DerrickJ.Stenning.

SavannahNomads: AstudyoftheWodhaabhePastoral FulaniofWesternBornuProvince, NorthernRegion,Nigeria.

PublishedfortheInternationalAfricanInstitutebytheOxfordUniversityPress London.Ibadan.Accra.1959.257pages

Foreword
TheCounciloftheInternationalAfricanInstitutein1950approveda contributionoffundsandfacilitiesfortheencouragementofmoreintensive researchandpublicationonthesociallifeofthepastoralFulfuldespeaking peoplesoftheWesternSudan.Thesepeoples,knowninNigeriabythe HausatermFulani,callthemselvesFulbhe(sing.Pullo).Theyprobably numbersomesixmillionandaredispersedinmanywidelyscatteredgroups extendingovermorethan2,000milesfromSenegalonthewesttobeyond LakeChadintheeast.Despitetheirfarflunganddisperseddistribution theyspeakcloselyrelateddialectsofacommonspeechandshowintheir physiquethattheyare,inthemain,descendedfromasingleanddistinctive stockwhichhas,overacomparativelyshortperiod,proliferatedeastwards throughthesavannahzonebetweentheSaharaandtheforestbeltofWest Africa.TheyhavemanySimilarsocialusagesandtheirvaluesandtraditions arcingreatmeasurefocusedonthemaintenanceoftheirherdsandthe continuanceoftheirpastorallife.TheWodhaabheofnortheasternNigeria, withwhomDr.Stenningisconcernedinthisstudy,exemplifythesefeatures tothefull. Thepoliticalandeconomicsituationofthesepastoralpeopleshasbeen undergoingconsiderablechangesoverthelasthalfcentury,duringwhich FrenchandBritishAdministrationspacifiedtheWesternSudanandlaidthe foundationsfornewlinesofdevelopment.Thefruitfuladaptationoftheir pastoraleconomyandoftheirsocialrelationswithotherpeopleshasoften presentedperplexingproblemstotheFulbhe,totheirneighbours,andto governmentsinmanypartsofWestAfrica.Untilrecently,however,littlewas knownofthedetailsoftheireconomyorofthepatternofsocialrelations withinandbetweentheseasonallymigratingcampgroups.Bothforthe intrinsicinterestofabetterunderstandingofawayoflifethatappeared likelytoundergofarreachingchangeinthenearfuture,andas contributionsofknowledgethatcouldassisttheharmoniousdevelopmentof thepeoplesoftheWesternSudan,intensivefieldstudiesofFulbhe communitiesindifferentareaswereclearlyneeded. TheInstituteundertooktoprovidefordiscussionsonneedsand opportunitiesforsuchresearch,andtoassistitseventualpublication.Itwas alsoable,thankstothegenerosityoftheRockefellerFoundation,tosponsor onesuchstudy.Someoftheresultsofthatwork,whichwasundertakenby Mr.C.E.HopenamongthepastoralFulaniofGwanduonthewestern borderofNorthernNigeria,haverecentlybeenpublishedinhisbookThe PastoralFulbheFamilyinGwandu.Atthesametime,Dr.Stenning,ofthe UniversityofCambridge,wasawardedaGoldsmithsStudentshipwhich, withfurtherassistancefromtheBritishColonialSocialScienceCouncil, enabledhimtocarryoutafieldinvestigationinWesternBornu.A substantialpartoftheresultsofthatinquiryispresentedinthisvolume.It 2

wasalsoarrangedthatMlleDupire,oftheInstitutFrangaisd'AfriqueNoire, shouldduringthesameperiodpursuesimilarfieldstudiesintheNiger ProvinceofA.O.F.andintheFrenchCameroons.Itishopedthattheresults ofherresearcheswillbefullypublishedinthenearfuture. Toassistintheexchangeofideasandinformationinthecourseofthese studies,ameetingofthesefieldresearchworkerswasarrangedatJoein 1952,towhichMr.F.W.deSt.Croix,oftheNigerianVeterinaryService, contributedvaluablesuggestionsandadvicebasedonhislongexperienceof workamongthepastoralFulaniofNorthernNigeria.Asaresultofthese recentintensiveandsystematicobservationsinthefield,anumber of'penetratingstudiesofthepastoralFulbhearecomingforwardwhichwill makeitpossibleforscholarsandadministratorstogainafulleranddeeper understandingoftheirsociallifeanditsecologicalconditions. Tothistask,Dr.StenninghasinthismonographontheWodhaabheof WesternBornumadeanotableandmostwelcomecontribution.Itsdetailed andvividportrayalofawayoflifethatissevereandonerous,butalsodeeply rewardingtothosewhohavebeenrearedtoacceptitsvaluesandtofaceits difficulties,isofcompellinginterest.Itwillbewelcomedbysocial anthropologistsforitsanalysisofthestructureandecologicalfoundationsof thehouseholdandkinshipsystemofapastoralpeople.Thesystematic accountsofthevariousaspectsofWodhaabhelife,ofthephysicaland technicalconditionstowhichtheyarerelated,andofthewiderpoliticaland economiccontextsonwhichtheydepend,willalsoprovemostinstructivefor allwhoareinanywayconcernedwithproblemsofpolicyandadministration inthefurtherdevelopmentofNorthernNigeriaand,indeed,ofthewholeof thatvastsubSaharanterritoryinAfricaknownastheWesternSudan. InhisintroductorychapterDr.Stenninggivesasuccinctbutcomprehensive accountofpresentknowledgeofthecharacteranddistributionofthe Fulbhespeakingpeoplesoverthewholeareaoftheirextension.Theskilfully contriveduseofethnographicanddocumentarysourceshasalsoenabled himtoreconstructthechangingmaterialandpoliticalconditionsthrough whichtheWodhaabhehavepassedduringmorethanacenturyandahalf. Theirparamountneedtomaintainthesymbiosisofhouseholdandherdhas, asheshows,madethemthroughoutessentiallyopportunist,notonlywith regardtochoiceoftheirgrazingareas,theirseasonalandlongterm migrations,andthepatternofsocialrelationsamongthemselves,butalsoin theircontactswithotherpeoplesandpoliticalauthorities.Anditisinthis lightthatDr.Stenningfinallyconsidersthepossibilitiesfor,andtheneeds attending,afutureandmoreproductiveintegrationofFulanipastoralismin amoredevelopedeconomyinNorthernNigeria. DaryllForde IntrenationalAfricanInstitute March1958

Introduction.TheFulani
PastoralFulanipopulationwhichisthesubjectofthisbookisonlyasmall partofanumerous,widespread,anddiverseAfricanpeople,aboutwhom muchhasbeenwritten.

PresentDistributionandNumbers1
FulanipopulationsarescatteredoverthevastWestAfricansavannahbeltof woodedgrasslands,fromSenegambiainthewesttoFrenchEquatorialAfrica intheeast.Considerabledifficultieshavebeenencounteredinestimating thetotalnumbersinpopulationsdescribingthemselvesasFulanior speakingtheFulanilanguage.Itislikelythattheytotalwelloversix millions,distributedroughlyasfollows:
Territory AfriqueOccidentaleFranaise: Mauritanie Sngal Soudan Dahomey Guine Niger Cted'Ivoire&HteVolta AfriqueEquatorialeFranaise: Tchad OubanguiChari CamerounFranais Brit.Cameroons&Nigeria Gambia GoldCoast GuinPortuguesa Approximatenumbers Reference

12,000 250,000 600,000

Westermann&Bryan (1952) " "

54,000 720,000

" "

269,000 52,000

" "

Nofiguresavailable

Nofiguresavailable 305,000

RappAnn.(1954)

3,630,000 58,700

Pop.Cens.(19513) Col.Rept.(1954)

51,500 36,500

Pop.Cens.(1950) Moreira(1948)

ThemostimportantconcentrationsofFulaniarefoundin:

Senegambia,includingSenegalandtheGambia 4

HighlandsofFrenchGuinea;TheFoutaJalon UpperNiger(Macina,FrenchSudan) MiddleNiger(Niamey,FrenchNiger) NorthernRegionofNigeria(provincesofSokoto,Katsina,Kano,Bornu, Bauchi,andPlateau) AdamawaHighlands,comprisingAdamawaProvinceintheNorthern RegionofNigeria BamendaintheBritishCameroonsandFrenchCameroons

Names
Thesepopulationsareknownbyvariousnamesindifferentareas.TheWolof termPeul(s)iswidejyusedbytheFrench.TheBritishinGambiacall thembytheBambaratermFula.InNigeriaandGhanatheyareknownby theHausatermFulani.TheKanuriandotherpeoplesoftheChadBasin callthemFelaata.InGermanworkstheyaretermedFulbhe.This,with itssingularPullo,istheirowntermforthemselves.FollowingNorthern Nigerianusage,theywillbecalledFulaniinbothsingularandpluralinthis book.

