Figur

HEARTH AS SYSTEM CENTRAL b y K i r k R. S m i t h FIGURES, TABLES, BOXES, AND REFERENCES

Household Energy Ladder

/1\
G l o b a l E n e r g y Ladder (Approximate % o f P o p u l a t i o n ) Grass/twigs 2 Dung 4 Crop R e s i d u e s 1 8 Wood 2 2 Charcoal 4 Coal 6 Kerosene 1 0 Gas 2 0 Electricity 1 4 1 % = 55 m i l l i o n people

Cleanliness, Energy Efficiency, and Capital Cost

ood Crop Residues Dung

Development

Figure 1. This shows an energy ladder for cooking fuels like those typically found in South Asia. I n other places, there may be signficant variations, i.e. certain rungs on the ladder shown here may be skipped and others added. For example, in Africa, charcoal use is significant, as is coal in China, where, on the other hand, not much kerosene is used. Shown also are rough estimates by the author of the percentage of people in the world presently at each rung, including those not so important in South Asia. Note that about half the people in the world still use biomass fuels and more than half use unprocessed solid fuels, i.e., biomass and coal.

Figure 2-A--Representative Efficiencies and Capital Costs for Various Stoves

Stove efficiency, C a p i t a l cost, percent l i . S . V h o u s e h o l d 70 8 0 60 50 40 30 20 1 0
0 , I 0

- 60

Efficiency

- 40

- 20

TD T A

T W

TC I W I C K W Stove and fuel t y p e

K P LPG E L

Stoves listed are: (TO), (TA), (TW), (TC)--traditional stoves using dried animal dung, agricultural residues, wood, and charcoal, respectively; (IW), (IC)improved wood and charcoal stoves; (KW), (KP)kerosene w i c k a n d kerosene pressure stoves; (LPG)LPG or natural gas stoves; and (EL)electric resistance stove. Efficiencies and capital costs are for the stove alone and do not include upstream capital costs for producing and delivering fuel. The range of performance both in the laboratory and in the field is much larger than that suggested b y this figure and is affected by such factors as the size of the stove and pot, the climate (wind), the quality of the fuel used, the care with which the stove is operated, the type of cooking done, and many other factors. The type of material that the pot is made of is also a significant factor: aluminum pots are almost twice as efficient as traditional clay pots due to their better conduction of heat.

Figure 2 Efficiency, percent 70 B 60 Stove n 50 -a d 40 S y Stove efficiency s t 30 e m System efficiency 20 E f 10 f i c i 0e n TD T A T W T C I W I C K W K P L P G E L c i Stove and fuel t y p e e s
Stove efficiencies are nominal values for the stove alone; system efficiencies include the energy losses in producing, converting, and delivering fuel to the consumer. Note particularly the low system efficiencies for charcoal (TO and IC) and electric (EL) stoves due to the large energy losses in converting wood to

Figure 2 Cost, U.S.8/ stove 100 C S 80 -t o v e a n d 60 S y s t 40e m C System 20ap i Stove t a 0 l TD T A T W I C I W I C K W KP L P G E L C Stove t y p e and fuel o When s system costs are included, electric stoves can be seen to be particularly expensive. There is a wide range of costs around t nominal values. Note the logarithmic scale. these s

Figure 2 Different Stoves 4 Annual operating cost, V s t o v e 250 Annu al 200 C o s t 150o f C o o k i n g f o T W ID T A TC I W I C K W r Stove and fuel t y p e

K P LPG E L

Data points show the cost as estimated from the nominal values. The gray band suggests the wide variation in costs using any particular stove depending on local stove and fuel costs, diet, and a host of other factors.
SOURCE: Samuel F. Baldwin, "Cooking Technologies," Office of Technology Assessment, staff working paper; arid U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment, Energy in Developing Countries, OTA-E-486 (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, January 1991).

The Post-Biomass Transition in the Republic of Korea

1iFl C 0

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Figure 5 . This shows the movement of fuel carbon through a traditional wood-fired cookstove as measured in the Philippines I n Sixty grams of carbon were not combusted completely, i.e. were released as NC. Based on the available energy in each NC, if they had all been combusted completely, another 2.2 MJ would have been released as heat. T h e stove therefore has a combustion efficiency of about 8 9% A l l the numbers refer to grams of carbon alone, e.g. the full mass of CO would be 28/12 (2.33) times larger. H e r e , total non-methane organic compounds (TNMOC) are u ' d instead of NMHC. N M H C are about 94% of TNMOC in this stove. Source of energy contents: [lo].

The Cookstove Energy Cycle

89% Combustion Efficiency 2.2 17.6 MJ 1 Kg Wood 500g Carbon

OP- A s h

8 CH 4 T74 0.6 N M O C R S P

1 . 5

Energy Factor (KJ/c)

24 1.0

75 0.5

45 0.07

Figure 6 . 3tarting with the same fuel carbon flows as Figure 1, this figure weights the PIC not on the basis of energy, but on the basis of how many cubic meters of air would be necessary to dilute the emission to meet US air pollution standards. Where there is only an occupational standard, an appropriate safety factor ( 0 ) has been used to establish a public standard. T h e following standards w e r e used ( i n m g / m NMHC=0.16; 161 3 ) Although ) : C O the NMHC standard was actv lily set to prevent the formation of ozone, it represents a much less stringent standard than wo 'Id be applied if certain individual hydrocarbons were = .05. 20 used as the basis of the dilution factor. T h e benzene in NMHC from these wood stoves, for T = 9h0 e 0 ; C O - 1 0 ; example, would require 40 times more d ution than shown. d i l u t i C H o 4 n f. 1 a 1c , t 0 0 0 o r s ( a s p h y x i a t i s h o n ) ; o w n i n t h e 120,000 1 8 0 0 1 K g Wood f i 500g Carbon g u r e a r e o X 4.1 m n 3 1c a l o w Ash p e r c a r b o n 60 a t o PIC m b 43.5 8 7 1 . 5 a CO C H s 4 i Dilution Factor ( m T N s 3 M O 10,000 1 7 0 , 0 0 0 40,000 . /c) : C

