wundt in Henle and Pfeufer periodicals. In 1858. p. 272, also in Brown Sequard Cannst. Jahresber. In 1853. p. 202 are to be compared, which latter also reported a case of reduction of just noticeable distance by a hyper-aesthetic condition. Experience to properly exercise by the just noticeable distance is reduced, Hoppe medic in s. Letter. In 1854. Issue 2, Czermak in the above papers, and particularly in the Proceedings of Volkmann. d schs Soc. In 1858. p. 38 announced. Theoretical discussions about the conditions of the skin sensory room can be found in the cited papers medicin of Weber and Czermak in Lotze's. Psychol, 1852, in Meissner's contrib for anatomist. and Physiol. the skin. Leipzig in 1853 and in Wundt's Abhandl., The ever contains a detailed compilation on this subject. c) conception of time and movement, If two impressions are made in quick succession, they glide over a uniform for the sensation, and you can ask how big the meantime must be between two impressions to the same still regarded as a distinction can. A pure experimental answer to this can be a reason as analog as to the extensive spatial threshold not give. Because, as everyone has an impression Irradiationskreis around, leaves everyone feeling an echo. Is now the aftertaste, which leaves the first impression upon entering the second still strong enough that the difference from the second the intense difference threshold is not reached, one has the impression elapse uniformly with the other. One can ask whether the impossibility of two to conceive quickly after each other entering impressions as distinct, relates only to this circumstance. Over here nothing is decided by experience, and difficult to safely decide. But probably will after the analogy of space conditions as to the time and circumstances rather than simply an impossibility, yet regarded as distinct impressions too close to each other.

However, one can in this case does not make the existence of sensation circles in the (above) discussed the meaning asserted, but maybe it's good stuff for themselves that the subjective measure of time just as in psycho-physical oscillations in us, as the subjective measure of space is linked to sensory circles, and Everything what falls within the period of such oscillation, can be distinguished as little time as what falls into the extension of a sensory circle, spatially. It would be idle in the meantime, continue to investigate this hypothesis without the possibility of more detailed justification here. The question to this is, among other things comes into consideration in the attempt of the rotated plate with white and black sectors. While a white sector passes, the impression grows as a black passes, it decreases. Is the appearance of uniformity merely attached to it that the difference between minimum and maximum, the intense difference threshold is not reached, which consists of quiet, conceived impressions of light, or the appearance of uniformity thereby conveyed that the minimum and maximum of the impression occur so quickly in succession, that we both can not tell them apart in time, and therefore the difference be greater without compromising the appearance of uniformity, as in quiet aufgefatem impressions? It seems to me to be present some opportunity to decide on the basis of an experiment here on the first question, if you still have some data previously determined. In connection with the question of the time threshold focuses on the issue of time, which is necessary to conceive shared impressions with a given clarity. Over here I find some remarks and attempts by Valentin in the textbooks. the Physiol. II p. 471: "Which minimum of time - he says - with proper exercise is part of a satisfactory view of known objects, we see the most familiar to us from reading letters I read only one line larger print of this work (of Valentin's textbook) to do so. came in 10 attempts on one letter at maximum 4.21, a minimum of 2.34 and an average of 3,330 Terzien, in reading through a whole side that had no outlet, and was only printed with a larger step, found in 2629 letter and punctuation 1 minutes 32 seconds. This is for 1 picture in averages 2.10 Terzien. Did I make the same experiment with a continuous side Petit pressure of work, so I needed for 3944 letters and other characters 2 minutes 12 seconds, and consequently for an idea 2 , 01 Terzien., we can therefore assume in general that we are only two to four Terzien have the means necessary for the rapid reading of the opinion of each individual character. " Over the still perceptible smallest movements I find the following information in Gehler's words beech, products Face S. 1457 of Muncke: "From the determination of the duration of the light impression on the eye in connection with the above size of the face angle can be explained why some very slow movements are not perceived. G. G . Schmidt 59) chooses to make this clear, the example that the stars, but seem to stand still, even at the equator, where its movement is the fastest. if we set the duration of the light impression in the eye up to 0.5 sec, then goes through the star at that time, an arc of only 5 sec . and because it is

smaller than the smallest face angle for a spatial object, it seems to stand still. If the star hand viewed through a telescope with only 100 magnification, the face angle is 50 sec and its movement, but with effort and hardly noticed, but appears to the faster, the greater the magnification, the applying. Here, however, the vivid impression of light of the star to the eye in consideration, because the observation of the movement of the minute hand of a watch Schmidt received a different result . took this same fact in applying a ten-fold increase just as true. But by the length of the pointer 4.8 par. Lin. was, and the visual angle of a department thereof (for l0 Z. distance of distinct vision the observer) 13, accounted for 5 min, the movement was apparently the same in a second = 13.5 seconds, with 10x magnification and 135 sec or 2 min 15 sec now comes with this, but ingenious method to measure the smallest movements, much, especially the face sharpness and the enlightenment of the observed object in view, which is why the two data communicated so much different from each other. To test the latter, I observed even the minute hand of my watch, which is 9.1 Lin. many and steel blue moves on a dazzling white point Gazette. As long as he moved about the latter, I could see the fort back the same to the naked eye and perceive with a face width of 8 in., but he seemed to stand still when he was about a black graduations so that this motion so that as the boundary is assumed which can still hear my eye So we can just double those specified size of 13.6 sec and conditions of 10th : take 8 to my eye for the smallest optical angle to get from near 34 sec 60) , which, however, would not fail under less favorable conditions, especially when measuring the distance between the tip of the pointer between the two minutes strokes fell away, so small. This explains also why the movement of the stars in Telescopes will be visible in an optical angle of 50 sec, namely partly because of strong light the same in the relatively dark space, partly because the field of view of the telescope illuminates something, its environment is completely dark but because of the inwardly black tube, and in this way so the variable distance of the star can be measured from the edge of the field. "
59)

Hand and Textbook of Natural Philosophy. Casting. In 1826. 8 P 471 60) The exact calculation are 34 "50" '.

For this one can still see the following information from Valentin in textbooks. II p. 465 add:

Text original
Untersuchung anzusehen.
Contribuu a millorar la traducci

Die Abhngigkeit von den Umstnden aber ist selbst als ein Gegenstand der

"I can not yet the movement of gold minute hand (a pocket), which has a length of 14.5 mm, perceive with the naked eye in good daylight, but they however see if I have a 1 times magnifying loupe many other particulars. Fraud, the length of gilt pointer to another clock 18 mm, so I take the fort back of the head with a sharp

fixation in 4 inch distance from the eye just been true in bright light, but the whole thing slide I have a magnifying glass would hold at any cursory inspection of resting before., for also 4 inch visual distance 1 times larger, so I can perceive the location change significantly .... All such provisions of the second speed of the smallest change in the visual angle to give even the most correct preliminary data only approximate values, because a large number of side conditions that are not always exactly can be taken into calculation, substantially involved. Not only the strength of the light, the gloss and the color of the observed object, the distance, the visual distance and the face edge of the eye, but also the nature of the neighboring objects has on the perception of the quietest movements a significant influence. goes directly back to finer lines such as the hands of the clock, its slightest movement is easier than ever perceived, because those fine, attached as ornaments, used to fixed lines Vergleichungspunkten and insignificant displacement of the pointer tip to the more noticeable. "

XII. Parallel to Weber's law laws 1) .

It is a fundamental question to which we have been conducted on the occasion of probation of Weber's law, and will be here to take in more detailed consideration of whether and how far the sensitivity to differences with the sensitivity for absolute stimulus sizes runs parallel, namely, whether modifying the sensitivity to stimuli, which results from the effect of the stimulus itself, but also the sensitivity to differences involved the same.
1)

