Subject Name- Research Methodology

1)Discuss the necessary conditions for making casual inferences. Ans-Necessary conditions for making casual inferences are as follows:1. Concomitant variation: Concomitant variation is the extent to which a cause X and effect Y occur together or vary together. This means that there has to be a strong association between the training programme and increase sales. Moreover, both of them need to occur together. However, a strong association between the two does not imply causality. The high association between these two variables could be due to the influence of other extraneous factors which may be influencing both the variables or it may be the result of random variations. 2. Time order of occurrence of variables: This condition means that the causal variable must occur prior to or simultaneously with the effect variable. This means that sales training must have taken place either before or simultaneously with the increased sales. However, just because sales training took place prior to an increase in sales will not help in inferring causality. It might have been due to a mere coincidence and thus, cannot help in inferring causality. Furthermore, it is quite possible for each of the two events to be both cause and effect of each other. In the illustrated example, the sales training programme may cause an increase in sales and increased sales may result in keeping company some spare funds for training etc. Therefore, the relationship between the two variables could be that they alternatively feed each other. 3. Absence of other possible causal factors: As mentioned earlier, the increase in sales of soft drink could have been due to many other factors besides the sales training. There could be a strike at the competitor plant, resulting in an overall reduction in supply, weather conditions, and the increased price of the competitor product or a problem at the distribution channel at the competitors end. The sales training

programme may be a causal variable if all the other factors mentioned above were kept constant or otherwise controlled. 2) Explain different types of informal experiments designs. Ans-The informal experimental designs: i) Before-and-after without control design: Here, a single test group or area is selected ant the dependent variable is measured before the treatment or intervention is introduced. Then the independent variable or the intervention is introduced and again the dependent variable is measured. The effect of the treatment would be equal to the level of a given phenomenon after the treatment minus the level of the phenomenon before the treatment. After-only with control design: In this design, two conditions are involved (experimental condition and control condition). The treatment or intervention is introduced into the experimental condition only. The dependent variable is then measured in both the conditions at the same time. The treatment effect is obtained by subtracting the value of the dependent variable in the control condition from the value in the experimental condition. Before-and-after with control design: In this design, two groups are selected and the dependent variable is measured in both, for an identical length of time prior to introducing the independent variable or treatment. Then the independent variable or the treatment is introduced only in the experimental condition. After an identical time period lapses, the dependent variable is measured in both the conditions. The treatment effect is determined by subtracting the change in the dependent variable in the control condition from the change in the dependent variable, in the experimental condition.

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3) What is discriminant function analysis? State its objective and uses. Ans-Discriminant analysis is used to predict group membership. This technique is used to classify individuals\objects into one of the alternative groups on the basis of a set of predictor variables. The dependent variable

in discriminant analysis is categorical and on a nominal scale, whereas the independent or predictor variables are either interval or ratio scale in nature. When there are two groups (categories) of dependent variables, we have two-group discriminant analysis and when there are more than two groups, it is a case of multiple discriminant functions, whereas in case of multiple discriminant analysis, the number of functions is one less than the number of groups. Objectives and uses of Discriminant Analysis The objectives of discriminant analysis are as the following: To find a linear combination of variables that discriminate between categories of dependent variable in the best possible manner. To find out which independent variables are relatively better in discriminating between groups. To determine the statistical significance of the discriminant function and whether any statistical difference exists among groups in terms of predictor variables. Discriminant analysis can be a very powerful technique of analysis in multiple situations. Some areas in which it is extensively used are as follows: Scale construction: Discriminant analysis is used to identify the variables\statements that are discriminating and on which people with diverse views will respond differently. For example, in case one wants to assess people who believe that corporate governance is the responsibility of policy-maker against those who think it needs to be self-driven individual centric, one may generate a number of statements and then conduct a pilot study and select only those statements on which the two groups differ significantly. Segment discrimination: Most business managers recognize that the population under consideration can never be totally homogeneous in

composition. Therefore, to understand what are the key variables on which two or more groups differ from each other. Perceptual mapping: The technique is also used extensively to create attribute based spatial maps of the respondents mental positioning of brands. The advantage of the technique is that it can present brands or objects and the attributes on the same map. Therefore, the business manager can determine what attribute is the unique selling proposition (USP) of which brand and which are the attributes that are valued by the respondent but there is no brand that currently satisfies that need. 4) Explain various sampling strategies used in qualitative research. Ans - Sampling Strategies in Qualitative Research Instead of selecting a sample, the complete collection method is used in qualities method. The sample is pre-determined by certain criteria, e.g., a certain disease, age, gender, region, marital status, etc. Sample is also defined gradually. They are made on the basis of the groups to be compared or may focus on specific persons. The sample is chosen on the basis of new insights for developing a theory. Groups or person chosen for the sample are stopped when saturation is reached, i.e. , nothing new could emerge hereafter. Sampling strategies in qualitative research A prior determination Complete collection Theoretical sampling Extreme case sampling Typical case sampling Maximal variation sampling Intensity sampling Critical case sampling Sensitive case sampling