The Cookstove Health Cycle

2 0 1 9 0 3 , 0 0

3 . 4 0 0 0

A S P

Figure 7 T h e same carbon balance for the woodstove is shown as the two previous figures. I n this case, the PIC are weighted by the Global Warming Potentials (GWP) appropriate for 20-year and 100-year time horizons. N o t e that the PIC GWP is about equal to that of the CO f or a 20-year time horizon. Sources: (2, 12-151. 2

The Cookstove Carbon Cycle

CO2 Equivalent 470 4 4 0

A
500g Carbon 1 Kg Wood I

Stovew /,gA 440 CO2

- - o w Ash

1
43.5 Co 4.5 196 8 CH 4 22 184 7 NMHC 12 84 1.5 RSP 1 1.5

20_Years
GWP (CO2 Equivalent/c)

170

1012_Yeara
GWP ( C O 2 E q u i v a l e n t / 0 1.9 83 7.5 61 4.1 29 1 1.5

ral Fuel C o m b u s t i o n Use C o n d i t i o n s R R

A i r Pollutant E m i s s i o n s

Spaceheating

Cooking

Nom& Housing Patterns

Ventilation Conditions

Population

patial Behavior H s Te m p o Interacting r a N Disease, and u l Environmental t Factors a r n i d t iCompeting oPriorities for n Resources a l ,
1 1 = 1 1 M 1 1 1 1 1 ,

Human Exposures

Non-human Exposures

Physiological Status of Population

1 . . . . 1 1 1 1 1 1

Health Impacts

Insect Toxicity and Other Benefits

Economic and Financial Status

41111101

m m . . 1 1 1 1 1 0 . 4

Policy Options

Figure 8 .

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<

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Figure 11 . T h e s e show t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p s among t h e t h r e e g o a l s : e n e r g y e f f i c i e n c y, h e a l t h improvement, a n d r e d u c t i o n o f g l o b a l warming. T h e f i r s t t r i a n g l e shows how p a i r s o f g o a l s c a n b e approached t o g e t h e r. T h e second, h o w e v e r, shows how i t i s p o s s i b l e t o t a k e a c t i o n s t h a t may h e l p accomplish one g o a l , b u t d o s o a t t h e expense o f a n o t h e r. C E = Combustion e f f i c i e n c y ; HTE = h e a t t r a n s f e r e f f i c i e n c y ; RSP = r e s p i r a b l e suspended particulates.

MUL TIPLEFUNCTIONSOF THEOPEN FIRE

Liohting

IR i significance t u a l

Entertainmentl

Cooking

Space heating 1

fuel, and house materials I Drying of food,

Control of pests in thatched roof

Flavoring of food I P r e s 1 e M

Figure 1 2 .

Ta b l e 1 : T o t a l c a r b o n r e l e a s e d b y b i o m a s s c o m b u s t i o n in m i l l i o n t o n s p e r y e a r. Million tons

Open B u r n i n g ( 1 ) Swidden A g r i c u l t u r e 5 0 0 - 1 0 0 0 2 0 0 - 7 0 0 1 4 6 5 0 0 0

Permanent D e f o r e s t a t i o n Savanna F i r e s Crop R e s i d u e s 3 1 0 5 0 0

Enclosed B u r n i n g i n D e v e l o p i n g C o u n t r i e s ( 2 ) Crop R e s i d u e s * Firewood 5 3 5 Wood f o r Charcoal 0 4 7 0 0

Wood i n d e v e l o p e d c o u n t r i e s ( 3 )

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* I n c l u d e s animal dung used a s f u e l .

(1) C r u t z e n & A n d r e a e ( 1 9 9 0 ) (2) M e y e r s & L e a c h ( 1 9 8 9 ) (3) A n d r e a e ( 1 9 9 0 )

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Ta b l e 3 . Economic c o s t s o f e n v i r o n m e n t a l d a m a g e ( h e a l t h and g l o b a l warming) a n d f u e l a t d e v e l o p i n g - c o u n t r y r a t e s . Ta b l e 3 A : N o n - s u s t a i n a b l e h a r v e s t i n g o f wood Fuel Carbon F u e l C o s t E n v i r o n . T o t a l C o s C y c l e in F u e l P e r Ye a r - C o s t - $ P e r Ye a r - C o s t

LPG 5.8 Kerosene 4.0 Charcoal Kiln-high Kiln-low I m p . Wo o d outdoors Tr a d . Wo o d

0.20 0.29 0.80 3.00 1.60 0.75

54.7 52.8 33.0 123.8 66.0 61.9

3.78 10.22 30.21 209.22 48.05 19.85 9.18 48.00

58.5 63.0 63.2 333.0 11 4 . 0 81.7 9.2 130.5

58 63

396 177 91

1.00

82.5

131

Ta b l e 3 B Carbon in Fuel

Sustainable h a r v e s t i n g o f wood Fuel C o s t Per Y e a r Environ. Cost-$ To t a l C o s Per Ye a r Fuel Cycle Cost

LPG 5,8 Kerosene 4.0 Charcoal Kiln-high Kiln-low Imp.Wood outdoors Tr a d . Wo o d

0.20 0.29 0.80 3.00 1.60 0.75

54.7 52.8 32.0 123.8 66.0 61.9

3.78 10.22 17.44 174.73 35.72 7.97 9.18 32.00

58.5 63.0 50.4 298.5 101.7 69.8 9.2 11 4 . 5

58 63

349 152 79

1.00

82.5

115

Assumptions: 1650 t o n s wood p e r y e a r ; $50/ton f o r fuelwood $25/ton f o r c h a r c o a l wood Residential prices i n India, 1989 LPG: $ 5 . 8 0 / G J ; k e r o s e n e : $ 4 . 0 0 / G J . Source: K u l k a r n i , e t a l . , 1 9 9 1 . Note: U . S . P r i c e s i n 1990 LPG: $ 9 . 6 0 ; k e r o s e n e : $ 7 . 6 0 S o u r c e : E I A , 1 9 9 1

