Eme Bharath A Notes

PART A
UNIT I
ENERGY & STEAM
Energy: The capacity to do work is called Energy.
The energy sources are available in various forms.
These sources are broadly classified as commercial or conventional energy
sources and non-commercial or non-conventional energy sources. Most of the
developed countries are highly dependent on conventional form of energy whereas,
for developing countries like India both forms of energy sources are needed.
Classification of Energy sources:
Energy sources may be mainly classified into two categories.
1. Renewable Energy sources and
2. Non-Renewable Energy sources
1. Renewable Energy Sources:
Renewable energy sources are produced by nature and are inexhaustible.
These sources of energy does not get exhausted due to pronged usage i.e. they can be
renewed. Renewable energy sources include both direct solar radiation utilized by
solar collectors and cells and Indirect solar energy in the form of wind, hydropower,
ocean energy and sustainable biomass resources.
2. Non Renewable Energy Sources:
Non Renewable Energy sources are either available in nature or produced by
man artificially. They are exhaustible and non renewable. Conventional Energy
Sources like nuclear power and fossil files are non renewable.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Renewable Energy Sources:
Advantages:
1. They are produced by nature and considered as inexhaustible.
2. Except biogas they are pollution free and hence Eco-friendly.
3. If utilized properly in developing countries, they can save lot of foreign exchange
and generate employment opportunities.
4. Deployment is easy and rapid due to flexibility in their utilization.
5. They are economical when considered over a longer period.
Elements of Mechanical Engineering - MES 14
1
Disadvantages:
1. Their availability is intermittent (eg. Solar, Wind, tidal, hydro etc) and hence need
the assistance of non-renewable energy.
2. Complete commercialization is difficult on a larger scale.
3. Initial cost is high due to the newer technologies used which are still at preliminary
stages.
4. Sources are not evenly spread across the globe.
Conventional And Non Conventional Energy Sources:
The most of the energy needs comes mainly from fossil fuels such as coal,
petroleum and natural gas and hydel sources, which are relatively cheaper. Although
energy from nuclear fuels can be used, it is not being used in large scale due to its
inherent hazardous nature and high cost of generation of power from nuclear source.
Since the fossil fuels and hydel sources are in use over several decades, they are
called conventional energy sources.
Non-Conventional Energy Sources:
The rapid use of fossil fuels day has threatened exhausting of this source very
soon. The hydel source cannot be a major source of energy since, its availability is
limited to certain areas and also depends on the up predictable nature of the
hydrogical cycle. More over its cost of generation is very high due to high initial
investments and transmission problems.
So there comes a need for alternate inexhaustible energy sources to replace the
conventional sources. The other alternative energy sources that are tried for
harnessing are, solar energy, wind energy, total energy OTES, fuel cells, solid wastes,
hydrogen etc. These alternate inexhaustible sources of energy are called non-
conventional Energy Sources.
Conventional Energy Sources:
These are commercial forms of energy available. They include: -
1. Fossil fuels, which may be in Solid/liquid/gaseous form.
2. Water power or energy stored in Water
3. Nuclear Energy
About 92 % of the worlds total energy comes from coal, oil, gas and uranium
and hence there are the most commonly used commercial energy sources.
2
1. Coal: -
It is the most common source of energy that is being used since
industrialization. Modern steam boilers burn coal in any of its forms as a primary
fuel. Different ranks of coal available are peat, lignite, bituminous and anthracite.
However coal has lower calorific value & its transportation is uneconomical. When
burnt it produces pollutants like CO & CO
2
.
2. Oil:-
Almost 40 % of energy needs is met by oil alone with present consumption of
250,000 million tones of oil, it is estimated to last for only 100 years, unless more oil
is discovered. Major chunk of oil comes from petroleum.
3. Gas: -
Due to non-availability of ready market, gas is not completely and effectively
utilized and is burnt in huge quantities. Its transportation cost is much higher than oil.
Large reserves are estimated to be located in accessible areas.
1. Gases of fixed composition like acetylene, ethylene,
methane etc.,
Gaseous Fuels
2. Industrial gases like producer gas, coke oven gas etc.,
4. Agricultural and Organic Wastes: -
These include Sawdust, bagasse, garbage, animal dung, paddy husk, corn stem
etc, and accounting major energy consumption.
5. Water: -
It is one of the potential sources of energy meant exclusively for hydro-electric
power generation. Potential energy of water is utilized to convert into mechanical
energy by using Prime movers known as Hydraulic turbines. The operating cost of the
plant is cheaper compared to other types of power plants. It is the only renewable
non-depleting source of energy, which doesnt contribute to pollution.