 Convenience sampling Primary selection Secondary selection The object of these sampling strategies is to provide richness of information. It also helps in obtaining relevant information. It is an intense attempt at data sampling. Interviews should be non-directive, specific, average, in-depth and should have personal context and content. 5) Prepare a questionnaire for a social research to find out the changing food habits among the current generation in your locality. Ans Questionnaire for a social research to find out the changing food habit among the current generation: 1) Name- SampitaMaitra 2) Age- 22 3) Gender- Female 4) Occupation- Student 5) Monthly income- none 6) What kind of food you prefer to eat? a) street food, b) homemade food,c) junk food, d) salad only. 7) Where do you prefer to eat? a)Restraunts, b) Dhaba, c) Home, d) Anywhere 8) Do you like going to restraunts? a) yes, b) no 9) How many times in a month you went to restraunts? a) once, b) twice, c) thrice, d) never

10) Do you like eating at home regularly? a) yes, b) no 11) Do you like street food or junk food? a) yes, b) no 12) Are you health conscious? a) yes, b) no 13) Do you follow healthy food habits? a) yes, b) no 14) Do you follow balance diet? a) yes, b) no 15) What do you prefer junk food or healthy homemade food? a) junk food, b) homemade food Findings: By preparing this questionnaire, I find that our current generation opt more for junk food than healthy diet. Conclusion: It has found that our current generation food habit has changed in the last few years due to large variety of food they are obtaining. It was not possible in the last few years. So, they more opt for junk food then healthy food. 6) Why is interpretation important? Give your answer in respect of social research. Ans - Interpretation means drawing inferences from the research data. It establishes continuity in research studies. It acts as a guide for further research studies and explains the concept that has been observed. It is skills that can be best learn through practice and experience. The researcher must explain his concepts with the help of theory and keep extraneous

information and all relevant factors in consideration while interpreting research studies. The researcher must try and make sure that the source of data is trustworthy and accurate, and that the data reflects good homogeneity. It is important to use proper statistical method for analysis. It is important to be aware and take precautions against all possible sources of error. The researcher also has to keep a check on his tendency to overgeneralizations or be biased about the results. Also, there should be constant interaction between initial hypothesis, empirical observation and theoretical conceptions. There are certain steps that a researcher should follow while writing a report. First, the material should be analyzed either logically or chronologically. After this, an outline should be prepared of the contents that to be included in the report. Then, a rough draft containing the procedure adopted to collect data, the technique of analysis, findings and generalizations is put down. This is then revised, polished and rewritten to make it more clear and comprehensive for the reader. At the end, the bibliography is prepared in an alphabetical manner. Basically, the report can be divided into three broad categories: i) Preliminary pages: This section carries the tittle, data, acknowledgements, preface, contents, and a list of tables and illustrations used throughout the reports. ii) Main text: The main text includes the introduction, statements of findings and recommendations, results, implications of the results and summary. iii) End matter: Here, the appendices are listed along with the bibliography of all sources consulted or relevant to the research study. Research reports vary in length and format. Research reports can be in the form of a technical report, popular report, an article, a manuscript or even an oral presentation.

A technical report is a detailed report required for record keeping or public dissemination. It details the methods used and the assumptions made during the course of the study. It focuses on detailed presentation of the findings including their limitations and supporting data. It should be substantiated with charts and graphs so that it is clear and easily understood. A popular report is often simple and attractive, it does not use too many mathematical or technical terms; instead it uses charts and diagrams, large fonts, many subheadings and visuals which make it easy to read. It emphasizes practical findings and their implications. Along with the oral presentation, there should also be written document for record keeping, which can also be circulated before the presentation to acquaint the audience. It should be supplemented with visuals, slides, walls chart, and blackboards. A brief outline should also be given. All these factors highlight the need for interpretation of findings of the research studies.