Revision p. 180 f 240 ff

A white disk on a black paper covers herself with continued observation with an up to certain limits darkening gray veil, a proof that the sensitivity of the light is dulled by its influence, what still can add enough other evidence. After fatigue by wearing or lifting a load is on the other hand rather perceived as heavier, which increases the sensitivity of weights shows the effect of the previous weights. There belongs to a larger light stimulus, there is less load to be equally felt. The question is: is hereby also the just noticeable or even equal considerable light difference, weight difference is enlarged or reduced to show, or is the body feel tired yet equally strong as without the fatigue of the same physical pressure difference? For the first sight it may now seem quite natural that when any two stimuli is perceived to be stronger or weaker, and the difference is felt more or less the same. But, as Weber's Law has taught us that when two stimuli are actually weaker or stronger, the difference is still just as strong as previously perceived, if he is weakened with the stimuli at the same time in the same proportion or grown, so could the modified internal reasons impression of the stimuli may have the same success as the real objective modification of stimuli, and the difference will be more after that just felt so strongly. In fact, what is called psycho-physical: the sensitivity to a stimulus is changed? If a fixed relationship between psycho-physical activity and sensation is, it can mean

nothing else than: there will be another stimulus size requires the same impression, ie produce the same mental and physical activity. Is now the Weber's law thoroughly taken instead to refer to the relationship of sensation to stimuli rather on the relationship of sensation to internally triggered irritation, so it has to come out to the same, whether the outward-acting stimulus weakened, or his inner effect is weakened as well as the weakening of the external stimulus only by virtue of the weakening of the internal effect is under consideration; briefly blunting the effect of the stimulus inside and weakening the same externally must have the same success, to have made the difference for the sensation unchanged when the components relate to the same conditions. Would, of course Weber's law is not from external stimuli to the internal effect, ie, provoked by the psychophysical activity transferable, sensation difference would not be constant if the relative difference or the ratio of somehow measured internal effects remain constant but changed after some a function of their absolute difference, so could not be transferred from outside to inside and this conclusion of law, and thus we see that the question to which this is, in fact gaining a fundamental importance for our teaching. It is a question to one of the bridges between the outer and inner psychophysics. Even apart from the question of how far is a dependence between the absolute and differential sensitivity exists, essential or not essential, of important issues, and the decision as very suitable, take a step of clarity forward in yet so obscure doctrine of irritability to make do and excitability. I want the law to what it mainly concerns on this issue, if it is to be regarded as a transfer of the Weberian from outside to inside, the parallel law of Weber's short or parallel legislation to call. It is can be expressed as follows: When changing the sensitivity for two stimuli in the same conditions, but the sensation is their difference remains the same . So that the same assertion is the following statement: When two stimuli are both perceived weaker or stronger than before, so their difference appears still as great as before for the sensation, if you had to modify both stimuli in the same conditions to obtain the earlier absolute strength of sensation through both. With the question whether the temporal variation of the absolute sensitivity of the same sentient part of an amendment to its sensitivity to differences much carry with, have dependent on them, is in natural connexion the question of whether a spatial difference of the absolute sensitivity, ie, a difference in the absolute sensitivity between different parts of a difference in their sensitivity to differences carry with much depending on themselves did, and it hereby contributes to the question of our law from the temporal to the spatial over. The different parts of the retina have been shown a different absolute difference and a different sensitivity for the light. Go substantially parallel in this regard? The same loads are perceived differently in different parts of the body as heavy; recognize you with those body parts that feel the

same weights as heavy, even given differences in weight easier? It seems to me that one such questions ever been made clear; still less that you have answered them clearly and decisively, but there are fundamental questions. Common ground when in temporal difference of the absolute sensitivity but the difference in sensitivity may remain the same, it can also apply to the spatial diversity, and vice versa, so that confirmations of the Act also speak for temporal side in favor of its existence on the spatial side, and vice versa, without however, that one can avoid the task to prove it to both sides especially. In general we can from the validity of the law under certain circumstances, not the same on the validity under other circumstances be securely closed, and it may, without the absolute and differential sensitivity significantly, ie everywhere, necessary constitutional in nature, from each other depend, but also be circumstances which affect both at the same time enhancing or diminishing, so that it does so in proof that the two are not significantly dependent on each other, not so much a question of to show that one always remains constant when the other changes, as they just as well without and against each other than with each other and subject to change in the same direction,., in other words, that the same law exists under certain conditions, even if it does not exist anywhere It is important not to overlook the condition of the law, that the sensitivity to both stimuli really changed in the same proportion that remained constant feeling of difference is to be expected after that. Suppose, for example, an equal attraction meet two digits of the retina at the beginning of the same absolute sensitivity, and will therefore initially the same as perceived by both, now the absolute sensitivity of a mere change in the plus or minus, as is also the precondition validity of the same Act, an immediate sensation difference between the two arise and this in the same way must grow with the increase of the difference in absolute sensitivity, as if with a constant sensitivity of both the stimulus that makes a point, grows, while it remains constant for the other. All questions and relationships that are discussed here in relation to intense feelings, find their application in just as extensive. Here, too, you can ask to be given expansion differences perceived most easily when and where given extensions appear at the largest, and is THEREFORE the just noticeable difference in expansion parallel to the just noticeable expansion? All of which will now be traded in the following, as far as experience is gained about the course by no means the desired connection and offer the desired completeness, a general, simple and nice to be able to express result. But you can say in general that a significant dependence between absolute and differential sensitivity of the parallel through the following probation law is negated directly in the field of weight tests. Also, the probation of Weber's law itself seems not at all to be able to succeed otherwise than under parallel access of the law, and so to say, in solidarity with the probation to be. For necessary must change the absolute sensitivity or irritability

during the experiments because of the continuous or repeated exposure to the stimuli and modified, and it does not seem that a probation of Weber's law could succeed through a scale of different degrees of irritation, if not at the same time transferability of the same effect on the inner or a parallel law holdings. I consider this indirect argument but for very binding. Meanwhile, it implies a need for more direct confirmations not, of which I quote folgends what it is to me bids. l) Weight attempts. A 32tgige handed test series (June-July 1858) at 32 . 8 . 64 = 16384 heave was one and the same main weights P = 1000 grams and two additional weights D = 40 and 80 grams, which was changed from one day to the other, under (ch. 8) runs given normal circumstances, apart from the varying length during which a weight was lifted, and indeed were following 4 elevation times 1 / 2 , 1, 2, applied 4 seconds and the 64 elevations with the left, just so much done with the right one after the other in each of these 4 times improvement in each of the 32 days of the experiment, each such 8 shape . elevations contained 64 = 518. Now put each in the raising time of 4 seconds, a strong sense of fatigue of the hand one because the main weight of 1 kilograms in such a long time had to be kept in abeyance, which at the lower elevation times, even themselves for two seconds I (which I expressly directed my attention), perceived nothing. Would now have this fatigue had an effect on the difference in sensitivity, then had it in the right numbers and derived from (chapter 8) hD values, which in the held constant D have the measure of this sensitivity, making it perceptible, and at all the duration of uplift express an influence on the difference in sensitivity, because even with not much gesprter fatigue but more must take a longer time raising the power to complete and therefore unclamp than a shorter one. But such influence is not clear from my experiments. For I received summed for the 4 major events following correct numbers r (for n = 2048 in the special numbers), and following, the difference in sensitivity proportional, values 32 hD in summation for both D's, and 64 hD in Summa for left and right, with the different uplift times, which is also to be noted that each of the 4 times improvement has equally often formed the beginning and the conclusion of a trial day 2) .
2)

The real numbers r and values 32 hD proceed in the following table are not all parallel to each other, what the (chapter 8) has given reason. n = 2048. 1 1541 3102 159509 192175 1507 1502 3009 161316 172139

Raising time r Left ......

2 1496 1483 2979 155271 168915

4 1546 1551 3097 183353 175337

Rights ......... 1561 Left ....... Right .....