Table 4. G L O B A L IMPORTANCE OF PIC FROM BIOMASS-FIRED COOKSTOVES

ENERGY

Biomass makes up about 1.4' It ) is about 33')/0 of energy use in developing countries. It about /0 iso f a75'/0 l l of energy use in rural areas of developing countries. It is the most important fuel for the majority of humanity. d i r e c t Incomplete conbustion h u m a n of 90')/o means that more than 1% of human energy use is going up in smoke. e n e r g y u s e Health . Cause of up to 50')/0 of total human exposure to RSP. Second largest occupational group, after farm workers (cooks). Known risk factor for most important killer of developing-country children (pneumonia). Global Warming

Human biofuel consumption: 20-40% of all biomass combustion; 1-5% of all CH 6-14/0 of all CO emissions; 4 8-24c e m i s s i o 1 1-3% n s ; of all human-generated global warming. /0 o f a l l N M H C e m i s s i o n s

Box I : C a r s o r S t o v e s : A P o s s i b l e T r a d e - o f f f o r I n d i a A s h i f t o f h a l f t h e biomass-using households i n I n d i a t o kerosene would i n v o l v e a n i n c r e a s e i n p e t r o l e u m demand e q u i v a l e n t t o s o m e t h i n g l i k e 250,000 b b l / d ( 1 ) . R e c e n t l y , h o w e v e r, t h e I n d i a n a u t o m o b i l e p o p u l a t i o n has b e e n g r o w i n g a t 13% p e r y e a r , a d d i n g s o m e t h i n g l i k e 2 m i l l i o n v e h i c l e s a n n u a l l y t o t h e 1990 t o t a l o f a b o u t 1 5 m i l l i o n [ Wa l s h , 1 9 9 1 ] . I f t h i s growth w e r e s l o w e d s u c h t h a t a f l e e t o f 5 2 m i l l i o n c a r s w e r e r e a c h e d i n the y e a r 2007 i n s t e a d o f 2 0 0 0 , t h e s a v e d f u e l c o u l d s u p p o r t t h e e n t i r e increase i n kerosene s t o v e s and c o n t i n u e t o do s o even i f a u t o growth r a t e s t h e n r e t u r n e d t o t h e i r p r e v i o u s l e v e l . I f e a c h y e a r ' s new c a r s i n c o r p o r a t e d i m p r o v e m e n t s t o t h e i r f u e l e f f i c i e n c y o f 2% o v e r t h e p r e v i o u s y e a r, t h e s h i f t o f h a l f t h e b i o m a s s - b u r n i n g c o o k s t o v e s c o o k i n g t o k e r o s e n e would t a k e u p o n l y enough p e t r o l e u m t o d e l a y a c h i e v i n g a 5 2 - m i l l i o n - c a r f l e e t f o r l e s s t h a n t w o y e a r s . Te c h n o l o g y f o r t h i s much i n c r e a s e i n fuel-efficiency i s apparently readily available (electronic i g n i t i o n , r a d i a l t i r e s , f u e l i n j e c t i o n , a n d aerodynamic d e s i g n ) and c o u l d be i n c o r p o r a t e d w i t h economic p a y b a c k p e r i o d s o f t w o y e a r s o r l e s s [ O TA , 1992]. Although p e r h a p s n o t a s h o r t enough p a y b a c k p e r i o d t o b e a t t r a c t i v e t o some i n d i v i d u a l c a r o w n e r s , t h i s l e v e l o f r e t u r n m i g h t w e l l b e enough t o be a t t r a c t i v e t o I n d i a n s o c i e t y a s a w h o l e , p a r t i c u l a r l y i f t h e r e w e r e b e n e f i c i a l u s e s f o r t h e f r e e d f u e l s u p p l i e s . T h e r e a r e o b v i o u s l y many other c o n s i d e r a t i o n s t o be weighed i n b o t h s e c t o r s ( t r a n s p o r t and household), b u t i t h a r d n o t t o draw t h e c o n c l u s i o n t h a t t h e Balance o f Payments i s a n a b s o l u t e c o n s t r a i n t t o movement u p t h e e n e r g y l a d d e r o n l y under a r a t h e r n a r r o w s e t o f c o n d i t i o n s .

I) Based o n 4 e x a j o u l e s t o t a l b i o f u e l usage [Meyers & Leach, 1 9 8 9 ] . S e e Leach [ 1 9 8 7 ] f o r a n a n a l y s i s b y i n c o m e c l a s s o f t h e macro-economic e ff e c t s o f a s h i f t o f a l l I n d i a n r u r a l households t o urban cooking patterns, based on t h e Indian n a t i o n a l f u e l survey d e t a i l i n g conditions i n t h e l a t e 1970s. A t t h a t t i m e , t h i s s h i f t would have caused a n i n c r e a s e o f a b o u t 2 0 0 , 0 0 0 b b l / d i n o i l demand a n d a 45% c u t i n b i o m a s s demand.