Races
TheFulaniarenotbasicallyofNegrostock,althoughitisclearthatthrough thecenturiesFulanipopulationshaveinterbredinvariousdegreeswiththe Negropopulationsamongwhomtheyaredispersed.Fulanicommunities,as wellasindividualswithinthem,displayaremarkablerangeofcombinations ofNegroidandnonNegroidphysicaltraits.Whatevertheirobservedphysical characteristics,Fulanicommunitiesingeneralrecognizeasanidealthe distinctivecharacteristicsofthepurestofthestock;lightcoppercoloured skin,straighthair,narrownose,thinlips,andslightbonestructure.2 Languages3 TheclassificationoftheFulanilanguage,generallyknownasFulfulde,has longbeenamatterofcontroversy.Inpart,thishasbeenduetoseveral distinctivefeaturesofthelanguagesuchasnounclassesandinitial consonantalternation4whichwereconsideredanomalousinrelationtothe otherlanguagesoftheWesternSudan.Confusionhasalsoarisenthrough attemptstocorrelatethedistinctivefeaturesoftheFulanilanguagewiththe factsoftheirnonNegroidphysicaltraitsandwithhypothesesconcerning theirdisseminationovertheWesternSudan.Thus

Mller(1884)positedaNubaFulagroupoflanguages Delafosse(1912)consideredFulfuldetopossessAramaicfeatures Meinhof(1912)attemptedtoshowthatFulfuldewasanHamitic language.

StructuralsimilaritiesbetweenFulfuldeandWesternSudaniclanguages suchasWolof,Serer,andBiafadahavelongbeenpointedout,notablyby:

Faidherbeasearlyas1875 Klingenheben(1925) Homburger(1939) Greenberg(1949)

FulfuldeiscurrentlyclassifiedasbelongingtotheWestAtlanticgroupof Sudaniclanguages(Greenberg,1949;WestermannandBryan,1952). Althoughthemassivetaskofadetailedoverallstudyofthedialectsofthe Fulanilanguagehasnotbeenattempted5,thefollowingappeartoshow significantdialectdifferences:

FoutaSngalais FoutaJalon UpperandMiddleNiger,HighVolta,NorthwesternNigeria; NorthernNigeria,AdamawaandCameroons Bagirmi(FrenchEquatorialAfrica)

Therearesomestructuraldifferencesbetweenthesedialects,suchasthe numberandcontentofnounclassesemployedandthepronominalforms associatedwiththem.Butthemajordifferenceslieinthevocabulary,which isadaptedfreelyfromthedominantorautochtonous,languagesofthearea concerned.Inadditiontotheirowntongue,Fulaniusuallyspeakthelocal linguafrancawherethisisnotFulfulde,andoftenmasteranadditional minoritylanguage.Moreover,themobilityofcertainsectionsoftheFulani populationmustalwayshaveplaced,asitdoestoday,speakersofdifferent Fulfuldevariantsinthesamecommunity.Continuousandoftenrapid linguisticchangesoccur.Numerouswriters,especiallyFliegelmann(1931, 1932),havecommenteduponthecomparativerichness,refinement,and flexibilityofFulfulde,whichmustbedueinlargeparttothese circumstances.

FulaniPopulations
PastoralFulani Fulanipopulationsshowmarkeddifferencesintheirmodeoflife,social organization,anddegreeofpoliticalautonomy.Anumberoftypesmaybe discerned. Thefirstoftheseisthecattleowningpopulation,orPastoralFulani.They areknownpopularlybysimilarterms(whichtheydonotusethemselves)in variousareas.InSenegambiatheyarecalledFulbheBurure,andinthe ChadregionAbore.ElsewheretheyarecalledBororoorBororoje. TheyretainnonNegroidphysicalcharacteristicstothegreatestextent, speakthepurestFulfulde,andhaveingeneralbeenleastamenableto conversiontoIslam.PastoralFulanipopulationsarefoundinthoseareasof 6

thesavannahbeltwherethepopulationdensityislowest,principallyatits northernlimitsintheSahelorsemidesertscrubzone,andinwellfavoured highlandareassuchastheJosPlateauandtheAdamawaHighlands.Their subsistenceandwealthderivesolelyfromtheirherdsofcattle,sometimes supplementedwithsmallholdingsofsheep,goats,orcamels.InDamagaram inFrenchColonieduNiger,andinSokotoandBornuProvincesinthe NorthernRegionofNigeria,liveaFulanitribeknownasUdaen,whosubsist ontheirflocksofsheep.PastoralFulaniliveondairyproduce,surplusesof whicharesoldorexchangedforgraininthemarketsofagriculturalvillages. Inthedryseasonherdsaredispersedsouthwardsinresponsetoshortages ofpastureandwater,andcongregateagaininthenorthtoavoidtsetseflyin thewetseason.Awidevariationinthedistanceandimpetusofthese movementsisfound,dependingonlocalvariationsinsavannahhabitat,but seasonalmovementisaconsistentfeatureofFulanipastoralismthroughout thiszone.Exceptionstoitoccurinhighlandareas,wheremovementiseither reducedtoaminimumorfollowsahillandvalleypattern.Thesearenotthe onlyfactorswhichdetermineseasonalmovement;presenceofbovinedisease andavailabilityofmarketsarealsotakencontinuouslyintoaccount.6 InPastoralFulanipopulationstodaythesimpleorcompoundfamilyhasa largemeasureofeconomicindependence.Thehouseholdheadistheherd owner,hissonsarehisherdsmen.Hiswifeorwiveshaverightstothemilk ofallorpartoftheherd;inmostareas,itisthewomenwhodothemilking. Theirdaughtersassisttheminitspreparationandmarketing.Thefamily subsistsonitsherdandtheherddependsforitseffectiveincreaseonthe pastoralskillofthefamily.Meatiseatenonlyonceremonialandritual occasionsandcattlearesoldonlytomeetanoverridingneedforcash, principallytopaytaxesorfines,ortobuyconsumergoods.Thematerial equipmentofthePastoralFulanifamilyisslight,beinglimitedtotheamount whichcanbereadilytransportedonpackoxenordonkeys;dwellingsare rudimentaryshelters.Wherethesyntrophyofthefamilyandherdbreaks down,assistanceisfoundprimarilyamongthegroupofherdowners constitutinganagnaticlineagegroup.7 Theagnaticlineagegrouppreservesapartialendogamybyasystemof preferredcousinmarriages.Widowinheritancewithinthisgroupensuresthe supportofwidowsandorphansandmaintainspatrilinealinheritanceof cattle.Theagnaticlineagegrouphasaleaderselectedbyacclamation accordingtocriteriaofpatrilinealdescent,age,andprosperity.He representshisgroupinexternalaffairs,andbringstheweightofhis experienceandauthoritytocampcouncilsinwhichherdownersdecide theirfuturemoves. Agnaticlineagegroupsarelinkedtoformclansbyputativeagnatic relationshipsoftheirseveralmaleancestors.Althoughdispersedformostof theyear,theclan,liketheagnaticlineagegroup,isendogamous,andisa unitofcooperationwithregardtocattleandlabour.Insomeareastheclan wasformerlyacongregationfortheobservanceofritesconnectedwiththe fertilityofcattle,thepubertyinitiationofyouthsandmaidens,andtheir inductionintomarriedlife.WhetherinformertimesPastoralFulani(for reasonsofdefence)characteristicallymovedinconcertbyclansorbyagnatic 7

lineagegroupscannotbeascertained.Itseemslikelythattheecological conditionsofmostofthesavannahbeltoftheWesternSudanimposedsome degreeofdispersal,andthatareaswherecontinuousorganizationfor defencewasrequiredwereavoidedinfavourofthosewherepastoral interestscouldbepursuedunhindered.Today,whenconsiderationsof defencedonotapply,theclanandtheagnaticlineagegroupshowan inherentinstabilityengenderedbytherelativeindependenceofthesimpleor compoundfamily. Ingeneral,thepursuitoftheirpastoralinterestshaskeptthePastoral Fulanialooffromthelifeofvillageandtown,andfromtheconvulsionswhich attendedthefoundationandaggrandizementoftheStatesoftheWestern Sudan.Butthisdetachmentshouldnotbeexaggerated.Exceptpossiblyin theSahel,inwhattheFrenchcalltheZoneNomade,thepastorallifeis pursuednotinisolation,butinsomedegreeofsymbiosiswithsedentary agriculturalcommunities.Alongsidethecontinuousexchangeofdairy productsforgrainandothergoods,therehaveexisted,possiblyformany centuries,arrangementsforpasturingcattleonlandreturningtofallow,and forguaranteeingcattletracksandtheuseofwatersupplies.PastoralFulani didnot,anddonot,merelygrazeatwill,butobtainedrightstothefacilities theyrequiredfromtheacknowledgedownersoftheland.Thepaymentsin kindmadeforobtainingtheserightswerenotmerelyeconomictransactions butinvolvedthePastoralFulaniinthelocalritualobservancesrelatingto land.WhenPastoralFulanipasturedinMuslimStates,otherdutiestowards theterritorialauthoritieswereaddedtotheselocalrelationships.Rightsto grazewereaffirmedbythepaymentoftributetotherulerorhislocal representative.PastoralFulanifurtherbecameliabletoataxonlivestock sanctionedbytheMuslimlawofpublicalms.Althoughthejurisdictionof theStatewasilldefinedinjustthoseareaswhichthePastoralFulanifound mostcongenial,thereisevidencethatthesebondswererecognized,ifrarely implemented.ThePastoralFulanigainedtheirendsbythepeacefulmeans ofeconomicreciprocityinthelocalcontext,andcarriedouttheirobligations toMuslimStatesonlywhentheydeemeditpoliticorwereforcedtodoso. TheyparticipatedinStatewarsusuallywhenthisservedtoextendtheir rightstograzingground,andonlyrarelyforideologicalmotives.8