Sum ...... 32 hD

64 hD ....... 351684 333455 324186 358690 This series can be used with the experimental probation our bill usually used (see Chapter 8). They were in fact for addends and L. R., and every 4 hours after raising our bill rule, the following values of 32 hD: at D = 0.04 P value 454399 --- 0.08 --- 913613 So with the double D twice hD. Let us keep to the totals below 64 hD containing the contracted result of all attempts to do so would, if the uplift duration and dependent fatigue made a difference in the values of the differential sensitivity, the biggest difference between the elevation time and 4 sec are expected but the values 64 hD here are substantially equal, and for interim periods are not very different. This result gains in weight that the uplift has duration but not shown at all without influence on the estimation of the weights by the constant influences p q have thereby suffered a distinct change, because it was the average value of the same, according to (see Chapter 8) specified manner determined in grams as follows: Left P + 6.73 +13.07 +12.38 q - 3.17 - 19.46 - 16.00 p 31.49 + 43.38 + 38.05 + Rights q + 6.28 + 3.30 + 0.36

Raising time sec . 1 sec 2 sec

4 sec - 7.95 - 3.28 + 3.43 + 6.04 Thus, while raising two seconds time with the left erstaufgehobene the vessel appeared to 12.38 grams heavier than the second repealed, it seemed easier at 4 sec time to raise 7.95 grams. When lifting with the right hand the change showed the same direction, but without going to the envelopes. Undisputed notice that the values of p as q for 1 sec and 2 sec lifting time are almost the same, however differ greatly for sec and 4 sec. But this is explained by the fact that in second time raising the elevation with a kind of quick jerks happens that is not quite comparable to the quiet elevations in the longer elevation times, however, at 4 sec's strong sense of fatigue induces an incomparability. The previous result was occasionally obtained at a series of tests employed for other purposes. To increase the influence of fatigue by raising period more than in previous series, I have recently (in January and February 1859) (apart from the added time) intentionally directed another series under normal circumstances this purpose by me two stronger emphases anwandte. Unfortunately, this series has remained a fragment from below anzugebendem reason, but the result deserves this fragment as a reinforcement of the results obtained elsewhere citation.

On the whole, this fragment is concerned only 16 . uplifts 64 = 1024, spread over 8 days, each with two divisions of 64 elevations, which were only made every day in succession with his left hand, while I usually Change servicekit with the left and right. There were two P's used = 1500 and 3000 grams, was changed between them after two days; D was 0.06 if both P . On two consecutive days was the same P and D retained, but changed from one day to the other of the following two experimental conditions: a) the duration of each single lift 1 second interval between each two double uplifts 5 seconds (in this case the usual peak times). b) Duration of each simple emphasis 4 seconds interval between each two double heave 3 seconds. So if b) the time during which the weight had to be kept in abeyance, four times as long, and the time to rest between two double italics in ratios of 3 : 5 shorter than in a). This difference was because the success that at b) on each test day soon a very strong (of course, with P = 3000 even stronger than P = 1500), feeling of fatigue in lifting hand came in, which was not the case a) . But this still occurred in b) a pain in the splenic region, to some extent on the very first days of the experiment, what reason was , to confine myself daily on 2 departments (since I the otherwise always 8 to 12 instead) and the new with every b-days of the experiment more and was on the 4th so strong 3) that I seriously attempt led the two departments to end what has prevented me from further continue the test series. Because it was my intention to repeat with right-handed and two-handed method and at least 1 1 / 2months to continue.
3)

This pain lasted for weeks after long, so I got permanent disadvantage itself. A mustard plaster seemed to serve well against it. Now I'm looking for another wide experience in 1024 heave by far not sufficient to justify a very reliable result, and especially, in fractions of these numbers in isolation are not sought safety, if you however hereafter see that P = 1500 a preponderance of hD for a), on the other hand P = 3000 for b) are, and the overall results of hD only a minor difference between a) and b) takes place, however, a very strong fatigue difference took place, which is also in a strong differences of hp expressed, it may here is no effect of fatigue on the differential sensitivity h behold. ' I admit, since it can be done without a lot of fussiness here, the entire specification of the numbers r , from which to draw the results. n = 64 r1 r2 r3 r4 n = 256 Sum r

P = 1500tha) --- B) P= 3,000.a)

52 52 55

46 39 43

58 48 51

45 51 57

201 190 206,

--- B) 46 61 33 60 200 Now you can see though, that here b) the sum of values of r for both P = 1500 as P = 3000, a smaller r are as a), but this depends on P = 3000 only to the exceptionally grown by fatigue influence of p, and the calculation can be rather hD larger for b) as a) for P = 3000 find. In fact one finds when one means of calculating the table to get the Fundamentals (see Chapter 8) given rules, perform the following values: 4 hD P = 1500th a) --- B) P = 3,000. a) --- B) 23460 18879 25335 4 hp + 7726 + 5023 + 1649 + 9375 4 hq - 2724 - 2405 + 3803 + 4821 + 1079

27071 - 18327 Sum a) 48795

Total b) 45950 - 13304 + 2417 In sum, therefore, the values behave 2HD in the experiments with and without severe fatigue = 48795 : 45900, which deviates less than would have been possible to unbalanced contingencies. The influence of p has at P = 1500 lost little by the fatigue of positivity, with P = 3000 but experienced by the much greater fatigue an envelope strongly negative. The influence of q is everywhere small compared to D and p, its determination to resolve some security. In the previous two experiments, the fatigue was itself caused by prolonged elevation duration of the weights in the experiments. Two other long and tedious series of experiments I have made, where it was caused by prior fatigue. The first has probably given because of a later addition to descriptive fact, not very decisive results, while the second as a confirmation of our law firm is to be considered. The first of these series (January to March 1856), which also still had a purpose other than to be stated the influence of fatigue, was one-handed, especially running with Left and Right. The main weight P was consistently 1000 grams. The additional weights D were applied daily 5, 15, 20, 30, 40, 60 grams. 72 days of the experiment, each with 640 lifts, one on each of which 64 D come with Left and Right with as much. Each of the 5 D's formed by the series, the final section of the day, but since 5 does not work out in 72, and so some D'snot so often the final section form than

others, so the test numbers are reduced by proportion, as if each D with Right as would have left 8 times department had made a final heave of 64, and thus the whole series concerned 80 days. After each day, 640 elevations were executed one after the other, was always performed on the same day in the hereafter to be designated, a strong fatigue of the arms, and then added an additional section of 64 elevations, which nothing but a repetition of the last section of 64 with the last used D had to choose between two departments, the first without the second to draw a comparison to fatigue. Thus (assuming the above reduction) for each of the 8 D's 8 departments with 64 elevations with linker and has just been received with so much right in the fatigued state for comparisons with corresponding departments employed immediately prior to fatigue. Furthermore, the results of the departments in the fatigued state can be compared with the results of all the departments, which were obtained at the same experimental days of fatigue. The way in which fatigue was carried out is closer to me in the reports of schs Soc. In 1857. Pp. 113 et seq been described by these fatigue tests zugleichzu exercise tests in regard to the muscle force were that I had told there 4) . Here it suffices to say that two lead weights each of approximately 9 pounds in Weight been so long levied in bars from seated position over his head and lowered again until the further elevation in the bars was impossible, what in the progress of attempts by increasingly longer time succeeded. Each lift took 1 sec, any reduction in 1 sec Approximately 1 minute after completion of the last oscillation during which the resulting general excitement lay down some and was sometimes counted the pulse, I immediately went on to repeat the last section.
4)