Box 2 : T h e S t o v e A s P a r t o f t h e C a r b o n C y c l e Shown a s t h e same b a s i c f r a m e w o r k i n F i g u r e s 5 - 7 i s t h e c a r b o n f l o w derived f o r t h e composite w o o d - f i r e d cookstove i n t h e M a n i l a s t u d y. I t f o l l o w s t h e t y p i c a l f a t e o f t h e 500 g o f carbon contained i n 1 . 0 k g o f wood b u r n e d i n s u c h a s t o v e . A b o u t 88% o f t h e c a r b o n i s b u r n e d ( o x i d i z e d ) c o m p l e t e l y a n d e m i t t e d a s CO2 ( w e i g h i n g 1 . 6 k g ) . T h e r e s t (60 g ) , h o w e v e r, i s n o t b u r n e d c o m p l e t e l y a n d i s t h e r e b y d i s t r i b u t e d a s shown among s e v e r a l d i f f e r e n t k i n d s o f p r o d u c t s o f i n c o m p l e t e c o m b u s t i o n (PIC), w h i c h t o g e t h e r weigh about 126 g . These P I C i n c l u d e t w o f a m i l i a r g a s e s , c a r b o n monoxide ( C O ) a n d methane ( C H 4 ) , a s w e l l a s t w o c a t c h - a l l t e r m s , n o n - m e t h a n e h y d r o c a r b o n s (NMHC) a n d r e s p i r a b l e p a r t i c u l a t e m a t t e r ( R S P ) . NMHC r e f e r s t o a l l carbon a n d h y d r o g e n c o n t a i n i n g compounds t h a t a r e gaseous u n d e r t y p i c a l ambient c o n d i t i o n s , i n p r a c t i c e t h o s e w i t h a b o u t 1 0 c a r b o n a t o m s o r f e w e r, a l i s t p o t e n t i a l l y t o t a l l i n g s e v e r a l h u n d r e d . R S P i s t h e m a t e r i a l commonly c a l l e d " s m o k e , " w h i c h i s more a c c u r a t e l y t e r m e d "aerosol" and c o n t a i n s d r o p l e t s and p a r t i c l e s u n d e r about 1 0 microns ( 1 0 m i l l i o n t h s o f a meter) i n s i z e , and thus a b l e t o penetrate deeply i n t o t h e r e s p i r a t o r y s y s t e m . I t t y p i c a l l y i s made u p o f some p u r e c a r b o n a n d an e v e n g r e a t e r a r r a y o f o r g a n i c ( c a r b o n - c o n t a i n i n g ) c h e m i c a l s t h a n NMHC, p r o b a b l y s e v e r a l t h o u s a n d i n a l l [ S m i t h , 1 9 8 7 a ) . From a l l t h r e e p e r s p e c t i v e s , e n e r g y, h e a l t h , a n d g l o b a l w a r m i n g , P I C a r e t o b e a v o i d e d . T h e r e l a t i v e o v e r a l l i m p a c t s f o r e n e r g y, h e a l t h , a n d g l o b a l w a r m i n g a r e d i f f e r e n t , h o w e v e r, a s a r e t h e w e i g h t i n g s f o r e a c h constituent. As shown i n t h e Ta b l e , t h e t h r e e p e r s p e c t i v e s d o n o t w e i g h t t h e i n d i v i d u a l P I C i n t h e same way r e l a t i v e t o o n e a n o t h e r . N o t e t h a t t h e w e i g h t s a r e much m o r e skewed f o r t h e h e a l t h c o l u m n t h a n t h e o t h e r s , i . e . a f a c t o r o f 41 b e t w e e n RSP a n d CO, d o w n b y a n a d d i t i o n a l f a c t o r o f 2 3 0 t o t h e m i n o r h a z a r d o f CO2, a n d t h e n a n o t h e r f a c t o r o f 1 0 down t o t h e i n s i g n i f i c a n t h e a l t h h a z a r d o f CH4. B o t h t h e e n e r g y a n d g l o b a l w a r m i n g v i e w p o i n t s , i n c o n t r a s t , h o l d CH4 a n d NMHC t o h a v e s i m i l a r r e l a t i v e weights and none o f t h e d i f f e r e n c e s a r e as l a r g e a s f o r h e a l t h . Cookstoves, t h e r e f o r e , c a n b e s e e n a s i n t e g r a l p a r t s o f t h e g l o b a l carbon c y c l e . T h e y p a r t i t i o n c a r b o n i n t o s e v e r a l f o r m s t h a t h a v e q u i t e d i f f e r e n t f a t e s and i m p a c t s w h i l e t h e y a r e t r a n s p o r t e d and transformed i n t h e atmosphere.

Box 2 . R e l a t i v e i m p o r t a n c e o f CO2 a n d P I C u n d e r d i f f e r e n t w o r l d v i e w s . G l o b a l w a r m i n g i m p a c t s shown

at three d i f f e r e n t time horizons.

- - G l o b a l Wa r m i n g - Energy Health 20y 1 0 0 y 1 1 500y 1

CO2

CO

0.8

230

4.5

1.9

1.3

CH4

1.6

0 .1

22

7.5

3.2

NMHC

1.8

9400

12

4.1

2.3

RSP

1.3

30,000

A l l f i g u r e s a r e r e l a t i v e t o CO2 o n a c a r b o n b a s i s , i . e . NMHC i s 9 4 0 0 t i m e s w o r s e t h a n CO2 f o r h e a l t h . For s o u r c e s , s e e S m i t h & T h o r n e l o e [ 1 9 9 2 ] .