SemisedentaryCommunities
Therearemanyvariantsofthispastoralwayoflifewhichgiveriseto populationsofFulanibestdescribedassemisedentary,whosemembersnot onlyraisecattlebutalsohavefarms.Thisisnotmixedfarminginthe acceptedsenseoftheterm.Itisratherarelianceonadualmodeof subsistenceinwhichfarmingandstockraisingatoncecomplementand circumscribeeachother.Farmsaremadeaccordingtolocalpracticesof shiftingcultivation.Theyarelikelytobesmallerthanthoseheldbythe sedentarypopulation,andplantedwithgraincropsratherthanwithcash cropsorlocalmarketcrops.Atthesametime,herdsarelikelytobesmaller thanthoseheldbyPastoralFulaniinthesameareaandtobemovedina morerestrictedcycleoftranshumance.Theareainwhichthefarmislocated 8

isregardedasthehomearea.Often,butnotnecessarily,thisliesatthe pointinthetranshumancecyclemostconvenientforthetransferoflabour frompastoraltoagriculturalactivities,especiallyfarmclearanceand harvesting.AcommonfeatureofthesemisedentaryFulanicommunityis thesplithouseholdandthe,splitherd.Thehouseholdheadremainsinthe homeareawherethefarmlies,sometimeskeepingasmallherdofmilch cows.Hismarriedorunmarriedsonsdeploytheherdawayfromthehome areainthewetordryseasons,returningtothelocalityintimetohelpwith farmclearingorharvest.Wherethesedutiescannotbecarriedoutbythe personnelofthefamilyitself,cooperationinherdingissoughtfrom kinsmen,orpaidlabourengagedtohelpinfarmwork.Sometimes(during theperiodbetweenclearanceandharvesting)thewholefamilyresidesinthe areainwhichitsfarmislocated;storesitsgraininthegranariesof sedentarykinsmenandfriends;movesofftodryseasonpastures,collecting thesuppliesitneedsthroughoutthedryseason,andreturnstoitshome areaasthewetseasonbecomesdue. Thereislittledoubtthatsemisedentarismarisesprincipallythroughlosses ofcattlebydisease,whenwidespreadreductionsinthesizeofherdsbelow thelevelnecessaryforentiresubsistenceuponthemrenderinoperablethe mechanismsofloanorgiftwhichenablethePastoralFulaniherdownerto recouphislosses.Semisedentarycommunitieshavebeenviewedas transitionalcommunitiesinwhicherstwhilePastoralFulaniaremoving towardsabsorptioninthecattlelessagriculturalcommunitieswhich surroundthem.Thistransitionisoftenmarkedbytheabandonment,inthe homearea,ofoneofthetraditionaltypesofPastoralFulanishelterinfavour ofthehuttypecommonamongthesedentarypopulation.Thepressures involvedinmaintainingthisdualeconomy,aswellastheattractionsofthe sedentarylife,arelargelyresponsibleforthis.Thereis,however,evidence thatPastoralFulaniwhoengageinagriculturalpursuitsasaconsequenceof cattlelossesdosucceedinreestablishingherdscapableofsupportingthem completely,andthentakeupthenomadiclifeoncemore.Shorttermstudies ofsemisedentarycommunitieswouldgivetheimpressionthatthismodeof lifeiswellestablishedundercertainecologicalconditionsanddensitiesof population.Thereturntopastoralismortherelapseintosedentary agriculturallifecanrarelybedocumented. Semisedentarismmaynotnecessarilybetheresultofpovertyincattle.For example,PastoralFulanimovedontotheJosPlateauinNorthernNigeriaas recentlyas1910.Theyfoundthereahigh,flyfreegrazinggroundwith abundantwaterandpasture.Theirseasonalmovementsdecreasedinscope andtheirherdsmultiplied.Thegrowthofthetinminingindustryandthe establishmentofcreameriesassuredthemprofitablemarketsfortheirdairy surpluses.Atthesametimethepaganinhabitantsincreasedtheir agriculturalholdings.Favourablepastoralconditionsmadeextensive seasonalmovementsunnecessary;theneedtoestablishpermanentrightsto wetseasonpasturewhichintheabsenceofthepastoralistswouldreadilybe takenoverbytheagriculturalists,madeaformofsettlementdesirable.A considerablenumberofPastoralFulaniinthisareahaveinthelasttwenty yearsorsoestablishedpermanenthouseholdsitesaroundwhichsomecattle 9

grazethroughouttheyear,whiletheremaindermovedownthevalleystothe savannahlowlandsinthedryseason.ThePastoralFulanisurroundtheir settlementswithgardensofIndiancornwhicharecleared,planted,tended, andharvestedbypaganlabourerspaidincash.Pagansalsoassistas herdsmeninthewetseason,andarerecompensed,inthetraditional PastoralFulanimanner,inkind.OntheJosPlateau,itistherichestcattle ownerswiththelargestfamilieswhoadoptthisformofsettlement.Theydo noagriculturalwork,andsomeoftheworkoftheherdsisturnedoverto nonFulani.Semisedentarismisherecorrelated,notwithpovertyincattle, butwithitsconverse.9

SedentaryCommunities
AconsiderableproportionoftheFulanicommunitiesoftheWesternSudan aresedentaryandagricultural.Theymergeintothemajorethnicgroupings amongwhichtheyarefoundandwithwhichtheyhavemanycultural affinities,sometimesincludingacommonlanguage.Theirtraditionslink theminvariousdegreestoPastoralFulanipopulationsandthey demonstrateafurtherstageintheprogresstowardsasedentarywayoflife outlinedabove.Theprincipalconcentrationsofsedentarypopulationsofthis sortare:

theToucouleursofSenegal(Delafosse,1912) theKhassonkeofKayesontheUpperNigerinFrenchSudan(Monteil, 1915;Delafosse,1912;Tauxier,1937) theWassulonkeofWassuluontheUpperNigerinFrenchGuinea (Delafosse,1912) theFulaninGida,theHausaFulaniofHausalandinNigeriaand FrenchNigerColony(deSt.Croix,1944)

AfurtherpopulationofsedentaryFulani,describedbythePastoralFulanias Ndoowi'en,hasemergedinBornu,Adamawa,andtheeasternpartsof FrenchNigerColony.Weshouldperhapsaddtothiscategoryofsedentary Fulanithepopulationsofpilgrimswhoareforcedtosettleandfarmfor shorterorlongerperiodsontheirwaytoMeccaacrosswhatwasformerlythe AngloEgyptianSudan.TheyareknownasTakarir,atermderiveddoubtless fromtheancientkingdomofTekrurinSenegal.Thesesedentarypopulations shouldnotbeconfusedwithcommunitiesofserfcultivatorsandformer slavesoftheFulani,whichwillbediscussedbelow.