Maybe it has some interest when I noticed that the strong progress of the exercise, which had relied on those employed in Jan. to March 1856 test series in re-making the elevations on two consecutive days in Oct. 1858 now after no exercise had taken place, was noticeably gone. The earlier series began with the raising numbers 104 and 128 on the first two test days, and increased success as the maximum to 692, 19 and 20October 1858 were obtained for the same job, the experiments respektiv 122 and 118. Here is the statement of the values follows hD under the column z in the fatigued state, under u in unwearied simply calculated from the departments, which each time preceded the fatigue operation of U from the totality of each test day before fatigue; derived all of fractions with n = 64 distinction among the four major events 5) : hD D 15 20 Left U 2854 4809 u 2447 3349 z 3890 4937 U 4044 5698 Rights u 2984 4334 z 4822 5801

30 40 60 Sum
5)

7171 8980 13092 36906

6570 10485 12352 35203

4400 11108 11464 35899

7593 9052 12112 38499

7776 13054 14056 42404

8233 11693 16470 47019

Although this series mainly to study the influence of the size of D was employed, but it has been much less regular results regardless of size, in this respect, as other smaller series, what might the interposition fatigue were blaming yourself, but give the values with z in the right hand, with the exception of D = 15, very well tuned, ie the D's proportional values. To take into account is that for small D's at all only for very large safety trial numbers of results to expect. If we now draw the below sum results as definitive results into consideration, we see that in the left, the values of hD and therefore h substantially equal with and without fatigue are, whereas with the rights not only in the totals, but all individual values (except of U in D ) a preponderance of values at = 40, which is obviously too large z under the u and U turns.Namely, the values of z in the right hand a lot more weight than the left, because they are the D's next show proportional, as it is usually called, are quite irregular whereas at the left, which indicates strong interference. In particular, the values of z are in at the left D = 30 and = 60 seems much too small, both in proportion to the other values of z in the left than to the right corresponding to them, and closes it off, then it shows Also on the left z mainly all over u and U. It therefore emerge from these experiments rail almost certainty. that the difference in sensitivity of weights is somewhat enhanced by maximizing its fatigue-driven operation. Meanwhile, the difference appears in proportion to the previous strong fatigue but not significantly, nor considered what was the Left what the previous series gave and the following series are, unambiguously enough to not push it to a later to the leading side circumstance can . But first, it will not be without interest, even in this series, the values of p and q specify. They were in the middle of all the attempts at D's in grams: P Left U u - 15.15 - 21.76 Rights + 7.88 - 7.28 Left - 17.50 - 13.23 Q Rights + 0.20 - 2.73

z - 35.81 - 13.92 - 14.69 + 0.72 Thereafter, the influence of p in the transitions from U to z at the left at 20.66, with the rights to 21.80 grams, so both noticeably by the same amount, but increased in the rights under inversion in a negative sense, what the strong influence of fatigue operation proves to the ratios of the estimate and also a remarkable example of the

way in which these changes occur is. Already in the transitions from U to u notice a change in the same direction by u, with respect to the bare end department has a certain fatigue in proportion to U, has carried that refers to the mean of all experiments. (The mere initial values I have not particularly studied.) As for the question side fact, he could be in the following: By swinging the weights not only the muscles are tired, but also excited the whole organism, which made himself known through a tremendously increased pulse was so fast and small immediately after completion of swing always that I could it usually does not count but some times up to 150 beats and found still had about a minute. On the other hand had the experiments with raising the vessels of 1 kilograms. Weight under normal circumstances, for about 1 hour before or without subsequent surgery violent fatigue fatigue by no means the same multiplying effect on the pulse. On the contrary, the pulse was 21 under 29 test days of the current and a neighboring row, where I determined the pulse (in the same body position and under the same posture of the arm) is equal before and just after the experiments, sometimes more frequently than after the experiments, and was on average 87.8 before, 85.2 afterward. This reduction may perhaps depend on the slow steady strokes of the process, and a faster clock would have given a different result. Which supports the hypothesis that an indicated by increased pulse rate commotion outside an enhancing effect on the difference in sensitivity, the following experiences: My pulse was during the previous test series very variable according to days, what with the very uniform way of life that I lead, probably it could only originate that the repeated daily violent fatigue operation forterstreckte their influence over the whole duration of the test series, but in a variable manner. Unfortunately, I did it because the consideration for the pulse me later beifiel, failed in the earlier parts of the series to determine and record it, but it's the same happened in the last 14 days. Immediately before the daily morning observation hour he was counted, and after the end of them, and from this again taken the remedy against the fatigue. Here I now this received 14 agents with the right numbers of the 14 observation days, the comparable remained on all days together 6) , as indeed appears not exactly appropriate gear, but still a clear predominance real numbers as a whole for the day with a greater number of pulses . I received namely, ordered by the size of the winning numbers r , the following corresponding values (for n = 640) Pulse number 7) 411 416 431 434 438 75.87 95.5 84.5 79.25 74.25 Pulse number 81.75 88 86.5 90.75 96.5

r 446 453 457 463 471

439 440

75.87 88.25

483 487

93.65 82.5

Summa 578.49 3260 619.65 3009 After this corresponded to the 7 days with the lowest r in the Middle r = 429.9, pulse 81.92 and for 7 days with the highest r r = 465.7, pulse 88.52 the mean temperature during the first 7 days of the observation period was 15 C. 21, the last of 16 C.
6)

The correct numbers are folgends for all 4 major events and all the 5 D's of the same day added. 7) The book values of pulse rate move from the middle fraud and, therefore, that the number of pulses partially determined from a count by a few minutes and reduced to 1 min will.

Indisputably the number of cases is not large enough to secure the result, but reinforced a similar success in the following series the result of the previous one, as I quote below. As the result of the previous row in reference to the question of our law was not decisive, so I turned on yet another series of experiments, comparatively with and without fatigue under a different form (Nov. 1858). It was a 16-day, or, with the inclusion of the free trial days, since only one days were made to the other experiments, two-handed 32tgige test series. P = 1000, D = 60 grams, normal circumstances. Total number of elevations 16 . 10 . = 64 10240th Fatigue has been made here with slower elevations of the heavy weights subsequently be indicated manner, so that at very high fatigue the pulse number but without comparison is less increased than the previous row, and was fatigue operation not only to the two arms together, as in the previous row, but also applied to one side of each arm, and the results compared. The whole set of experiments was this. The pulse is counted again for 1 minute;, an arm then tired alone, at each test day morning 64 elevations was on previous pulse count by 1 minute with 4 two-handed divisions started and then two two-handed divisions of 64, just as truly as the from fatigue, executed, and then the other arm quite as tired, and then turned back on 2 two-handed divisions, then tired both arms together, and again employed two such departments. After each division was again the pulse, but each counted by minute, and carried out the combination of the number of new cases just before fatigue, so that the two associated compartments are only broken by fatigue after each pulse count minutes. On the whole, therefore four departments were treated daily with 64 without