6. Nuclear Power: -
The Controlled fission of heavier unstable atoms like U
235
(Thorium) and Pu
239
(plutonium) liberates enormous amount of energy. The energy released by fission
of one Kg of U
235
is equivalent to the heat generated by burning 4500 tons of coal.
The heat generated during the nuclear fission reaction is used to produce steam in
Heat Exchangers, which is utilized to run the turbo-generators. The nuclear power
contribution to the total power requirements of our country is very less (about 5%).
3
In India presently there are 6 Nuclear power stations.
1. Tarapore Maharastra.
2. Rama Pratap Sagar Kota (Raj)
3. Kalpakkam Tamilnadu.
4. Narora.
5. Kakrapar Gujarat and
6. Kaiga Power Plant in Karwar.
The nuclear power plant has the following advantages and limitations: -
Advantages: -
1. They require lesser space compared to other conventional energy systems
2. They need small quantity of fuel, which can liberate enormous energy. There is no
problem of fuel handling and storing etc.,
3. There are no smoke and ash problems
4. They are independent of weather conditions
5. They are suitable for large power outputs
Disadvantages: -
1. Initial cost is high due to highly sophisticated costly shielding, moderator etc
2. They are not suitable for varying load conditions
3. Disposal of Radioactive waste is complicated
4. Careful Maintenance is essential
5. Trained and skilled persons are required to handle the Nuclear system.
Non-Conventional Energy Sources:
1. Solar Energy: -
Solar Energy has the greatest potential of all the sources of renewable energy,
which come to the earth from sun. This energy keeps the temperature of the earth
above that in colder space, causes wind currents in the ocean and in the atmosphere,
causes water cycle and generates photosynthesis in plants. The Solar energy reaching
the surface of the earth is 10
16
W where as the World wide power demand is about 10
13
W. Even if we use 5 % of this energy it is more than 50 times our requirement. Solar
energy can be tapped by using photovoltaic cell or by solar thermal heating.
1. Photovoltaic Cell: -
The Solar energy conversion devices which are used to convert
sunlight into Electricity by the use of photovoltaic effect are called solar cell. A
Single energy converter is known as a Solar cell or a Photovoltaic cell and a
4
Combination of them is called a solar module or solar array. Photovoltaic cells are
made of Semiconductors (P and N type) that generate electricity when they absorb
light energy or photons. The photons absorb the free electrons at the outermost shell
of the atoms of semiconductors (like silicon with doping material, Cadnium sulphide
etc.,) and generate free electrical charges. These charges can be tapped by suitable
arrangements.
Fig. Gross Sectional diagram of a Silicon Cell
Fig shows a typical solar cell made up of a thin slice (0.2 to 0.5 m) of p type
Silicon Crystal which is diffused into n type dopant.
Note: Silicon when doped with phosphorus, arsenic or antimony, the silicon becomes
a n-type Semiconductor and when doped with boron, aluminium, indium or gallium, it
forms p-type semiconductor. If p-type Semiconductor is brought into intimate contact
with one of the n-type they form a p n or n p junction.
The n type silicon is made up of rectangular metallic grid and p type
silicon which is a collector completely covers the back metallic surface, An
antireflection coating of so (0.1 m thick) and a thin transparent Encapsulating sheet
are also put on the top surface. When the sun rays fall on the surface of the cell, the
electrons are ejected by the photons which in tern or collected by the collector. Hence
electric current flows on load. A typical cell develops a voltage of 0.5 1V and a
current density of 20 40 mA/Cm
2
.
5
2. Solar pond: -
Solar pond is a mass of water collected in a large collection area to a shallow
depth of about 1 or 2 meters. It not only collects the solar energy from the sun but
also acts as a heat trap by storing the sensible heat.
Solar
Pond:
Fig. Shows Schematic diagram of a solar pond. It is about 1 to 2 m deep
coated with a thick durable plastic liner of low-density polyethylene (LDPE), high-
density polyethylene (HDEE) woven polyester yarn (XB 5) and hypalon reinforced
with nylon mesh.
The water in the pond is made dense at the bottom part by adding salts like
sodium chloride., sodium nitrate etc, The concentration of salt varies from 20 to 30
percent at the bottom to almost zero at the top layer. However salt concentration
gradient will disappear over a period of time. In order to maintain it, fresh water is
added at the top of the pond and slightly Saline water is run off. At the same time
concentrated brine is added at the bottom of the pond. Because of low conductivity of
saline water, it acts as an insulator and allows a high temperature of about 90
0
C to
100
o
C to develop at the bottom layers. Thus part of the Solar Radiation is absorbed
by the water at the top surface of the pond while most of the solar radiation, is
absorbed by concentrated Saline water at the bottom. This heat can be utilized for
various purposes.