HolyMen
WehavesofardescribedFulanicommunitieswhicharedistinguishedby theirmodeofsubsistence.Livinginthesecommunities,orincontactwith them,arespecialists,theMuslimholymen(Ful.moodibbhe,sing. moodibbo).10Theirspecialismconsistsintheirrelationwiththe supernaturalwhichismanifestintheirpossessionofsanctity(barka)a

10

termcommontomanyWesternSudaneselanguages,andtotheBerber dialectsofMaghrebineNorthAfrica.Sanctitymaybeinherited genealogically,oracquiredfromone'steachers.Ultimately,barkaderives fromAllahhimself,throughtheProphetandhisCompanions.Holymenmay belongtooneorotheroftheIslamicfraternitiesKadiriya,Tijaniya, Mahdiya,andsoon,whichramifythroughouttheWesternSudan.Holymen liveonthefees,obtainedbytheperformanceoftheirspecialtasks,which havethequalityofalmsfortheMuslimdonor.Butmanyalsohavefarms,or arecraftsmenortraders.Theymayworkaloneinacommunityortheymay formhamlets,aroundwhichtheyfarm,andfromwhichtheytravelin pursuitoftheircalling. Thetermholymancoversmanydegreesofproficiencyinmagic,Islamic ritual,law,andtradition,butingeneralthestatusofaholymandepends uponhisabilitytoreadtheArabicofKoranictextsandsuchMaghrebine writingsasarecopiedandcirculatedintheWesternSudan.Someholymen arelittlemorethanmagiciansordiviners,fashioningamulets,making decoctionsoftheinkinwhichpioustextshavebeenwritten,manipulating sandpatterns,ortellingthestars.Othershavereceivedamoreextensive groundinginMuslimritualanddogmaafteryearsofstudybyroteina Koranicschool.Inadditiontopractisingasmagiciansanddiviners,they mayinstructothersinthenicetiesofreligiousobservance,orofficiateat namegivings,weddings,andfunerals.Theymaycomposedisputesby recoursetotheprinciplesofIslamiclawastheyunderstandthem.Theymay acquainttheirlistenerswithdetailsofthelivesofIslamicdivineswhohave attainedsainthood,andwhosetombstheyhavevisited.Yetothersachievea widerfameaftermakingthepilgrimage,studyinginCairo,ortravelling betweenWesternSudanesecentresoflearning.Theyestablishtheirown followingsandschools,withwhosememberstheyhaveacontinuingbond wherevertheymaybe. Eachholymanhashisownsphereofinfluence,proportional,wemaysay,to hisbarka.Asweshallsee,inthepast,Muslimdivineshadgreatinfluencein theStatesoftheWesternSudan,convertingprinces,reformingsystemsof administration,and,inthelastresort,leadingpopularuprisings.Menofthis calibrearetodayfoundinhighadministrativeorjudicialposts,theirtalents curbed,perhaps,bythedemandsofEuropeangovernment.Theirreligious zeal,wemayrestassured,isnolessfervent.Othersremaininthe background,maintainingtheirlinkswiththeIslamicMiddleEast,leading theirfraternities,andencouragingthedisseminationoftheirdoctrines.Yet othershaveamorerestrictedsphereofactioninthetownsandcountry districts,continuallytransmittingbypreceptandexamplethefundof Islamiclearning,theobservanceofitsrites,andtherudimentsofitslaw. Finallywecometotheholymanofthevillagethesceneofcompromise andtheamalgamationofIslamicpopularbeliefsandpracticeswiththoseof paganoriginandsometimesofChristiandissemination. Theireffortsatproselytismare,atbest,circumscribedbytheirownnarrow vision;or,atworst,merelybattenonthecredulityofthosewhoseektheir aid.Butwhatevertheiraccomplishmentsorfieldsofactivitytheholymen

11

arethespearheads,bluntorkeen,ofanIslamwhichisdistinctivelyWestern Sudanese.11

States
FormanycenturiestheWesternSudanhasseentheriseofStatesand politicalorganismstowhichthetermEmpirehasbeenapplied.Astudyof themoregeneralworksonthehistoryoftheWesternSudanshowsthat someoftheseenduredforcenturies,otherswereshortlived,butthecareer ofallwasmarkedbycontinuouswarfare,extensionsandcontractionsof territory,andinternalrivalriesandinsurrections. ButalongsidethissanguinaryaspectliestheotherfaceoftheWestern SudanState.Citieswereestablished,andwithintheirwallsweretobefound notonlythepompoftheking'scourtandthesplendourofhismilitary power,butalsomorepeacefulmanifestationsofurbanculture.Somecities becamecentresofIslamiclearning.Mostdisplayedconsiderablediversityin theirartsandcrafts,whosepractitionerswereorganizedintoguildsunder theking'spatronage.Manywerecommerciallyimportant,notonlygathering intotheirmarketstheproduceofthesurroundingcountryside,butalso maintainingafarflungcaravantradewithotherWesternSudanesecities andwithcommercialcentresontheoppositeMaghrebineshoreofthesand seawhichistheSahara.ManyoftheurbanpopulationsoftheWestern Sudancouldtrulybecalledcosmopolitan.Thecitywasthenodalpointof theState,whichmoreoftenthannotwasdescribedbythecity'sname. Surroundingittoagreaterorlesserdepthwasthecity'scountryside,from whichproducewasdrawnandtowhichthecity'sproductspercolated. Withinthisarea,asinthecityitself,theaffluenceoftheStatewas maintainedbytheartsofpeacefuladministration,inthelevyingofall manneroftollsandtaxes,thequidproquoofwhichwaseffectivedefence. Stillfartheroutwasthezoneentrustedtogovernorswho,thoughoften residinginthecity,wereresponsibleforthedefenceofitsvarious,sectors, andthesafeguardingofsuchtraderoutesaspassedthroughthem.Here publicadministrationwasmanifestnotintax,butintribute,collectedfrom populationsonlylooselyboundtotheState.TheaffluenceoftheStatedid notdependsolelyonthemaintenanceofavigorousinternalandexternal trade,fosteredbypeacefulconditions.Apartfromthetradeingold,salt,and diverseconsumergoods,oneoftheprincipalresourcesoftheWestern Sudanwasitshumanmaterial,intheformofslaves.Theseweresoughtina moredistantzoneoutsidethegovernors'domains,whichwasanoman's landbetweenoneStateandthenext.IntheIslamiceraintheWestern Sudan,thesezonesassumedadualimportanceandtheactivitiesofStates inthemhadanideologicalaswellasaneconomicimpetus.Theylayoutside DarelIslam,theCommunityoftheFaithful;theirpopulationswereeitherto besubduedandconvertedbyforceandthusbroughtintothewebofMuslim Stateadministration,orcarriedoffasslaves.ThusontheStates'peripheries theartofgovernmentmergedintotheartofwar.Wheretheterritorial interestsofoneStatecollidedwiththoseofitsneighbour,theslaveraiding 12

columnbecameaninstrumentofaggression.Heretoo,ideologicalreasons werebroughttobear,andaccusationsofbackslidinginthefaithwereused asjustificationsforextendingterritorialclaims. TheStatewasthuscommittedtoaceaselesscourseofexpansion;tradehad tobeguaranteedandtaxandtributeleviedinordertosupportfurther militaryendeavoursinthenameofIslam,which,ifsuccessful,broughtnot onlynewwealthbutalsonewadministrativeproblems. Thisexpansionwasfacilitatedbygeographicalandtechnological considerations.ThesavannahzoneoftheWesternSudanrarelyaffords naturalbarriersuponwhichafrontierlinecanbeestablished.Thehorse waswidelyusedinwarfareandmadepossiblemilitaryformationsofgreat mobility.Itwasthereforenotsurprisingthat,inperiodsofaffluence,the nominalboundariesfaroutrantheareawhichcouldbeeffectively administered,andthatinperiodsofadversitytheperipheryoftheStatewas quicklyoverrun.Moreover,atallpointsintheterritorialorganizationofthe Stateastronggoverninghandwasrequired.Atthecentre,inthecity,there weretheinevitablecourtintrigues;merchantswithdiverseanddistant connexions;peripateticMuslimpreachersandholymen.Inthecountryside thepeagantswerealwaysseekingtoavoidtaxation.Inthegovernors' domains,militaryforcesatthedisposaloflocalcommmandersmightbe indispensabletotheState,butwereequallylikelytobeusedagainstthe ruler.Here,too,thetributepayingpopulationsmightbeofdiverseethnic origins,withtheirownlocaltraditionsandreligions,eagertoregaina semblanceofautonomy,andwillingtoallythemselveswithanypowerthat wouldhelpthem.Outwardagain,thenoman'slandwasthehomenotonly ofpagantribesjealousoftheirtimehallowedcustoms,butalsoofbandsof freebooters,sellingtheirservicesatwill.AndthroughouttheStateroamed thepastoralists,elusiveandunpredictable,nowinnocentherdsmenof camelsorcattle,nowwelldisciplinedbandsofbowmenorcavalry,withan unrivalledknowledgeofthebush.12 Fulanihaveplayedtheirpartinthefoundation,administration,and overthrowofStatesthroughoutthecourseofWesternSudanesehistory.The Fulanifoundedpagankingdoms,buttheFulaniStateswhichconfronted EuropeanpowersattheirannexationofWestAfrica,andwhichsurvivein modifiedformtoday,areIslamic. Somewriters(Delafosse,1912;Bovill,1933)suggestthatthefoundersof MelleweretheforebearsoftheFulani,thoughthisisopentodoubt.The principalpaganStatesfoundedbyFulaniwereFoutaJaloninthetenth century,andFoutaSenegal,foundedinthesixteenthcenturybytheFulani clanDenianke,whofledwestwardsfromtheruleoftheSonghai.TheFulani dynastiesoftheseStateswerenotedfortheirpersecutionofMuslim populations.Otherpaganprincipalities,foundedbyFulanibeforethe eighteenthcentury,aroseinMacina,Yatenga,Gobir,andBagirmi. ButthemoststrikingcontributiontothehistoryoftheStatesoftheWestern SudanwastheFulanicreationandusurpationofMuslimStateswhichwere nolessfanaticthantheirpaganpredecessors.TheseMuslimStatesarose 13