fatigue, 6 employed by fatigue. The 4 before fatigue were the first, after the twohanded fatigue the conclusion of each test day 2, both occur between the four departments after unilateral fatigue. Here was changed in such a way that if one day first became fatigued the left, this happened on the following day trial with the right hand with both arms. The split between the fatigue and the beginning of the uplift of the vessels was always only half a minute the pulse payment with a few seconds more to putting away the lead weight or lead weights and transition to the vessels. The fatigue itself was performed as follows. In the unilateral fatigue of a lead weight was 9 inch lbs weight slowly to the count of 4 seconds while the fully lowered position raised up to shoulder height and horizontal for 4 sec lowered again. The arm was there in front of me, not to the side, outstretched. This was repeated until the lift did not go, then was min pause, and then fatigued until it was no longer so 5 times in a row, each with min meantime. This 5 fatigue (fractions) I expect as a single operation fatigue. The slowness of the uplift was intended to increase the pulse rate less the repetition, to sum up the fatigue. The number of possible uplift took these 5 fractions thereof fatigue fatigue from surgery because of the accumulative fatigue greatly from the first to the second, only a little at the following fractions. The Left could, especially from the beginning of the test series in, considerably less than the uplift perform rights, but approached in the course of the test series gradually thereof; also made otherwise practice law. The simultaneous fatigue of both arms all happened in the same way as the one arm, only that two weights of 9 pounds were collected at the same time. Since the left was weaker than the rights it was the elevations with both arms always set the goal by investing primarily fatigue from the left and found the immediate feeling. It might have some interest to specify the conditions in these, very methodical and on all days compared executed, fatigue observed, I also have below occasion for some information in this regard. However, what is significant here is that the fatigue repeated in each of the 3 daily fatigue operations 5 times with min meantime, and was paced minutes after the end of each operation to the uplift of the vessels. Also, I still notice unless alternate days after the fatigue was first performed with the left and right that the one arm fatigue expressed no diminishing effect on the number of heavy weight lifting, which (approximately 12 min after) was obtained with the other arms by raising the speed of the heavy weight average precipitated matter might be of the first or zuzweit tiring the arm and in that the number of both the lifting heavy weights in eventual fatigue of the two concurrent arms was only slightly smaller than in the case of the left arm fatigue alone In regard to the pulse conditions the following observations: that the pulse frequency is immediately increased by heavy physical exertion, is a known thing, but strange was me, and it seems to me not without interest that caused by the violent exertion increased heart rate to a certain extent, forterstreckte the free trial days, was therefore found again on the test days before the experiments that this permanent

increase in growth during the experimental month and that they long after the end of the test series, very gradually decreasing, continuously received. It was this, in the course of the test series in sight, more and more increasing pulse rate, a main reason for me from the distant sequel also this fatigue tests, which I had intended with some modification. The less I thought I could tolerate another pulse increase without disadvantage began to feel that my head was attacked by the violent fatigue operations than I, what not to great miracle was because the blood in the last arduous uplift each operation greatly by his head was driven, and this to me is named after a former suffering to the weaker sections, while my very healthy breast felt no disadvantage. This Angegriffensein of the head showed itself in a not intended to be characterized feelings, and gain some of the Ohrenbrausens where I suffer habitual, but had no lasting result after the test series was set. The gradual increase in heart rate during the test series was now associated with a gradual increase in the real numbers r in the four departments that preceded the fatigue operation on the test days, but again, not regularly, but quite clearly in a mutual dependence. Because after I place sensitivity tests with weights for several years, this can not be made dependent on a progress of the exercise. Here is the summary of the number of pulses with the right numbers for the 16 days of the experiment the actual test series, divided into two fractions I, II Added are still the numbers for 7 preliminary and 2 subsequent days of the experiment, which in terms of the pulse and the hired before fatigue 4 testing departments with those of the 16-day series are very similar, however the afterward of fatigue was hired under other forms, and mainly only a preliminary and retrospective orientation, so the results are obtained after the fatigue folgends not mentioned. On the first two days of the seven preliminary test pulse before fatigue is merely counted, but made no attempts to lift the vessels to test the sensitivity. The cases r right, as always, added together from the four main cases. 7 Preliminary experimental days. Date Pulse before fatigue 85.5 89.25 91.5 97.5 102.5 81 r (n = 256) no Vers no Vers 154 155 165 152 153

19thOctober 87.5 20th 21,October 23, 25th 27th 29th Means

92.35 155.8 16 main test days.

I Date 1 Nov. 357911th 13th 15th Means Pulse before Ermd. 97 93.75 103.5 75.5 97 87.5 91 95 r (n = 256) 158 163 204, 180 169 165 177 183 Date 17th Nov. 19th 21, 23, 25th 27th 29th -

II Pulse before Ermd. 86 100.5 89.5 94.5 103.5 102.5 94 r (n = 256) 172 199 178 191 198 177 191 183 186.1

1December 107

92.53 174.9 Means 97.19 2 subsequent days of the experiment . Date Pulse before fatigue r (n = 256) 175

3December 98

5100.5 170 Taking the mean for the seven smallest, 8 medium and 8 highest values of r associated with the pulses, one has (with the addition of the mean temperature of the experiment) r pulse Temp 157.1 C. 93.1 16.6 95.5 16.7 172.9 191.1 96.7 16.2 After the 5th December, where the last fatigue took place, I have not counted the pulse again until I am 19 December a new test series without fatigue began operations, ie, the one-and two-handed with P = 2000 and 3000 grams, the results (see Section 9) are indicated. When I now here (and in the next row) again examined the pulse before and after the experimental period of each day, I still found an unusually high pulse rate, regardless of the 5 . till 19 December no attempt had ever taken hold. This rate decreased slowly afterwards, but in the middle of each 8 days continuously, behaved namely, as a means before and after the uplift of the vessels in the means of each of 8 days, as follows: Pulse Temp 19 Dec. to 26 December

104.16 8)

17 , 16C. 27th - 3 101.11 Jan. 16 , 81 4 Jan. - 11 - 98.79 15 , 49 12 - 19 - 98.78 16 , 49 20 - 27 - 89.46 18 , 10 28 - 4 Feb. 87.78 17 , 18 -

8)

the following numbers of each 8 days. 92.75, 109.5, 103.5, 106, 107, 113.5, 97, 104 Also in this subsequenten test series was a compilation of the pulse numbers for the 16 largest and 16 smallest winning numbers, together with comparable experimental conditions, one, but only a slight advantage for the larger pulse numbers, namely as a whole (at n = 8192) r number 5732 96.88 6147 98.18. Thereafter, a certain connection to the increase in numbers seems to me r with the increase of pulse rate at least very likely. Everything that follows refers back only to the 16 days of the main test series, which now occupies us first. The pulse rate before and after the first four, the antecedent fatigue, test departments in particular found himself virtually the same, namely sum for the 16 days prior to 1517.5, after 1518, in the middle before 94.84, after 94.88, as so that the uplift of the vessels of 1 kilograms. Weight expressed no influence on the pulse. The pulse immediately after the three, by two separate testing departments, fatigue operations ( min to 1 min reduced) was on average After after after firstTiredness 2Tiredness 3Tiredness In I. 100.4 106.5 112.1 In II 108 105.1 115.4 So did (after comparison with Table above) of the pulse after the first Increased fatigue operation only about 8-10 beats, extra to the following condition against the tireless, little if any to the tremendous increase in the previous row. Here, too, showed an increase in the whole of the Group I to Group II Finally, the mean number of pulses, respektiv (l), (2), after the first and 2 Testing department, which followed the fatigue operations, the following: aver. Pulse

1 Tiredness (1) (2) I. 96.5 97.5

2 Tiredness (1) (2) 98.3 97.5

3 Tiredness (1) (2) 104 101.8 89.9 101

II 100 99.9 100.9 101.5 So much for the pulse conditions.

As in the previous test series despite the exceptionally strong current pulse increasing the fatigue operation but only a not very strong, not even quite unequivocally dependent thereof, propagation of the numbers r and demgeme magnification of hD had occurred, was inspired by the relatively much lower current pulse increase, the less such expected in the current row, and so assess the influence of pure fatigue. Here follows after fatigue and the comparison of results in this regard. All results are at 8 hD reduced, but derived from fatigue from the duplicate values, and specified for the 4 departments according to their time sequence on each day, with the information after fatigue for left and right is distinguished by First and Zuzweit whether the relevant the first hand was tired or zuzweit 8 hD from fatigue . 1 Dept. 28096 2 - 35273 3 - 32613 4 - 30930 means 31727.4 8HD after fatigue following hand. Left First. 1 Dept. -2-234681 30063 34602 Rights 26760 31288 40731 30175

Zuzweit. 1 Dept. 30888

Means 32558 32239 8 hD after fatigue of both hands. Group I. Group II 1 Dept. 21226425 31322 30932 30827