Application: - 1) Heating and cooling of Buildings. 2) Production of power 3) Heat
for biomass Conversion.
6
2. Wind Energy: -
Wind Energy can be economically used for the generation of electrical energy.
Winds are caused from two main factors.
1. Heating and cooling of the atmosphere, which generates convection currents.
Heating is caused by the absorption of solar energy on the Earths surface and in the
atmosphere.
2. The rotation of the earth with respect to atmosphere, and its motion around sun.
The energy available in the winds over the earths surface is estimated to be
1.6 10
7
MW which is almost the same as the present day energy consumption. The
wind energy can be utilized to run windmill, which in turn is to drive the generators.
Due to pressure differential existing between any two places on earth air
moves at high speed. This pressure differential is caused due to earths rotation and
by uneven heating of the earth by the sun. The Kinetic energy of air can be utilized to
generate electric power or to perform a specific work.
Application of Wind Energy: -
Wind Mills: -
A Windmill converts the Kinetic energy of moving air into mechanical rotary
motion that can be either used directly to run a machine/pump or to run a generator to
produce electricity.
Fig. Wind Mill.
Fig. Shows a typical wind mill where water can be pumped out for irrigation
and drinking purpose. Here, the rotational motion of the wheel can be either
translated into rotary motion (to generate electricity) or reciprocating motion (to drive
the pump). The major disadvantage of wind energy is that it is not constant and
steady, which makes the plant design complicated.
7
3. Energy from Biomass and Biogas: -
The process by which green plants harness (utilize) the energy of the sun and
build or produce organic compounds from carbon dioxide and water is called
photosynthesis. Biomass is the Organic matter, which is produced in nature through
photosynthesis. In the presence of solar radiation, water and carbon dioxide are
converted into organic material, CH
2
O.
Solar Energy
H
2
O + CO
2
CH
2
O + O
2

CH
2
O is stable at low temperature but breaks at higher temperature releasing
heat equal to 469 KJ /mole. It is possible to produce large amount of carbohydrate by
growing plants like algae in plastic tubes or ponds. The algae could be harvested,
dried and burned for production of heat that could be converted into electricity by
conventional methods. The biomass can be either used directly by burning or can be
processed further to produce more convenient liquid or gaseous fuels.
There are three sources for biomass energy conversion.
1. Biomass in its traditional solid mass like wood and agricultural wastes which are
burnt directly to get energy.
2. Biomass in its non-traditional form in which biomass is converted into ethamol,
methanol which are used as liquid fuels in engines.
3. Biomass in fermented form in which biomass like animal wastes and aquation
plants are fermented an aerobically to obtain a gaseous fuel called biogas which
contains 55 to 65 % methane, 30 40 % CO
2
and rest as impurities like H
2
, H
2
S and
some N
2
.
4. Energy From Oceans: -
A large amount of solar energy is collected and stored in oceans. The surface
pf water acts as a collector for solar heat, while the upper layer of the sea constitutes
infinite heat storage reservoir.
Rotation of the earth causes the cold water coming from the direction of the
poles to flow slowly along the ocean base towards the tropics. In the tropical region,
the cold-water density decreases. The water warmed in this manner, flows at the
surface in another current towards the Polar Regions. The cycle is repeated as the
water-cools and starts a return trip towards the tropics.
8
The heat contained in the oceans could be converted in to electricity due to the
temperature difference (20 25 K) between the warm surface waters of the tropical
oceans and the colder waters in the depths. This is the basic idea of OTEC systems.
The surface water, which is at higher temperature, could be used to heat some low
boiling point organic fluid, the vapours of which would run a heat engine. The
amount of energy available from OTEC is enormous, and is replenished continuously.
The concept of OTEC is based on the utilization of the temperature difference
existing between the surface of the sea and deep water. In the tropics, the ocean
surface temperature often exceeds 25
o
C, while 1 Km below the temperature is not
higher than 10
o
C. Water density decreases with an increase in temperature (about
3.98
o
C where the pure water density is maximum, decreasing again below this
temperature, the reason ice floats). Thus there will be no thermal convection currents
between the warm lighter water at the top and deep cooler heavier water. Thermal
conduction heat transfer is too low across larger depths. As mixing is retarded,
warmer water stays at the top and cool water stays at the bottom.