Box 3 . S t o v e s : T h r e e G l o b a l R o l e s I t i s a l s o i n s t r u c t i v e t o n o t e how l a r g e b i o m a s s - f i r e d c o o k s t o v e s loom i n t h e g l o b a l p i c t u r e f o r e a c h p e r s p e c t i v e . A s m e n t i o n e d a b o v e , biomass f u e l s p r o b a b l y a c c o u n t f o r a b o u t 14% o f a l l d i r e c t human e n e r g y use. I n d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r i e s , h o w e v e r, t h e y c o n s t i t u t e a t l e a s t one-third, and i n r u r a l areas o f developing countries, a t l e a s t t h r e e - q u a r t e r s . I n many i n d i v i d u a l d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r i e s , h o w e v e r, biomass f u e l s make u p 80-90% o f a l l e n e r g y u s e . I f t h e M a n i l a r e s u l t s were e x t e n d e d w o r l d w i d e , t h e r e f o r e , t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g l o s s d u e t o p o o r combustion ( P I C ) i s some 12% o f t h e t o t a l u s e , i . e . 1 . 5 % o f d i r e c t human energy u s e . Unlike t h e case f o r energy o r g l o b a l warming, t h e h e a l t h impact o f PIC depends g r e a t l y o n w h e r e t h e y a r e e m i t t e d . R e s u l t i n g c o n c e n t r a t i o n s of p o l l u t i o n need n o t a f f e c t p e o p l e ' s h e a l t h u n l e s s t h e r e a r e p e o p l e t h e r e t o b r e a t h e t h e m i n . T h u s , t h e e m i s s i o n s o f ESP f r o m b i o m a s s f u e l s may n o t b e h i g h compared, f o r e x a m p l e , t o p a r t i c u l a t e s f r o m c o a l - f i r e d i n d u s t r i a l a n d p o w e r f a c i l i t i e s i n o r d e r f o r t h e human e x p o s u r e s t o b e s u b s t a n t i a l l y g r e a t e r . T h i s i s because a much l a r g e r p r o p o r t i o n o f p o l l u t i o n r e l e a s e d i n household reaches p e o p l e , compared t o t h a t f r o m centralized f a c i l i t i e s . T h e impact p e r u n i t emissions tends t o be g r e a t e r f o r d i s t r i b u t e d r e l e a s e s , a n d f e w t h i n g s a r e more d i s t r i b u t e d than c o o k i n g , w h i c h o c c u r s i n e v e r y h o u s e h o l d , e v e r y d a y [ S m i t h , 1 9 8 6 b ] . Because o f t h e i r l o c a t i o n a n d t i m i n g , t h e r e f o r e , RSP e x p o s u r e s f r o m biomass u s e may b e r e s p o n s i b l e f o r s o m e t h i n g l i k e h a l f o f t h e t o t a l g l o b a l human e x p o s u r e , a p r o p o r t i o n much l a r g e r t h a n t h e i r c o n t r i b u t i o n to a c t u a l emissions (See F i g u r e ) . M o s t o f t h i s occurs indoors i n r u r a l areas o f d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r i e s , a l t h o u g h t h e r e a r e s i g n i f i c a n t i n d o o r urban e x p o s u r e s a n d o u t d o o r s a s w e l l [ S m i t h , 1 9 8 8 ] . T h e s e h i g h e x p o s u r e l e v e l s a r e due n o t o n l y t o h i g h RSP e m i s s i o n s a n d c o n c e n t r a t i o n s , b u t also t o t h e l a r g e p o p u l a t i o n s i n v o l v e d . I n d e e d , a f t e r farmworkers, household c o o k s r e p r e s e n t t h e l a r g e s t o c c u p a t i o n a l g r o u p i n t h e w o r l d . Although n o such e s t i m a t e s have been done f o r t h e o t h e r m a j o r h e a l t h damaging P I C , NMHC a n d CO, t h e r e i s l i t t l e r e a s o n t o t h i n k t h e p a t t e r n s would n o t b e s i m i l a r . I t i s n o t e w o r t h y i n t h i s c o n t e x t t h a t t h e v a s t preponderance o f r e s e a r c h , r e g u l a t i o n , a n d c o n t r o l o f a l l t y p e s o f a i r p o l l u t i o n i s s t i l l focused on urban outdoor developed-country situations, which account f o r r a t h e r a small o v e r a l l f r a c t i o n o f global exposures. Based o n t h e f e w measurements t a k e n i n M a n i l a , i t w o u l d seem p o s s i b l e t h a t biomass s t o v e s c o u l d account f o r f a i r l y s i g n i f i c a n t p r o p o r t i o n s o f g l o b a l e m i s s i o n s o f t h e t h r e e greenhouse g a s c a t e g o r i e s CO, C H 4 , a n d NMHC [ S m i t h e t a l . , 1 9 9 2 a , b ] . A s shown i n t h e Ta b l e , t h e M a n i l a d a t a i n d i c a t e t h a t c o m b u s t i o n o f f i r e w o o d ( i n c l u d i n g t h a t made i n t o c h a r c o a l ) i s r e s p o n s i b l e f o r 10-45% o f t h e 3 8 T g i y CH4 r e l e a s e d from a l l b i o m a s s c o m b u s t i o n . T h i s i s h i g h e r t h a n w o u l d b e e x p e c t e d b y t h e r a t i o o f f i r e w o o d t o t o t a l b i o m a s s , w h i c h i s 1 0 - 1 5 % . F o r CO, t h e Ta b l e i n d i c a t e s wood s t o v e s c o u l d r e l e a s e 10-25% o f t h e b i o m a s s t o t a l o f 350 T g i y . T h e 4 0 - 9 5 T g / y i s s l i g h t l y h i g h e r t h a n t h e 1 0 - 6 5 T g / y p r e v i o u s l y e s t i m a t e d f o r f u e l w o o d b y K h a l i l & Rasmussen [ 1 9 9 0 ] .

The NMHC e m i s s i o n s e s t i m a t e s i n t h e Ta b l e ( 5 . 4 - 1 7 T g ) w o u l d c o n f i r m fuelwood a n d c h a r c o a l a s a s i g n i f i c a n t p r o p o r t i o n o f t h e e s t i m a t e d t o t a l o f 1 0 0 T g f r o m a l l human a c t i v i t i e s [ I P C O , 1 9 9 0 ] . O t h e r e s t i m a t e s , f o r example, s h o w a b o u t 1 7 T g f r o m g l o b a l f u e l w o o d u s e [ Wa t s o n & P r o b e r t , 1991]. I n summary, t h e M a n i l a d a t a a r e i n t h e same r a n g e o r a b i t h i g h e r than i n d i c a t e d b y A h u j a ' s [ 1 9 9 0 ] e s t i m a t e t h a t 2% o f a n n u a l human-generated a d d i t i o n s t o g l o b a l w a r m i n g comes f r o m b i o f u e l s t o v e s i n d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r i e s . A s s u m i n g t h a t a t l e a s t 20% o f t o t a l b i o m a s s b u r n i n g i s d o n e i n s t o v e s , t h i s i s somewhat s m a l l e r t h a n L a s h o f ' s [ 1 9 9 1 ] m i d - r a n g e e s t i m a t e t h a t b i o m a s s b u r n i n g o f a l l k i n d s c o n t r i b u t e s 10-15% t o t o t a l GWP. Ta b l e 4 , i n t h e m a i n t e x t , s u m m a r i z e s t h e r o l e o f b i o m a s s s t o v e s under e a c h r e g i m e .

Global Exposure to Particulates

70 Indoor 60 111 . O u t d o o r o = 50 a. o 40 E 0 3 15 3 0 20 0.8% 0.1 0 Urban Rural /0 Developed countries
9%
C;'L

6 0 / 0

cl

10

Urban Developing countries

Box 3 . T h i s shows t h e w o r l d d i s t r i b u t i o n o f p a r t i c u l a t e a i r p o l l u t i o n exposures, based o n r e l a t i v e l y f e w d a t a i n t h o s e p l a c e s t h a t seem t o have the h i g h e s t exposures, i . e . , r u r a l and urban s e t t i n g s i n developing countries. Cookstoves a r e responsible f o r a l a r g e proportion o f t o t a l exposures throughout t h e w o r l d . O t h e r p o l l u t a n t s w i l l have somewhat d i f f e r e n t d i s t r i b u t i o n s . M o n i t o r i n g and c o n t r o l e f f o r t s t o d a t e have incstly been focused o n t h e second l o w e s t c a t e g o r y, u r b a n outdoor s e t t i n g s i n developed c o u n t r i e s . S o u r c e : S m i t h 1 9 8 8 .