Means 29877 It is seen that the results before and after fatigue differ in any way in question, ie,

that the same law is well confirmed. Against this were the values 8 hp , 8 hq most significant changes caused by the fatigue suffered (hp as usual in the negative direction), whose details I however, since the communi-cation and discussion could not be done without fussiness, must pass over here. Only the following point as I believe having to cite unexpectedly. Since you generally speaking after fatigue load feel heavier than usual, it seemed likely that this also make after unilateral fatigue unilaterally asserted itself and thus in the departments after unilateral fatigue of the Left hq in positive, after unilateral fatigue of the right in negative sense would show changed from the departments without fatigue, and that this change had to be the most expected in the days when the fatigue of the hand in question rather than the other was held, that a previous fatigue the other hand had not left counteraction, to the most in the first, nearest to the fatigue, portion (half) of the defects (for min split) following division.The investigation of this portion is but the result is that hq has changed both if both fatigue after unilateral rights than the left, in a positive sense, only after fatigue of the left incomparably more than the right to fatigue. Even after the final forming, doublesided fatigue hq shows the first portion changed in a positive direction against the unwearied condition, but less than after unilateral fatigue of the left more than the right to unilateral fatigue. Now this is my opinion, to interpret that. The fatigue ever had that hq grew a general influence of the nature in a positive direction; This was the fatigue of the left-sided increased by reducing the rights. What are those based general effect is unknown, and the meaning of that increase and decrease but this really corresponds to what was expected from the very beginning. All previous results related to temporal variations in sensitivity due to fatigue. For the question of how parts with greater absolute sensitivity for weights at the same time have greater sensitivity to differences, one can take tests by EH Weber considered, by the results that he by the method of just noticeable differences 9) received in given parts with which compares it to the same parts by the method of equivalents 10) received, if the former method, the latter refers to the difference in sensitivity to the absolute sensitivity.
9) Progr

coll p. 96 10) Ibid. p. 97th

Was set to the following parts of each of the two sides of the body a column of 6 species taler, the weight difference was felt when taken away on a side of the body was following species number, which hereby designate the just noticeable difference: Volar surface of the fingers 1 foot, capit. metatars. 1 shoulder blade ...... 2

heel ......... 3 mind ....... 4

On the other hand, were equivalent to each other, that were perceived as equally difficult following weights in ounces on the following parts: Volar surface of the fingers and 4 foot (cap. metat.) 10.4 --- 3 - shoulder blade .... 8 --- 4 - heel ....... 8.8 --- 4.5 - mind ..... 5 We see that here does not take place the least compliance of both scales. The just noticeable difference on fingers and soles of the feet is the same, however, the act perceived as equal weights on both parts as 4 and 10.4. Conversely, perceived as equal weights on fingers and back of the head of the just noticeable difference are almost the same, however, as 1 : 4 behaves. Now indisputably such experiments can only be regarded as essential if they are made under strict comparability of circumstances, which does not presuppose here, because the intention was not focused on a comparison of the results of both methods, and the attempts at different times, perhaps at different people are employed, however, can hardly believe that in a truly parallel progress of the absolute and differential sensitivity such Discordanzen should ever be possible. 2) experience in the areas of light sensation. In areas of the sensation of light, it still lacks entirely on direct tests, how the same law is valid, but there are various facts, the same with the question are related, and will be discussed here with reference to this by some wonder whether and how they are made with the law, partly what extent they can be used to confirm the same, some explanation which they obtained thereby. First place, one may be inclined to make a widely known fact against the law parallel claims that the prejudice was already in the chapter on Weber's law, the further discussion is postponed here. Prolonged stay in the dark one gains ability to see in the dark, through longer stay in the light, you lose that ability. But what is see in the dark? A light, which differs only slightly from the photometric night dark, but still differ. Because, in fact, these are not merely an absolute impression, but a difference, as well as the dark night still has its photometric value. So it would seem but that fatigue of the eye through which light stimulation blunts the sensitivity for differences. Notwithstanding the fact itself needs notoriously no detailed evidence, I find it here as reclosing stuff together about what can emerge under the same particularly eyecatching or interesting shapes. "Buffon told that an officer in a prison, to which only rarely could zutreten light from

above, were so long handed down to the food, after a few months could see the mice. A few months later set free, he had to very slowly get used to the light. A man who caught 33 years sat holding, the night could see the smallest objects in daylight nothing (Ruete Ophthalmol., by Larrey Mm. Ohir de. md. Vol I. p. 6). " V. Reichenbach indicates in his writings on the so-called Od, that certain persons, called sensitives, flame-like at the poles of a strong magnet in perfect darkness light phenomena, a blue and blue-gray, the poles a red, red and yellow and rotgraue perceive at the North Pole, that they may see the light peak of crystals, living human, animal and plant body, especially the fingertips, metals, sulfur, liquids that are on the chemical or crystallization Act, etc. Finally the author (sensit. man II, p 192) comes to the results that all the body of the earth at all in the dark light, noticeable for the sensitives spend that only one more, some less. It is not the place, to the extent to Reichenbach's Od has as a special agent reality to enter into, his experience on the perceptible in the dark by some people light seems to be nothing to prejudice, but here I will mention them by name only insofar as Reichenbach as an express condition of perception of light is not only absolute blackout of the observation room, but also in less sensitives longer stay indicating it before anything can be seen. According to his statement, captured in perfect darkness Highly sensitive often immediately or to see after 5 to 10 minutes until center Sensitive to 2 or 3 hours to Odlicht. Myself and even older people still remember well that was formerly used to be content with a tallow candles for evening lighting in family and desks. Now that the brighter bulb lighting has become usual to hold this for a moment spoilage, it is no longer able to see it without effort. Of a factory, which was set up so that a portion of the work was done by the workers at home, I have been told the following. The previous poorer lighting in the factory was a lighter substituted. It was not long, the workers demanded back to the previous poorer lighting because they were no longer getting along with the usual dim lighting, they were able to get home. Aubert see in contrib for knowledge of indirect vision 11) noted the following:. "Is it days in a heavily darkened room, one appreciates it as bright, maybe ten times brighter than a room I was previously appreciated even a frappantes experienced example of it. When I had to be in a darkened room so long because of over 8 days in my 14 years of measles that the entrant is groping in the dark as it felt very light after a few days ago and since I am very boredom plagued so I grabbed a fairly small map with delicate script, I could see the colors very well and everywhere read the fine writing as good as usual in ordinary day lighting here I got me books in my bed, but was never so. caught, because the entrants did not saw the book, even if it had been a few minutes in the room. while I notice that my eyes were not affected quite morbid. "
11)

Moleschott, Various. IV page 224

Ranger 12) remarked on the application of the Section 11. described photometric

system, whereby one seeks out the weakest illumination in which a small black square on a white ground is still recognized (p. 13): "In the beginning of the investigation requires everyone if he has not been avoided a long time every brighter light impression of a larger quantity of light to detect the same object as such after a quarter prior. Looking observer then only for a second to a brighter lit area or even in the light flame, so is his vision for the next few minutes already fallen by a number of levels until a but-time the rest energy of the retina rises by excluding brighter light again. strikingly high it is, how will be the center of the retina is affected very easily. "
12)