withinacenturyinwidelyseparatedpartsoftheWesternSudan,andatone junctureitseemedlikelythattheywouldbeunitedunderasingleemperor. SomarkedwasthisessentiallyFulanidevelopmentthatsomewriters (RichardMolard,1949;Gouilly,1952)haveseeninitaconcertedeffort whichcouldbedescribedastheFulaniphaseofIslamization.Thefirst manifestationoccurredinFoutaJalon.Duringtheseventeenthcenturythis wellendowedhighlandareawasthesceneofaconsiderableimmigrationof Fulanipastoralistswho,althoughofdifferentclans,wereallMuslimsofthe Kadiriyapersuasion.In1725aMuslimFulaniknownasAlfaBaputhimself attheirheadanddeclaredaHolyWar(jihaad)notonlyagainstthepagan SossoandMandingoinhabitantsbutalsoagainstthepaganFulanidynasty whichruledthecountry.AlfaBadiedduringthecourseofpreparationsfor theHolyWar,buthisson,aholyman,knownasIbrahimmoTimboor KaramokoAlfa,continuedhisworkwiththeaidofawarleader,Ibrahim Sori.Theyconqueredandconvertedbyforceallexcepttheleastaccessible partsofthecountryandestablishedaterritorialorganizationwhich, althoughmuchmodified,isthebasisofpresentdayadministration.There werenineprovinces(Diwe;sing.Diiwal)underregionalchiefs.Thesewere dividedintoparishes(Misside)whichinturnwerecomposedof settlementsoffreemen(Fulaso)andofslaves(Runde).Dissensionsbetween thewarleader'sparty(Soriya)andthefollowersoftheholymen(Alfaya)led, in1840,toacumbersormecompromisebywhichadministrativeoffices alternatedeverytwoyears. ThesecondMuslimFulaniStatewasFoutaToro,which,duringthe sixteenthandseventeenthcenturies,hadbeenruledbyapaganFulani dynasty,theDenianke.In1776theMuslimFulaniminorityroseunderAbd elKadrTorodiandestablishedtheMuslimState.InFoutaTorotherewas littleoftheinternaldissensionseeninFoutaJalon.AbdelKadrhadboth preachedandwagedwar,andhiskingdomconsistedofprovincesunderthe ruleofMuslimdivines.TheStateexpandedafterthedeathofAbdelKadrin 1788anditsdependenciesintheSenegambiaregionDimar,Damga,and BoundouwereinsituonthearrivaloftheFrench. TheBambarakingdomofMacinawasthesceneofthecreationofthenext MuslimFulanikingdom.HeretheMuslimFulanihadforlongbeen tributariesoftheBambara.Oneofthem,AmaduSisi,ledtherevoltand proclaimedhimselfAmirofMacina.HisconquestsincludedJennand Timbuktuandhisrulewasmarkedbyafanaticismwhichincludedthe destructionofmosqueswhosedevoteeshedeclaredtobelaxintheir religiousobservances. ThegreatestfeatofempirebuildingonthepartoftheFulaniwastheJihad ofUsumandanFodio,whoestablishedawidespreadempireinwhatisnow NorthernNigeria,bothfoundingnewStatesandusurpingtheruleoftheold establishedHausakingdoms.UsumanwasaFulaniofDegelinGobir.He wasbroughtupstrictlyintheMalikiriteandatanearlyagefoundhis vocationasteacherandwriter,butaboveallasapreacher.Inhissermons hewasatpainstopointouttheerrorsandshortcomingsoftheHausa,who mixedpaganwithMuslimpractices.ThisdisquietedNafata,kingofGobir, who,althoughformerlyapupilofUsuman's,sawintheseactivitiesathreat 14

tohispositionatthecentreofthepaganritesofkingship.Beforehisdeath, NafatamadeproclamationsdesignedtorestricttheeffectofUsuman's efforts.HissonYunfawasmoreenergeticandin1803attackedGimbana,an importantMuslimvillage,destroyingthescribes'writingsandcarryingoff theirwivesandchildren.InFebruary1804UsumandeclaredaHegiraor FlightfromDegel,whichwasademonstrationofdefianceoftheconstituted government.IttooktheMuslimleaderintoanilladministeredpartofthe kingdom,fromwhichmessagesmightbesenttoFulanicommunitiesurging themtojointheinstigatoroftherising,andfromwhichthefirst deploymentsofinsurrectionmightbemade.Usumanwasspeedilyjoinedin hisflightbyaconsiderablenumberofferventsupporters.InJune1804 UsumanmetYunfainbattleatKwottolakeanddefeatedhim.Thevictorious MuslimarmyproclaimedUsumanCommanderoftheFaithful(Arab.Amiral Muminin;HausaSerkinMusulmi;Ful.LaamiidhoJulbhe)andhewas thenceforthknownasSheikorShehu.HedeclaredHolyWaragainstthe enemiesofIslamand,inthenextdecadeorso,Shehu,orhissonand successorBello,gavetheflagofHolyWartotrustedfollowerswhotook existingkingdomsbyinsurrectionorcarvedoutnewonesbywar.Usuman himselfretiredearlytoalifeofcontemplation,andisreveredtothisdayasa saint. By1810fourofthesevenHausaStatesKatsina,Kano,Zaria,andDaura weretakenbytheFulani,andthecityofSokoto,fromwhichtheEmpire wastobegoverned,hadbeenestablished.Duringthenexttwentyyears, FulanidynastiesweresetupinotherStates,principallyIlorinandNupe. Duringthesameperiodnewkingdomswereestablished,chiefamongwhich wasAdamawa.OntheeasternbordersoftheEmpiredevelopmentstook placewithwhichweshallbemoreconcernedlaterinthetext.Bornu resistedtheFulaniinvaders,butinlargeportionsofitswesternterritory smallkingdoms,suchasHadeijia,Katagum,Bauchi,Misau,andGombe, wereestablishedbytheFulani.ThehistoryoftheFulaniStatesduringthe nineteenthcenturyisoneofattemptsatexpansionandinternecinestrife, whichneitherthemilitarypowerofthesuzerainStateofSokotonorthe religiousauthorityofitsrulerwereabletocompose.Nevertheless,ontheir arrivalinNorthernNigeria,theBritishrecognizedthelegitimacybyconquest oftheFulanirulers,andthepresentEmirsoftheStatesareforthemost partthedescendantsoftheflagbearersoftheJihad. ThefinalmanifestationofFulaniIslamwastheriseofUmarSaiduTal.He wasbornin1797intoafamilyofholymenofPodorinSenegal.Hewenton thepilgrimagein1827andstudiedinMecca,Medina,andCairo.He returnedtotheWesternSudanin1838andwaswellreceivedinBornu, Sokoto,andMacina.TheFulanirulersofSokotoandMacinagavehimtheir daughtersinmarriage.HeattemptedtoseizepowerinFoutaTorobutwas unsuccessful,althoughhesucceededinraisingfollowerspreparedtopreach theHolyWarelsewhere.HemovedtoDinguirayeinFoutaJalon,whichhe establishedasafortressandcentreoflearning.HeledaHolyWarinthe Bamboukcountryandby1861hadestablishedhissonaskingofMacina. Underhishand,Nioro,Bandiagara,andSegoubecameimportantreligious centres.Butin1857hewascheckedatKhossobytheFrench,andin1861, 15

wasdefeatednearBandiagarabythedispossessedFulaniofMacina.Hadj UmarTal'scareerwasoneofspectacularfailure.Frenchwriters(Richard Molard,1949;Gouilly,1952)seeinhimthepotentialunifierofallthe MuslimFulaniempiresandStatesoftheWesternSudan,whosepursuitof thishegemonywasfoiledonlybythearrivaloftheFrenchandBritishas colonialpowers.However,wemayspeculatethat,hadhiscareergone unchecked,hisempirewouldhavesufferedthesameinternalinstabilityas besetothersinthehistoryoftheWesternSudan.13