Box 3 . G l o b a l c a r b o n e m i s s i o n s f r o m c o o k s t o v e s e x t r a p o l a t e d from e m i s s i o n r a t i o s d e t e r m i n e d i n M a n i l a s t u d y a n d l i t e r a t u r e [Smith e t a l . , 1 9 9 2 ] . I n m i l l i o n t o n s p e r y e a r. CO LPG Kerosene Charcoal Wood Biomass TOTAL 1.0 0.6-0.8 9.2 31-84 350 1100 C H 4 N M H C 0.18 0.16-0.49 0.14-0.34 5.3-17 24 100 T S P 0.01 0.1 0.5 2.2 50 [300]

8.0 E - 4 0.005-0.05 0.3-0.8 4-16 38 380

Assumes t h a t e m i s s i o n r a t i o s f o r c h a r c o a l m a k i n g a r e t h e same a s t h o s e f o r charcoal combustion. T h e y a r e probably g r e a t e r, however ( s e e Box 5). N o contributions from other parts o f t h e f u e l cycles are included. Note t h a t t h e TSP f r o m b i o m a s s c o m b u s t i o n i s a l m o s t a l l l e s s t h a n a f e w microns ( m i l l i o n t h s o f a m e t e r ) i n s i z e , m e a n i n g t h a t i t h a s a l o n g a t m o s p h e r i c l i f e t i m e compared t o some o t h e r p a r t i c u l a t e e m i s s i o n s ( s e e Ward & Hao [ 1 9 9 1 ] )

Box 4 : P I C a n d P I D The F i g u r e b e l o w, a n e l a b o r a t i o n o f F i g u r e 1 0 , i s h e l p f u l i n f u r t h e r exploring t h e r o l e o f t h e stove i n t h e g l o b a l carbon c y c l e . F o r d e t e r m i n i n g o v e r a l l greenhouse i m p a c t , i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o examine t h e way t h a t t h e b i o f u e l i s h a r v e s t e d f r o m t h e , u s u a l l y , l o c a l e c o s y s t e m s , whether n a t u r a l o r human-managed ( i t b e i n g h a r d t o t e l l t h e d i f f e r e n c e i n many c a s e s , s e e V i t o u s e k e t a l . [ 1 9 8 6 3 ) . T h i s i s d u e l a r g e l y t o t h e range o f m a t e r i a l s r e l e a s e d d u r i n g d e c a y o f u n h a r v e s t e d m a t e r i a l s . L i k e c o m b u s t i o n , d e c a y l e a d s m o s t l y t o CO2 a n d H20, b u t a l s o t o a range o f o t h e r g a s e s , s o m e w i t h s i g n i f i c a n t GWP, s u c h a s CO, C H 4 , a n d NMHC. I n a n a l o g y t o P I C , t h e s e c a n b e t e r m e d P I D , p r o d u c t s o f i n c o m p l e t e d e c a y. T h e n e t change i n o v e r a l l GG e m i s s i o n s d u e t o a change i n t h e b i o m a s s f u e l c y c l e , s u c h a s a n I C , m a y s i g n i f i c a n t l y depend o n t h e r e l a t i v e PIC/CO2 r a t i o s o f t h e o l d a n d new s t o v e s compared t o t h e PID/CO2 r a t i o s o f a l t e r n a t i v e f a t e s f o r t h e m a t e r i a l s . F o r example, o n e c e n t r a l p u r p o s e o f many I C P s , n o t a b l y i n C h i n a , i s t o r e t u r n dung and c r o p r e s i d u e s t o a g r i c u l t u r a l l a n d f o r enhancing a g r i c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t i v i t y . C o m p o s t i n g t h e s e m a t e r i a l s , h o w e v e r, w i l l produce a s i g n i f i c a n t amount o f methane a n d NMHC. T h e n e t c h a n g e i n GWP w i l l t h e n depend o n t h e r e l a t i v e m a g n i t u d e a n d GWP o f t h e P I C a n d P I D m i x t u r e s f r o m t h e s t o v e a n d compost p i l e . A s i m i l a r a r g u m e n t c a n b e made w i t h r e g a r d t o t h e wood s a v e d f r o m b u r n i n g b y a I C ? . T h e r e l a t i v e GWP i m p a c t w i l l depend n o t o n l y o n t h e s t o v e ' s f u e l e f f i c i e n c y a n d P I C , b u t a l s o o n w h a t happens t o t h e wood n o t b u r n e d . C o n s i d e r t h r e e p o s s i b l e f a t e s f o r t h e wood: I ) i t k e e p s a small t r e e a l i v e s o t h a t t h e t r e e can c o n t i n u e g r o w i n g and f i x i n g carbon from t h e a i r ; 2 ) i t r e m a i n s a s p a r t o f a m a t u r e t r e e t h a t n e i t h e r a d d s to nor reduces atmospheric carbon; o r 3 ) i t f a l l s t o t h e f o r e s t f l o o r t o undergo d e c a y. T h e GWP i m p l i c a t i o n o f t h e s e o p t i o n s may b e q u i t e different. I n g e n e r a l , h a r v e s t i n g n a t u r a l o r human-managed v e g e t a t i o n a l t e r s not o n l y t h e above-ground biomass, b u t a l s o below-ground biomass, s o i l , and l i t t e r . T o know t h e r e s u l t i n g changes i n d e t a i l , w i l l r e q u i r e b e t t e r understanding a t t h e g l o b a l and l o c a l l e v e l s o f t h e n a t u r a l and human-perturbed c y c l e s o f a l l t h e i m p o r t a n t P I C a n d P I D .