About hemeralopia p. 13th 32nd

All of these experiences seem to speak directly to the validity of the parallel law in the areas of perception of light; using both displays by blunting of the light stimulus, the sensitivity to light differences weakened, because as noted the finding of weak light bills or faint objects is in the dark nothing other than distinguish them from the dark ground, and this no longer takes place with truncated eye. But it is easily seen that this deviation from the parallel laws takes place under very similar conditions as the deviation from Weber's law at its lower limit. Approaching the black as one or both components, such as listening to the parallel Weber's law to be valid. But we assume the validity of the law is no parallel within wide limits in claim than that of Weber's. It will just ask: 1) whether can find an appropriate reason than for the Weberian for the lower limit of the parallel law, 2) whether the deviation for higher light levels just as the Weber's law disappears. Both can be answered in the affirmative in my opinion. As regards the first, as I conceive the subject matter of the following aspects. The outer light stimulus blunts the effect of the external light stimulus, but this increases the Black relatively little in darkness, so the effect of a relative difference in the external light contrast is reduced. In fact, the eyes black can deepen only up to certain limits, as it is true, however in Nachbilde bright objects, but do not go out, and even when full black starlings, where the strongest external light makes no impression, Black is still seen , may not seem so colors can be seen. Also stands to itself that the retina, nerves and other parts that cause the transition of the stimulus to the brain, may be impassable, so that the external stimulus causes no or only a weak inner excitement paralyzed causes or through a crowd without that the central parts of the excitation depends on the sensation of the eyes black, so much suffering. Now weakens by blunting the inner eyesight is minor, at least in much lesser degree than the exterior appearance, this must seem a relative illumination of the eye black for the same luminous impressions equivalent, and the full black starlings, which as the highest degree of blunting to consider is, even the most powerful impression no longer be distinguished from the black eyes, because none is made more meanwhile the inner eye black still exists, and just disappears through very dark

glasses, the difference in lights with the lights at the same time for exercise. Should this declaration be cogent, so you can confirm in the following corollary demand: the same people who because of blunted irritability in darkness or twilight look bad, that is bad distinguished must just as well as such distinguished with nontruncated irritability in it when the light impression the components is only ever strong enough that the brightness of the black eyes can be however considered to be negligible. But that was really the case, it can be positive facts lead, which appear conclusive stress to as if they were published without reference to the above theory and no knowledge of it. Forester says in s treatise on amblyopia (p. 33): "We see the evening light with lamp lighting for several minutes with an eye on a white sheet of paper, while the other is closed and hidden in the lighted room you will then also at. opening of the other find a striking difference. As soon as you go into a very dark room, such a difference comes out very noticeably. Against the strained eye seems a kind of fog is that the objects wholly or partially obscured, the other the eye perceives, and it is a very peculiar uncertainty as to the orientation, which comes in the dark at so different working fields of view about us, which disappears immediately when you return to a bright room. During the second series of tests with Aubert about the sense of space the retina, which was held by lamplight, I've had this artificial monocular amblyopia often occasion to observe. This dazzling situation lasted sometimes for 10 minutes and longer., the gas lanterns reddish burning oil lamps and my surroundings appeared to affizierten eye at a distance equal to dim so dark I am driven with difficulty. In alternate closing each eye, the difference of the energies in both retinas appeared extremely striking out, without, however, not strained eye would have been approximately shrewd in the dark. At Aubert was still 1 minute after completion of the effort of one eye, the artificial hemeralopia so strong that he at 24 ... differed million light source barely 1.32 Mm wide bars, while the non affizierte, as usual perceived in this light, even Mm Width 0.21 In I reached an even higher degree of blunting and lasted longer. " These observations were related to healthy eyes. Still instructive but perhaps the observations of the disease, which compares the state forester of fatigued eye in amblyopia are themselves The double case, namely, that the eye after prolonged stay temporarily bad looks in the light in darkness, and after a long stay temporary bad looks in the dark in the light, is found as a permanent state in two disease states marked, the amblyopia and nyctalopia, whose first the present on precise observations foot estimable paper by Frster. Now identified Frster (p. 32) explicitly for the compliance of the essential features of the condition of the healthy retina to bright light with the habitual state of hemeralopischen retina. In several, though not all, cases, even prior prolonged exposure to very bright light cause of amblyopia (p. 30), and have been long stay in the dark by 24-56 hours, the best remedy (p. 40) 13) . But the characteristic symptom of amblyopia is just that, that the patients in the twilight without comparison see worse than people with healthy vision, while they look just as good on lighter

light. In fact, the Hemeralopische different after the onset of dusk or engaging in a dim place, where even quite comfortable to see able the healthy eye is nothing more or need for greater brightness of the objects or with the same brightness of a larger circumference thereof to they have to distinguish what foresters are trying numbers. On the other hand looks like its also based on measurement data (p. 20, 23): "the Hemeralopische with increasing illumination, daylight, just as sharp small objects, such as the Healthy, this only occurs every disappearance difference for very small objects only in very bright lighting one. "
13)

This is also confirmed by Ruete according to their own experiences.

"Just in some cases, where the disease had had a long duration, or where it was of great intensity, also came on the day a facial weakness out, either by expressed that the patient for detecting small objects - reading - very bright light required, or the fact that he recognized only coarser objects at all. " The hemeralopische property is not as one might think well, a matter of days, but according to Frster's observations (p. 16) of the Hemeralopische day looks just as bad as at night in low light levels. The Hemeralopische (p. 18) can be as healthy after the entry of the Hellen in the dark up to certain limits gradually adapt to the dark, so that he sees things he did not recognize at first, but with this difference, that he a ) at the outset looks worse than the healthy, b) much more. (The 4 - to 10-fold) time needed for adaptation, c) also provides for the greatest possible adaptation worse than the Healthy after adaptation, has stated that All foresters with the apparatus described S. 275th With regard to the other, very readable, details of the observations on this disease I must refer to the font itself. It would be very desirable if nyctalopia just as thorough observations were available, but what I mean is known. With respect to the spatial, it seems that the central parts of the retina in that it addresses how it however is not easily in ordinary many other particulars of the eyes is the case, are dulled by fatigue more than the central, both brighter than clearly seen when the side. To an adequate investigation of the conditions prevailing here but still missing a lot. A literature on the subject with some then impacting observations can be found in my essay: "On some conditions of binocular vision," in the Abhandl. Saxony's Soc. math.-phys. CL Vol IV p 373 3) Tests in areas of extensive sensation. I have on several parts, so once on the chin and upper lip, another time employed at the 5 fingers, comparatively attempts by the method of average error and the method of equivalents to determine whether, in accordance, as a circle distance greater given on a skin area appears, and the difference between two circles appears larger distances, or if no significant dependence takes place in this relationship. My attempts to speak of an essential function. However, since my observations are partly not yet complete, some not yet fully discussed in this regard, so I'm going for now the

immediate release.

XIII. Laws of phenomena mixture 1) .

The previous discussion of Weber's law, the same law and the fact of the threshold referred basically to the simplest case of a very general case. It was always about how far the feeling grows or diminishes, starts and disappears when a stimulus size of an increase or a decrease learns under the assumption that what accrues or is removed, is of the same quality as the stimulus size is increased or diminished, so also the appeal by the increase or the decrease experienced no change in his condition. But under all conceivable circumstances where a stimulus, an increase or a decrease, ever changing learns, is the case that the growth end or taken away by the same nature is, as that which it is accrues or withdrawn, just only the easiest. But it can, for example, the attraction of a white light rather than the fact that it increases the intensity of all the color rays to the same conditions or weaken, change the fact that you add colored light to white or white color mix this or that color beam or a mixture of color rays, which is not white, withdraws. And so it can be as easy to consider, other than white color mixtures to mixtures of tones or sounds, of odors, of substances which excite taste sensation, apply. For brevity, we want its dependent phenomena such changes at all the earlier described as a homogeneous mixture phenomena over, and keep us in meeting the same mainly on the example of the colors.
1)

See above, pp. 238 Note 1).