Slaves
TheFulaniMuslimStates,foundedandruledbyholymencarryingoutthe finaldutyofthebeliever,thatofwagingtheHolyWar,were,atleastatthe outset,militanttheocracies.Spacedoesnotpermitadetaileddiscussionof thevariationsinFulaniadministrationindifferentpartsoftheWestern Sudan,butweshouldnoteonecommonfeature.TheFulanirulersaddedto theirproselytizingzealanethnicconsciousnessderivednodoubtfromtheir longhistoryasalienminoritiesamongtheNegropopulationsoftheWestern Sudan.Intheirtriballyheterogeneouskingdomstheypreservedmany featuresoftheearlieradministration,butinterpretedtheminaccordance withtheirownnotionsofethnicdominance.Fulaniwerefree;theywere rulers,divines,herdsmen.PaganFulani,principallyPastoralFulani,wereto beconvertedbutnottakenintoslavery.Withinthekingdomthevarious nonFulanioccupationalgroupsorganizedbyfamiliesorclansthe blacksmiths,metalworkers,butchers,leatherworkers,weavers,tailors, dyers,andminstrelsweresubjecttospecialtaxesandtheiroutputor serviceswereatthedisposalofthekingorhislocalrepresentatives.Inthe governors'domains,tributewasoftenpaidinslaves.Someoftheserosehigh intheking'smilitaryoradministrativeserviceandcertaintitleswere reservedformenofslaveorigin.Slaveswereinlargemeasurethecurrency oftribute;withhorses,theywerealsothemeansofrewardingservices renderedtotheking.ThusthroughouttheFulanikingdomstherewere communitiesofslavecultivators(runde,ruumde'en,ruumdanko'en,in differentdialects)whoseFulanimastersclaimedtheirshareofproduce. Slaves(maccubhe,sing.maccudho)andfemaleslaves(horbhe,sing. kordho)alsoservedinmenialpositionsinFulanihouseholds.Concubinage andmiscegenationtookplace,andtheoperationofMuslimlawinthese respectsgaverisetocommunitiesofenfranchizedslavesorserfcultivators (rimaybhe,sing.diimaajo). Justastheeconomicandmilitarypowerofakingdomdependedinlarge measureonthesenonFulanigroups,sothelatterwerepartoftheFulani socialorderatalllevels.TheyhadtheirplaceinFulaniceremonial,mastered Fulanietiquette,andspoketheFulanilanguage,andmanyoftheirmembers mightclaimtobepartFulani.Inspiteofthedecreesandordinancesof colonialgovernmentsagainstvariousformsofslavery,theserelationships persist,althoughwithmanymodifications.Communitiesofslaveorserf originmayhavetheoutwardappearanceofFulanicommunitiesofsedentary

16

farmers,semisedentarists,orevenpastoralists.Theiroriginandpresent statusrequirecarefulelucidation.14

ProblemsandMethods
ConfrontedwiththewideanddiscontinuousdistributionofFulani,their nonNegroidphysicalcharacteristics,thedistinctivefeaturesanddoubtful originoftheirlanguage,andthevarietyofsocialsystemsinwhichthey participate,Europeanwritershaveaddressedthemselvestoanumberof ethnologicalandlinguisticproblemsconcerningthem. Thefirstofthesewastheabsorbingproblemoforigins.Thesecondwasthat oftheantiquityandthemodeofthedispersaloftheFulanithroughoutthe WesternSudan.Thethirdwastheproblemoftheevolutionand differentiationofFulanicommunities.Thefourthandthiswasoftenthe vehicleoftheforegoinginquirieswastheobservationandethnographic descriptionofspecificFulanicommunities.

Origins
EthnologistsandothershavebeenprovokedtoseektheoriginsoftheFulani faroutsidetheirpresenthabitat,inremoteperiodsandstatesofsociety,and todescribethesuccessivemigrationswhicharesupposedtohavebrought themintotheirpresenthabitatbeforedocumentaryevidencefromthe WesternSudanbecameavailable.Considerableethnologicaldebatehas surroundedthewidelydivergenthypothesesoftheoriginoftheFulani. Tauxier(1937)liststhemajorityofthese.

Somewriters(e.g.Guiraudon,1888;Delafosse,1912;Morel,1902) affirmedtheirJewishorSyrianoriginandsuggestedamigration westwardsalongtheNorthAfricanlittoral,southwardsintothe WesternSudanand,thence,inhistoricaltimes,eastwards. Others(e.g.Mollien,1820;Seligman,1930;Barth,18578)suggested Ethiopianaffinitiesandinferredaprehistoricmovementwestward fromEthiopiaintotheWesternSudan. Accordingtoothers(e.g.Passarge,1895;Meyer,1897;Crozals,1883) FulaniwereNorthAfricanBerbers, Therewasabodyofthought(e.g.Bayol,1887;Machat,1906;Gautier, 1935;Palmer,1923,1928,1936)whichcompromisedbetweenthe BerberandEthiopiantheories. OthermorefancifulhypothesesincludingtheHindu(e.g.Golberry, 1805;Binger,1892),MalayoPolynesian(Eichtal,1841) Gypsytheories,completethelistofelaboratesurmisesonFulani origins.

ThemythsoftheFulanithemselvesdolittletoconfirmhypotheseslinking themwitheventsoftheClassicalorNearEasternworld.Theyoftendescribe themarriageofaMuslimAraborMoorwithaNegresswhichisblessedwith 17

children.Oneinfantisleftinthecareofanelderbrotherwhiletheirmother goestodrawwater.Itcriesandiscomfortedbyitsbrotherinan incomprehensiblelanguagewhichthemotheroverhearsonherreturn.She runstotellthefather,whotakesthisasasign,predictedbytheProphet, thatthechildwillbethefounderofanewpeoplewhodonotspeakArabic, butwillbethesavioursofIslam.ThischildistheancestoroftheFulani.In someversionshisbrotherslearnthenewlanguage,Fulfulde,fromhimand foundthefourgreatbranchesoftheFulanipeople.Inotherstheybecome theancestorsofother,Negro,populationsofthecountry.Inallitsversions (e.g.Madrolle,1885;deSt.Croix,1944)thismythrelatestheracialaffinities oftheFulani,theirlinguisticpeculiarities,andtheirhistoricalrolein theWesternSudan. Other,lesshomely,traditionshavebeenencountered.Clapperton(1829) recordsthestatementofShehuBelloofSokotothattheFulaniareofJewish origin.Delafosse(1912)recordsthemyththatthefourancestorsofthe traditionalmajordivisionsoftheFulaniintheNigerSenegalregionthe Ba,Bari,So,andDialloaretheoffspringofaJewessofSinaiandher husbandOkbawhowassentbytheCaliphOmar(63464)toconvertthe JewsandlaterbecamegovernorofEgypt.Variantsofthismytharefoundin Guebhard(1910),VicarsBoyle(1910),Lauture(18556),Clapperton(1829), andLogeay(1909).Theseandsimilartraditionsappeartobecurrentin IslamiccirclesandaredisseminatedbyFulanipreachers(Tauxier,1937). But,aswehaveseen,bynomeansallFulanisharedthebeliefsandoutlook oftheIslamiccommunitiesoftheWesternSudanorwereconversantwith theirmyths.PastoralFulani,whohavealwaysbeenleastamenableto conversion,hadtheirownmythsoforigin,whichwereboundupwiththe originofcattle.Acommonversion(deSt.Croix,1944;Stephani,1912)runs somewhatasfollows.ThefirstFulanitoowncattleisexpelledfromaFulani settlement.Thecontextofthisexpulsionisnotstated.Hewandersalonein thebush,enduringgreathardship.Awaterspiritappearsandtellshimthat ifheobeyshisordershewillacquiregreatwealthandbetheenvyofthose whodespisedhim.Inoneversionhewatersallthewildanimalsinturn, untilfinally,inrewardforhisexertions,thespiritsendshimcattletowater. InanotherversiontheFulaniisenjoinedtowaitpatientlybyalakeuntilthe sourceofhisfuturewealthappears.Thewaterspiritthentellshimtolead thecattleawayandnevertofailtolightafireforthematdusk,lestthey reverttotheirwildstateandleavehim.ThesettledFulanidespisethe nomadandpourridiculeuponhisharshwayoflife.Buthetakesawifefrom them,andhisprogenyareeventuallyabletopursuetheirpastoralexistence withoutintermarriagewiththosewhospurnedtheirancestor.While explainingandjustifyingthewayoflifeofthecattleowningFulani,this mythretailsastereotypeoftherelationsofPastoralandsedentaryFulani.In additionitgivesafaintcluetothenatureofthepreIslamicPastoralFulani religion,whichhasbeencharacterizedasbomaniesansbolatriethough itsbeliefsandpracticeshaveeludeddescription. ThesearchfortheoriginsoftheFulaniwasbasedonracialandlinguistic criteria,andattemptsweremadetolinkthesewithClassical,Biblical,and NearEasternhistory.Noconvincingcasehasbeenmadeforlinkingthe 18

Fulani,asanidentifiableethnicgroup,withhistoricaleventsoutsidethe WesternSudan.Amoretenablesupposition,basedonthesameevidence,is thattheyareaproductofthelongandsustainedimpactofpastoraltribes, themselvesofMediterraneanaffiliation,upontheindigenousNegro populationsoftheWesternSudan,andletsthematterrestthere.Thenature ofthisimpactinitsearlystagescanonlybeconjectured.Fromtheearliest recordsoftheWesternSudanbyArabsandEuropeans,commencingwith YakubiinA.D.872(seeBoucheandMauny,1946),theFulanihavebeen essentiallyaWesternSudanesephenomenon,partofitsgeography,history, andsociology.