Box 4

Biosystems f o r Harvesting Biofuel Q, C a , C - From Atmosbhere b , C L i biofuel C b B u r n n Standing u Biomass n Litter m i . C L t D e c s a y PIC = products o f incomplete combustion o PID = products o f incomplete decay f c Type a I : Stable r C b a o Type I I :- Declining n C Ca < C b a b 1 t + - C Type o I I I : Growing 2 C m ) Ca > C b C J s L S t L Q ; A I < 0 Q > = 0 0

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Box 5 : C h a r c o a l K i l n s a n d Greenhouse Gases Few s y s t e m a t i c measurements seem t o h a v e b e e n made o f a i r p o l l u t i o n emissions f r o m t h e s i m p l e c h a r c o a l k i l n s commonly u s e d i n d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r i e s . I n g e n e r a l , h o w e v e r, t h e FIC/CO2 r a t i o s a r e l a r g e , f o r k i l n s a r e n o r m a l l y o p e r a t e d t o m i n i m i z e c o m p l e t e c o m b u s t i o n . U S E PA [ 1 9 8 6 ] data f o r U . S . k i l n s w e r e u s e d t o d e t e r m i n e t h e v a l u e s c i t e d h e r e . T h i s procedure u n d o u b t e d l y u n d e r e s t i m a t e s e m i s s i o n s f o r many l o w - y i e l d s i m p l e k i l n s i n developing c o u n t r i e s [ F o l e y, 1 9 8 6 b ] . E x t r a p o l a t i n g U.S. k i l n emissions d a t a t o t y p i c a l d e v e l o p i n g - c o u n t r y k i l n y i e l d s g i v e s t h e carbon f l o w r e s u l t shown i n t h e f i g u r e b e l o w. N o t e t h e s i g n i f i c a n t d i v e r s i o n o f wood c a r b o n t o P I C , w h i c h , d e p e n d i n g o n t h e r e l a t i v e G l e assigned, c o u l d r e p r e s e n t a s u b s t a n t i a l g l o b a l w a r m i n g i m p a c t . A d d i t i o n a l w o r k i s c l e a r l y needed t o m o n i t o r t h e s e e m i s s i o n s a n d t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between e m i s s i o n s , y i e l d , a n d c h a r c o a l c a r b o n c o n t e n t .

Box 5 C a r b o n flows for hypothetical charcoal kiln used in developing countries. Based on measurements reported by the USEPA [24] for a Missouri kiln with 33')/0 production efficiency. This has been modified to a 20'/0 efficient kiln, which is more typical in developing countries, by assuming t h a t t h e difference i n efficiency does n o t alter t h e ratio o f PIC t o CO TNMOC=total non-methane organic compounds (vapor); TSP=total suspended particulates 2 (aerosol) of which more than 90'70 is RSP. .

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Box 6 : How a S t o v e I m p r o v e d f o r F u e l E f f i c i e n c y Can B e Worse f o r H e a l t h a n d C l i m a t e In a s t u d y o f one t r a d i t i o n a l a n d t h r e e improved ( b u t f l u e l e s s ) cookstoves u s i n g t h r e e f u e l s , J o s h i , e t a l . [ 1 9 8 9 ] f o u n d t h a t e v e n though o v e r a l l s t o v e e f f i c i e n c y was g e n e r a l l y b e t t e r i n t h e i m p r o v e d stoves ( f r o m 1 5 t o 26,35,37% u s i n g wood, f o r i l l u s t r a t i o n ) , c h a n g e s i n e m i s s i o n s f o l l o w e d a much d i f f e r e n t p a t t e r n . E m i s s i o n s p e r u n i t f u e l a c t u a l l y i n c r e a s e d s u b s t a n t i a l l y a s shown i n t h e t a b l e b e l o w, f o r example, i n t h e wood s t o v e s , CO e m i s s i o n s w e n t f r o m 1 7 g / k g t o 3 3 a n d 6 2 g/kg f o r t h e two improved s t o v e s t e s t e d . P a r t i c u l a t e l e v e l s increased as w e l l , a l t h o u g h n o t s o much ( 1 . 9 t o 2 . 0 a n d 2 . 8 g i k g ) . Since t h e s e i m p r o v e d s t o v e s h a v e s o much h i g h e r o v e r a l l f u e l e f f i c i e n c i e s , h o w e v e r, m u c h l e s s f u e l i s u s e d p e r m e a l , w h i c h i s , f o r most q u e s t i o n s , t h e i m p o r t a n t d e n o m i n a t o r. T h e o v e r a l l r e s u l t p e r s t a n d a r d t a s k , t h e r e f o r e , s h o w s t h a t o n e i m p r o v e d s t o v e u s i n g wood produced a b o u t t h e same CO a s t h e t r a d i t i o n a l s t o v e , b u t t h e o t h e r a b o u t doubled t h e e m i s s i o n s . B o t h , h o w e v e r, d i d s u b s t a n t i a l l y b e t t e r w i t h p a r t i c u l a t e emissions. T h e two improved s t o v e s t e s t e d w i t h c r o p r e s i d u e s ( m u s t a r d s t a l k s ) , h o w e v e r, b o t h d i d w o r s e f o r b o t h CO a n d p a r t i c u l a t e s . D u n g u s e , h o w e v e r, showed a r e d u c t i o n i n b o t h p o l l u t a n t s f o r t h e one improved s t o v e t e s t e d . The r e a s o n o f c o u r s e , i s t h a t t h e s t o v e s o b t a i n e d t h e i r h i g h e r e f f i c i e n c i e s b y i m p r o v i n g h e a t t r a n s f e r e f f i c i e n c y, sometimes a t t h e expense o f c o m b u s t i o n e f f i c i e n c y . I n d e e d , a s i l l u s t r a t e d i n t h e f i g u r e , combustion e f f i c i e n c i e s w e r e a p p a r e n t l y a c t u a l l y l o w e r e d b y a l l b u t o n e of t h e improved f u e l / s t o v e c o m b i n a t i o n s . ( T h e one e x c e p t i o n a l s o had a lower o v e r a l l e f f i c i e n c y. ) Given t h e h e a v i e r c l i m a t e w e i g h t i n g f o r CO a n d t h e l a r g e a b s o l u t e magnitudes o f CO e m i s s i o n s , t h e g e n e r a l t r e n d (80% o f c a s e s ) i s f o r climate e f f e c t t o increase f o r these "improved , e a l t h w e i g h t i n g o n p a r t i c u l a t e s , h o w e v e r, t h e weak t r e n d (60% o f c a s e s ) h I f otr o he lth a c t si t ov b ee l e s *s s va e . i m pG ns . t h e h e a v y