It is easy to forget that, by not more are purely quantitative, but also qualitative changes of the stimulus in the mixture phenomena, not only quantitative but also qualitative changes in sensation are experienced, really experientially here grab such place, and it will be to bring about the measurability of these aspects, which are related to those found for the quantitative application changes. Now generally find we feature If two simple or itself already composed stimuli A, B , each for a simple sensation special kind respektiv a, b is to awaken in a position, for example, two colors are presented in such a mixing or any linked the perception that another simple impression is the same, so does the resulting impression that this resultant sensation, generally not with the impression a match, the A, nor b to B would have produced for itself, but it can according as A or B in predominant effect, or both effect keeps the balance, the resulting impression is more the impression of a or b are approaching, or even any two impressions of the other appear mainly in how it eg to White complementary or complementary colors to orange zusammenflieendem Yellow and Red is the case. We lift now thus A let act alone, the addition of is B reach a certain size before or must exceed so that the deviation from the pure a will perceptible, and thus reversed with respect to b, if we A to B set, and we highlight that where A and B to have interact in such conditions that neither a nor b is displayed mainly, then A or B must be increased only at a certain ratio so that the resultant effect is the nature of a greater than that of b seems to approach. More generally, from which simple stimuli or what composition of the stimuli and

thus which resulting impression we may expect if we had more cause from another simple or compound stimuli or take anything away from any of the stimuli, the Added or Withdrawn, a must exceed certain size so that the resulting impression appears simple or changed qualitatively from earlier. These are conditions that the terms of the threshold lead us back to the mixing phenomena that we can briefly as a homogeneous threshold, facing emerging here as a mixture of previously considered in the homogeneous threshold phenomena. Closer now IS the homogeneous threshold and difference threshold in the earlier view only the simplest special cases of the more general case of the mixture threshold. In fact, when a stimulus B look to stimuli or a stimulus mixture A added, and one wonders, in which values of B , the addition begins to be recognized as such, or a difference from the mere effect ofA to make noticeable, may, under all possible variable values which A the case may also have this, be thought that A is zero, then we have the case of ordinary homogeneous threshold, no less can under all possible qualities that A may have, including those with B are identical thought, then we have the case of ordinary homogeneous differential threshold. If we now substitute in case the addition of a stimulus B to stimuli A bring in the, the naked A corresponding imprints a is a just noticeable or at all in some degree perceptible change out, so wondering if when A increased or decreased in given conditions is also B must be increased or decreased in the same proportion to one another equally significant change from aspawn. If you are facing any different quality of A and B to be the case, we would vorbemerkten generalization to the fact the threshold herein also have a generalization of Weber's law, as that is only the case of the general law, where the difference between A and B is negligible. Here about it until missing now in investigations, but I myself have done some experiments 2) , from which I conclude that at least for small admixtures of Color = B to white = A the law was in similar borders but also with analogous restrictions valid, as Weber's.
2) Abhandl.

Saxony's Gesellsch. the Scientific., mathemat.-phys. Cl. Bd VS 376

It is easy to provide only noticeable on white color notes that it is colored by means of pigments, it is characterized produce in that a wrong color to a window glass sheet on a white paper establishes. When repeating now the experiment and counter experiment with the clouds nuances that I have described in these colors, shades, using colorless as dark glasses, I found that with the darkness of the glasses very far, eg, up to 1 / 14 of the Days brightness, can go down without the free eyes with only just noticeable color notes disappear. But it is always possible to drive the darkening of the eyes as wide through the lenses that a vanishes with the naked eye visible color shade, and from the other side I have even found previously3) , and the same has in recent experiments of Helmholtz 4 ) again found that the impression of each color, it is a homogeneous or mixed, to the White approaches at high intensity.

3)

Pogg. Ann. L. p. 465 4) Pogg. Ann. LXXXVI.

However, the deviation from the law down could also be only apparent, and are based on an analog basis, than the corresponding deviation from Weber's law in the homogeneous phenomena. When I look at a color shadow on white with naked eyes, and such a dark glass in front of your eyes suppose that the white of the ground is close to the black of the closed eye, so I though the color and outside light, which from the outside into the penetrating eye, weakened in the same conditions, but the black of the eye, which represents a low degree as colorless white light, has not weakened, so the excess paint now has a smaller ratio to whites as before, and must therefore be less noticeable . The reason for the upper limit of the law is unknown. In reality, we have not strictly slightly depending dealing with quite homogeneous phenomena, so even with very pure threshold or difference threshold, the very simple Weber's law, but in general, with the more general case of the mixture threshold, the mixture Act; but can produce approximatively homogeneous phenomena, and the viewing of the simplest, albeit only approximately producible, cases for the time being the most important, and is therefore later preferably remain our focus, more so as the legal relations of the mixture phenomena yet little research. Even if you can fall into the otherwise darkened eye of the simplest range of color and asks what intensity they would have to be recognized, you have to do it with no pure threshold, but a mixture threshold, since one case actually asks what intensity the spectrum color would have to make noticeable as an admixture to the mix represented by the black eyes of all color rays her character. So the question is entirely of the same nature, as when one asks how intense a color must mix in the white, so the white one bemerklichen. Color appearance assume that only if one has first to do it with very little, if final, where they speak of white par with a great intensity of the white or the farbenindifferenten mixture, for which the color is mixed. Also be found in the fact that the first black if the black as well, shaded only by a trace color, as if the last white white, shaded with a hint of color appears when the blended color is just noticeably. Therefore, it contested the ultraviolet light would, ie at a lower intensity, are felt, as it is the case, if it did not act as an admixture to the weak white in the eye. Of course the question of whether and how a mixture phenomenon changes when all stimulus components that contribute to the mixing sensation to rise in the same proportion or decrease is itself only a particulate question in subordination to the general question of how general the mixing sensation fails and changes when the stimulus components in any situation and are subject to change. To put this question in a clear aspects, three major events as clues seem to capture, 1) if B is large enough when added to A , the quality of the mixed impression against a change just noticeable, 2) if B is large enough that the influence of A just

disappears, and the impression from pure b does not differ appreciably, and) when 3 A and B follow as the balance that you get the impression neither closer to a yet to b found. Between these three threshold cases necessarily fall all the amendments, which by mixing A and B can emerge, and it now would apply to discover laws that constitute these thresholds and the intervening falling amendments of sensation as a function of the mixing ratio of the stimuli, but it is far nothing about it before, and even if a homogeneous threshold determination by the trial may still only be a rough, this is how it seems, the more of the mixture thresholds. Between the mixing phenomena is an important distinction to make, depending on the stimuli which give the mixed impression itself already mixed meet the sensation organ, as is the case when composite colors of the eye, mixtures of sounds or tones make the ear so as it happens in ordinary vision or hearing, or depending on the stimuli separately meet the sensation organ, and only their effects through the mediation of sensation organs themselves are composed of mixed impressions, as is the case when different colors separately on corresponding locations of both eyes or different sounds fall in both ears. Both we briefly distinguish as conjunctive and disjunctive mixed impressions.
Der Krze halber wollen wir die von derartigen Vernderungen abhngigen Phnomene berhaupt als Mischungsphnomene den frheren als homogenen gegenber bezeichnen, und uns in Besprechung derselben hauptschlich an das Beispiel der Farben halten.

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In fact, experience shows that it is possible with two eyes, two ears obtained by separately acting stimuli corresponding mixed impressions than when the stimuli already mixed arrived in the same eye or ear, without knowing the anatomical and physiological mediation in which this based. But the nature of the complex depends on disjunctive impressions ratios, and may be influenced by constraints on more varied manner than that of the conjunctive. The conjunction of two on the intensity or color of various impressions of light A, B on the same retinal position can namely always be limited in the same way, but the disjunction of these stimuli on corresponding points can be done in infinitely various ways by, for example, on the one zero on the other A + B, or on one A, on the other, B, or on one , on the

other B + acts, & c, also, in the case of disjunction different ratios of the stimuli on both retinas to neighboring impressions occur in the case of the conjunction on the same retina can not occur, and the experience has taught that can hang differences of the resulting mixed impression on these differences between conjunctive and disjunctive mixed impressions, according to which the distribution of the components to corresponding retinal fibers not generally identical by a meeting of the same components on a Fiber can be replaced. The ear shows up to certain limits analogous conditions. I have detailed this subject in my essay "On some conditions of binocular vision" in the treatises of the schs Soc. of Sciences, math.-phys. Cl. Bd VS treated 339 et seq.