AntiquityandModeofDispersal
ThedispersaloftheFulaniwithintheWesternSudanhasbeendocumented byanumberofEuropeanwriters,principallythosementionedonthe questionoforigins,withtheadditionofDelavignette(1932),Duhring(1926 7),andGaden(1890).Thereconstructionofthismigrationreliesforthemost partonFulanioraltraditions.Thesetraditionsareinpartsubstantiatedby WesternSudanesechroniclessuchasthoseofKano,Bornu,andAgades (Urvoy,1936;Palmer,1928)sincethelatterrecountinsummaryformsome oftheeventsinthehistoryoftheWesternSudanwithwhichtheFulaniwere connected.ItisgreatlytoberegrettedthatmanyoftheStatechronicleswere destroyedbytheFulanithemselvesontheirassumptionofpower.Inturn, recoursehasbeenhadtoAraborMoorishtravellers'accounts,principally thoseofElBekri(Slane,1859),EsSa'adi(Houdas,1900),andLeoAfricanus (Brown,1896).ThewritingsofEuropeantravellersbeforethecolonialera, suchas

Barth(18578) Clapperton(1829) Caille(1830) DenhamandClapperton(1826) Golberry(1805) Lander(1832) Park(1799) Rohlfs(1872) Staudinger(1889) Nachtigal(1879,1881)

completethesourcesofourinformation. Althoughthedetailsofthesemigrationsmaybeopentodoubt,theirgeneral senseisquiteclear.ThegeneralmassmovementoftheFulani(knownby oneorotheroftheirvariousnames)withintheWesternSudanhasbeen fromSenegaleastwards.Theperiodsatwhichstagesofthismovementwere accomplishedarenotsoclear.ItappearsthattheexodusoftheFulanifrom thekingdomofTekrurinSenegaloccurredintheeleventhcenturyA.D. (Delafosse,1912).ItisclearthatbythetimeoftheriseoftheFulaniMuslim StatesintheeighteenthandearlynineteenthcenturiestheFulaniformed 19

moreorlesssubstantialminoritiesinthevariousregionsinwhichtheirHoly Warswerefought,sincethesewereinnocaseinvasions,butinsurrections. Sincethatperiod,largelyowingtothepacificationofhithertoinaccessible areasbycolonialadministrations,Fulanihavepenetratedfartherintoareas suchastheJosPlateauinNigeriaandpartsofBritishandFrench Cameroons.WemayconcludethatthepresentdistributionoftheFulaniwas moreorlesscompletedduringaperiodofatmosteighthundredyears. Thereislittledoubtthatthemainimpetusofthisvastethnicmovementwas providedbythepastoralelementsofthepopulation.Thetranshumance systemsofthePastoralFulanihaveprobablyalwaysbeenofaconservative nature,involvingcloseknowledgeofthegrazingpotentialitiesofrelatively limitedtractsofcountry.Theindependenceofthesimpleorcompound familywithitsownherdhasmilitatedagainsttheformationofextended kinshipgroupshavingwelldefinedgrazingandwaterrightsinspecifictracts whichmightbedefendedbyforce.Thusherdshavebeenmaintained,notby cattleraiding,feud,andwar,butbythecontinuousadjustmentof transhumancepatternstosubtlechangesofanecologicalnature.The resultantmovementmaybedescribedasmigratorydrift,anditisthis typeofmovementwhichaccountsforthespreadofPastoralFulani populations.Aswehaveseen,PastoralFulanihavealwaysformedminorities withinwidersocieties,andintolerablepoliticalconditionswithinthesehave beencounteredbyamoredramaticformofmovementmigrationfromthe sceneofwar,excessivetribute,andthelike.PastoralFulanihaveremained pastoralists,inthesensewehavedescribed,onlybycontinuousseasonal movement,whichdevelopsimperceptiblyintomigratorydrift,andby periodicmigration.TheyhaveleftbehindthemFulanipopulationsmore closelyweddedtothesoil,thesemisedentaryandsedentarypopulations. Butinaffirmingtheimportanceofthepastoralistsindispersing communitiesofFulanithroughouttheWesternSudan,theroleofholymen ofFulanidescentshouldnotbeminimized.Theyservedtocrystallizethese groupsintoselfconsciouscommunitieswhichlaterbecamethenucleiof FulaniStates.ForthepastoraliststhesavannahgrasslandoftheWestern Sudanwasavastpotentialgrazingground.Fortheholymenitwasafieldof missionaryandreformistendeavouramongthecourtsofpaganandMuslim rulersnolessthanamongFulanipopulations.WemaysupposethatFulani wereconvertedtoIslambeforetheeleventhcenturyowingtotheeffortsof MalikiteMauretanianArabsinSenegal(Delafosse,1912).Thesewere fortifiedbytheestablishmentoftheAlmoravidEmpireontheruinsofthe kingdomofGhana(Bovill,1933).TheseeventsgaverisetotheFulani Torobhe(thosewhopraytoAllah).TheFulaniTorobheofSenegalthemselves movedeastwardsinthewakeoftheFulanimigrations,initiatingmembersof Fulanisedentarycommunitiesandformingtheirwidelydispersed brotherhoods.ThesemennotonlypreachedamongexistingFulani communitieswherevertheyfoundthem,forminglinksbasedontheirown influencewiththecentralauthoritiesofthealienStates;theyalsooften formedthefociofnewcommunitiesdrawntogetherbyrealorimagined persecutionandcementedbyacommonlanguageandcommonfaith.Such dissidentcommunitieswereformedbytheFlightsofholymenandwere 20

locatedinilladministeredpartsoftheStatesinwhichtheywerefound. TheriseoftheFulaniMuslimStatesthroughtheactivitiesoftheFulaniholy menthusdependedinlargemeasureontheirinfluenceamongcommunities oftheirownpeople.ButtodescribetheHolyWarsasdemonstrationsof Fulaninationalismisnotentirelyaccurate.InFoutaJalon,Fouta Senegal,andMacina,theFulanireformistsoustedpaganFulanidynasties. InHausalandFulaniresistedtheagitationsofUsumanandonoccasion foughtonthesideoftheHausakingdoms,whileShehuUsumangaveflags toHausaandBornuesepreachersaswellastoFulani.Finally,Muslim FulanithemselvesbelongedtorivalsectsoftheMalikiterite.HadjUmar belongedtothecomparativelyrecentlyformedsectoftheTijaniya.Hisfailure inFoutaToroandhiswarwiththeFulaniofMacinaweredueasmuchto doctrinaldifferencesastoconflictsofpoliticalambitions.