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Box 7 : S m a l l i s U n d e r s t a n d a b l e A r e a l a d v a n t a g e o f s m a l l - s c a l e t e c h n o l o g i e s i s t h a t , i n many c a s e s , the b e n e f i t s a n d c o s t s o c c u r t o t h e same g r o u p o f p e o p l e . C o m p a r e d t o l a r g e - s c a l e p r o j e c t s w i t h many g r o u p s i n v o l v e d , t h i s p o t e n t i a l l y r e l i e v e s t h e government and i t s a n a l y s t s o f t h e c o n s i d e r a b l e d i f f i c u l t i e s i n h e r e n t i n t r y i n g t o b o t h d e t e r m i n e t h e advantages and disadvantages ( f i n a n c i a l , e n v i r o n m e n t a l , s o c i a l a n d o t h e r w i s e ) o f a proposed t e c h n o l o g y a s w e l l a s w e i g h t t h e s e c o s t s a n d b e n e f i t s i n some s o r t o f common m e t r i c t h a t w i l l b e u n d e r s t a n d a b l e a n d a c c e p t a b l e t o a l l interested p a r t i e s . I n t h e case o f s m a l l - s c a l e t e c h n o l o g i e s , i t can be argued, t h i s c a l c u l a t i o n a n d w e i g h t i n g c a n b e a l l o w e d t o o c c u r i n t h e heads o f t h e p e o p l e i n v o l v e d . T h e i r " w i t h i n - t h e - h e a d " c a l c u l u s c a n b e r e l i e d upon t o produce more a p p r o p r i a t e r e s u l t s t h a n even t h e most sophisticated and w e l l - i n t e n t i o n e d a n a l y s i s by o u t s i d e e x p e r t s ( 1 ) . With b i o m a s s c o o k s t o v e s , h o w e v e r, t h e r e a r e t h r e e i m p o r t a n t c a v e a t s : F i r s t , some o f t h e i m p o r t a n t l o c a l i m p a c t s a r e n o t d i s c e r n i b l e by normal human s e n s e s . H e a l t h damage f r o m smoke i s a n e x a m p l e . I t i s w e l l established t h a t , unaided, people are unable t o perceive t h e r i s k o f many e n v i r o n m e n t a l h e a l t h i n s u l t s , e v e n r a t h e r l a r g e o n e s t h a t h a v e delayed i m p a c t s . C o n s i d e r , f o r e x a m p l e , h o w r e c e n t l y i n h i s t o r y t h e , what t o u s a r e now o b v i o u s , b e n e f i t s o f s o a p a n d s a n i t a t i o n w e r e r e c o g n i z e d . P e r h a p s more t e l l i n g , c o n s i d e r how d i f f i c u l t i t h a s b e e n t o convince p e o p l e o f t h e h a z a r d s o f t o b a c c o s m o k i n g , w h i c h a t a f a t a l r i s k o f 33% ( o n e - t h i r d o f s m o k e r s d i e p r e m a t u r e l y ) i s o n e o f t h e l a r g e s t s i n g l e r i s k s i n human h i s t o r y . W e h a v e h a d t o r e l y o n s c i e n t i f i c studies, s t a t i s t i c a l evidence, and expert opinion t o inform us on a hazard, w h i c h , b y c o m p a r i s o n t o m o s t o t h e r s , i s a b s o l u t e l y h u g e . T h e i m p l i c a t i o n f o r I C P s , i s t h a t t h e f a c t t h a t p e o p l e may b e c o m f o r t a b l e w i t h t h e smoke l e v e l t h e y l i v e w i t h d a i l y , d o e s n o t mean t h a t t h e y a r e not a t r i s k o r , m o r e t o t h e p o i n t , t h a t t h e y would s t i l l be c o m f o r t a b l e i f t h e y knew t h e r i s k . Second, s o m e o f t h e i m p o r t a n t e f f e c t s a r e n o t o n l y i n d i s c e r n i b l e t o normal human s e n s e s , b u t d o n o t a c c r u e o n l y l o c a l l y . C o n t r i b u t i o n t o global warming i s t h e obvious example. T h i r d , f o r some t y p e s o f e n v i r o n m e n t a l i m p a c t s , b e i n g s m a l l - s c a l e a n d distributed actually increases the r i s k per u n i t p o l l u t i o n . A l t h o u g h p r o d u c i n g much l e s s p o l l u t i o n t h a n a b i g p o w e r p l a n t , f o r e x a m p l e , t h e p o l l u t i o n f r o m a s t o v e i s perhaps a thousand t i m e s more l i k e l y t o reach p e o p l e ' s l u n g s , b e c a u s e i t i s r e l e a s e d w h e r e and when t h e p e o p l e a r e there r a t h e r t h a n f r o m a smokestack a t t h e edge o f t o w n . ( T h i s p o t e n t i a l has b e e n t e r m e d " T h e D a r k s i d e o f S m a l l i s B e a u t i f u l " [ S m i t h , 1 9 8 6 b ] ) . The b o t t o m l i n e f o r I C P s i s t h a t a l t h o u g h much b e n e f i t c a n b e g a i n e d by r e l i a n c e o n consumer p r e f e r e n c e a n d p a r t i c i p a n t a c t i o n i n t h e d e s i g n and u s e o f I C s , a n a l y s i s r e t a i n s a n i m p o r t a n t r o l e a s d o e s r i s k communication.

I ) T h i s i n h e r e n t a d v a n t a g e t o s m a l l - s c a l e t e c h n o l o g i e s i s sometimes termed t h e " H o l d r e n P r i n c i p l e " a f t e r i t s a r t i c u l a t o r [ H o l d r e n , 1 9 8 0 ] .

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