EvolutionandDifferentiationofFulaniCommunities
TheworkofnumerouswritersontheFulanimakesitclearthatnosimple formulafortheevolutionanddifferentiationofFulanicommunitiescanbe laiddown.Communitiesofpastoralistspersist,andwillcontinuetodosoin theirpresentforminregionsofthesavannahbeltwheresedentary populationsremainatalowdensity.15Administrativeactioncoupledwith ecologicalreformmaycreatedemarcatedareaswherecattleraisingwill flourishonabasismoreakintoranching;enclosuremayleadtomixed farming.16Communitiesofsemisedentaristsdonotrepresentaninevitable stageintheprocesstowardsasedentarywayoflife;theymayarisethrough povertyincattle,oritsreverse.SedentaryFulanipopulationsareevidenceof thisprocessofsedentarization,buthereagain,therearepopulationsofnon FulanioriginwhohavebeenincludedintheorbitofFulanipolitical dominationandwhoregardthemselvesasFulani.Finally,fromtheevidence atourdisposal,itisnotpossibletoreferthedevelopmentofWestern SudaneseStatestoaraceofFulanishepherdkings.Theearly developmentofcentralizedgovernmentmayhavebeenduetoBerber invasions,andtheearlypaganFulanikingdomsmayhavebeenofthis nature.ButbeforetheestablishmentoftheFulaniMuslimStatestherewere powerfulNegrokingdomsintheWesternSudan.TheFulaniStates themselves,whichpersisteduntiltheperiodofEuropeancolonization,were largelyusurpationsofexistingStatesystems,andowedtheirrise,notto invasionsofwarlikenomads,buttotheideologicalandpoliticalambitionsof holymen,whoseprincipaladherentswereFulanicommunitiesalready subjectinsomedegreetotheStates'jurisdiction. Thisbookdealswithchangesinsomeofthesalientfeaturesofthewayoflife ofacommunityofPastoralFulaniinonlyonesmallpartoftheWestern SudantheWodhaabhe17ofBornuEmirateinNortheasternNigeria. Althoughtheirmaterialequipmentisrudimentary,theirsocialgroupings small,fluid,andisolated,theWodhaabhearenotintheclassicalsensea primitivepeople.Inthepageswhichfollow,thereaderwillseethatnoneof thefeaturesdescribedaboveforFulanicommunitiesingeneralarealiento 21

theWodhaabhe.Theyhavemigratedtotheirpresenthabitat,andsomehave movedoneastwards.Theyhaveexperiencedthepressurestowardsthe sedentarylife,andsomehavecapitulated.Theytradeandbarter continuouslywithnonFulanicommunitieswhoselanguagestheyspeak. SomehavebrieflyvisitedcapitalcitiesintheMuslimStatesMaiduguri,Yola, Kano,Zariawheretheyhavelived,notashomelessimmigrantsilladjusted tothelifeofthecity,butincenturiesold'quarters'wherepeopleoftheir ownregionalorethnicbackgroundcongregate.TheWodhaabhehavebeen convertedtoIslambyholymen.Theyworship,howeverimperfectly,theGod ofmillionsofcoreligionists.TheyhelponhiswaytoMeccathepilgrimfrom farplaces;someofthemhavethemselvesmadethepilgrimage.Theyare beingdrawnintothelegalandadministrativesystemassociatedinWest AfricawithIslam.TheirlegendsarethoseofMuslimkings,andthereligious warswhichhavesweptthecountry.Theirtribalheroesaremenwhoprofited bythewars,whoacquiredslavesandhorsesforservicesrenderedtokings. TheWodhaabhe,likeotherFulanicommunities,arehistoricallyand culturallypartoftheIslamicworldoftheWesternSudan. Nevertheless,thereaderwilldetectaveinofopportunisminthedealingsof theWodhaabhewiththealienStatesandcommunitiesinwhichtheymove. TheyhaveacceptedtheprotectionofStateswhenitwasconvenienttodoso. TheyhavetradedorfoughtwithneighbouringcommunitiesofnonFulanias politicaleventsdictated.TheyhaveacceptedonlythoseformsofIslamic canonlawwhichsuitedthem,andhaveevadedtherest.Theseattitudes extendtotheadministrativeprovisionscurrentunderthesystemofIndirect Rulewhichaffectthem. Theyardstickofthisinvolvementwith,orwithdrawalfrom,awidersocial system,hasbeenthewelfareofWodhaabheherdsandthemaintenanceof thefamilysystemwithwhichcattlearesocloselybound.Andthesuccessof theiropportunismhasbeenduetothemobilitywithwhichfamiliesandtheir herdsareendowed. SocialchangefortheWodhaabhe,asformanyanotherPastoralFulani community,doesnotlie,eventoday,intheimpactofWesterntechnology, modesofdistribution,andthenewformsofsocialorganizationandideology attendantuponthem.Themainmanifestationsofsocialchangeforthe WodhaabhearetheirincorporationintoanIslamicStateorganization, administrativesystem,andritualidiom,withwhich,untilthepostwar period,Britishadministrationhadlittleconcern.This,fortheWodhaabhe, hasbeenaslowprocess,lastingforperhapsacenturyandahalf.The stressesinWodhaabhesocietyresultingfromthesechangesmaybeslight comparedwiththosedescribedforAfricansocietiesconfrontedmore squarelywithchangesofaWesternorigin.Thisbookattemptstochronicle them.
Notes 1Seemapp.24. 2.Tauxier(1937)discussesworkonthephysicalanthropologyofFulanicommunities, principallythatofVerneau(1931),Deniker(1926),Buisson(1933).andChantre(1918). MorerecentworkisthatofPales(1951,1952,1953).Casualreferencesintheliteratureon WestAfricatothephysicalcharacteristicsofFulani,particularlythebeautyoftheirwomen,

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aretoonumeroustobementionedhere. 3.AnextensivebibliographyoftheFulanilanguageistobefoundinWestermannand Bryan(1952).SeealsoStruck(191112)andLabouret(1955). 4.AsuccinctdescriptionofthesestructuralfeaturesisfurnishedbyGreenberg(1949). 5.SeetherecentworkofdeTressan(1951,1952).In19556D.W.Arnott,ofSchoolof OrientalandAfricanStudies,madeextensivetaperecordingsallareaswhereFulaniare found.SeeArnott(1957). 6.Foradiscussionofthefactorsaffectingthevariousformsofpastoralmovementpractised bythePastoralFulaniseemypaperTranshumance,MigratoryDrift,andMigration; PatternsofPastoralFulaniNomadism(J.R.A.I,vol.87,pt.1.1957). 7.Themaintenanceoftheeconomicindependenceofthefamilyhouseholdwithinthe agnaticlineagegroupisdescribedinmypaperPastoralFulaniFamilyDevelopment (CambridgeAnnalsofAnthropology,no.I,1958). 8.ForobservationsonthelifeandsocialorganizationofthePastoralFulani,see: o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o Arensdorff(1913) Brackenbury(1924) Dupire(1954) Fourrier(1934) Gabus(1948,1955) Genin(1930) Guebhard(1910) Malbrant(1931) Meniaud(1912) Outresoulle(1950,1952) Pfeffer(1937) Reed(1932) deSt.Croix(1944) Trentinian(1896) WilsonHaffenden(1927)

9.DescriptionsofsemisedentarycommunitiesarefoundinHopen(1958),deSt.Croix (1944),andTauxier(1912,1917,1937).IcarriedoutfieldworkontheJosPlateaubetween AprilandSeptember1953. 10.Hausa:mallam. 11.ThereisaFrenchbibliographyofWesternSudaneseIslaminGouilly(1952),inwhich theworksofMarty,especially(1920),areofparticularimportance.Forarsumofthe historyandorganizationofIslamicfraternitiesandthefunctionoftheholymanwithinthem seealsoGouilly(1952)andPottier(1947).InEnglish,thereisadiscussionoftherelative statusesofIslamicandpreIslamicbeliefinaNigeriansocietyinNadel(1954).Therelevant institutionalandhistoricalbackgroundisanalysed,forthesamesociety,inNadel(1942), Greenberg(1946)describestheworkofholymen,andinSmith(1954)thereisafirsthand accountofaholyman'sexpeditionofconversion.Fremantle(191112)summarizesthe influenceofholymenuponpaganrulers. 12.ThebestgeneraldescriptionoftheriseandfallofWesternSudaneseStatesinageneral historicalsettingisthatofBovill(1933).Delafosse(1912)andHogben(1930)areusefulfor accountsoftherivalriesofStatesinFrenchWestAfricaandNigeriarespectively.The incorporationofvariousethnicgroupsintheStateisanalysedbyNadel(1942).Firsthand accountsofWesternSudaneseStateadministration,rivalry,war,slaveraiding,andlifein thecitiesarefoundinBarth(18578). 13.InadditiontothosementionedaboveontheStatesoftheWesternSudan,includingthe FulaniMuslimStates,thereareanumberofworks,mostlyinFulfuldewithtranslations, whichdescribetheHolyWarsandeulogizethemotivesandcharactersoftheirleaders:

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o o o o o o

Arnett(1922) Daniel(1926) Jeffreys(1950) East(1935) Jamburia(1920) Tyam(1935)

14.Inadditiontoworksmentionedaboveseethefollowingfororganizationand administrationinFulaniStates: o o o o o o o o o o Arnaud(1932) Froelich(1954a,1954b) Labouret(1935) Mizon(1895) NorthernNigeria,AnnualReports(190011) Patenostre(1930) Sanderval(1899) Smith(1955) Traore(1948) Vieillard(1939)

15.TheplightofPastoralFulaniinBamenda,whereonwardmigrationisinhibitedby geographicalconditions,isdescribedbyStapleton(1948). 16.ProposalsforthesedevelopmentsarediscussedinShawandColvile(1950)andin ProceedingsofaConferencecalledtoconsidertheReportoftheNigerianLivestockMission, Lagos,1952. 17.Sing.Bodhaadho.

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