Thus OTEC plant operates between two infinite heat reservoirs, a heat source
at about 27
o
C & a heat sink some 1 km below water surface at 4
o
C
The Carnot efficiency given by,
. 077 . 0
300
23
) 273 27 (
4 27

+
H
C H
C
T
T T
Disadvantages: -
1. Efficiency is extremely low and hence the system needs extremely large power
plant heat exchangers and components.
2. Even though there is no fuel cost, the cost is very high and hence unit power cost is
higher.
3. Involves developmental problems and uncertainties of market penetration.
5. Tidal Energy: -
Tide is a periodic rise and fall of the water level of sea, which are carried by
the action of the sun and moon on the water of the Earth.
The Energy can be tapped from costal waters by building dams that entrap
water at high tide and release it at low tide back to the sea. Power can be obtained by
turbines from both in and out flows of water. Though the amount of energy available
is very large, but only in a few parts of the world.
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The tides are rhythmic but not constant. Their occurrence is due to a balance
of forces, mainly gravitational force of the moon and sun to some extent balancing the
centrifugal force on water due to earth rotation.
The result in rhythmic rise and fall of water. The tidal R is given by.
R = Water elevation at high tide Water elevation at low tide.
This range is maximum during new and full moons and is known as spring
tide and neap tide. This period rise and fall of water above the mean sea level is called
flood tide (High tide) and when the water is below the mean sea level it is known as
Ebb tide (Low tide).
To harness tides, a dam is built across the mouth of the bay with large gates
and low head hydranlic reversible turbines. A tidal basin formed thus gets separated
from the sea, by dam. There always exists a difference between the water levels on
either side of the dam during low tides and high tides. Thus the reversible water
turbine runs continuously producing power by using the generator connected to it.
Fig. Shows a single pool dial system having one pool or basin behind a dam
that is filled from the ocean at high tide and emptied to it at low tide. Both filling and
emptying takes place during short time period. Filling takes place when the ocean is
at high tide and pool is at low tide level, whereas, emptying takes place when the
ocean is at low tide and pool is at high tide level. The flow of water in both directions
is used to drive a number of reversible water turbines, each driving an electrical
generator.
4.Fig single Pool tidal System
6. Geothermal Energy: -
Geothermal energy is the heat transported from the interior of the earth, by the
hot magma near the surface, which causes active volcanoes and hot springs and
geyser where water exists. It also causes the steam to vent through the fissures. This
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is the energy, which comes from within the Earths crust. In some locations of the
earth, the steam and hot water comes naturally to the surface. For large scale use,
bore holes are normally sunk with depth up to 1000 m releasing stem and water at
temperatures up to 200 to 300
o
C and pressures up to 3000 KN/m
2
. Generally there
are two methods to generate power using GTE.
Method 1:
In this method the heat energy is transferred to a working fluid, which operates
the power cycle. It is found that molten interior moss of the earth vents to the surface
through fissures at temperatures ramging between 450
o
C to 550
o
C.
Method 2:
In this method the hot geothermal water and / or steam is used to operate the
turbines directly from the wellhead. Steam is transmitted by using pipes of 1 m
diameter over distances up to 3000 m to the power plant. In this system water
separates are used to separate moisture and solid particles from steam.
Fig. A Typical Geothermal Field
Fig. Shows a typical Geothermal field. The hot magma near the surface
(A) Solidifies into Igneous Rocks.
(B) The heat of magma is conducted up to this igneous rock. Ground water that finds
its way down to this rock through fissures (a split or cleavage) in it will be heated by
the heat of the rock or by mixing with hot gases and steam emitting from the magma.
The heated water rises convectively upwards into a porous and permeable reservoir .
(C) Above the igneous rock, which is caped by an impermeable solid rock.
(D) That traps the hot water in the reservoir. The solid rock has fissures.
(E) That acts as vents of the giant underground boiler. Viz. in the form of geysers,
fumaroles.
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(F) Or hot springs.
(G) A Well
(H) Taps steam from the fissure for use in a Geothermal Power plant.
The heat flux from the Earths interior through the surface is 9.5 10
20
3 /Yr.
Difference between Conventional and Non Conventional sources of Energy:
S.No Conventional Sources of Energy Non-Conventional Sources
of Energy
1 Conventional sources of energy are all
depleting type in nature except Hydel
Energy.
They are non-depletable,
and thus they are called
renewable types.
2 Generally they cause enormous
Environmental Pollution (Except hydel
power).
They are non-polluting type
except Geothermal &
Biomass Energy.
3 Conventional sources are available for
utilization after incurring heavy investments
They are available free of
cost (generally).
4 The relative abumdancy of availability does
not exist when compared with NCES.
The Relative abundancy of
availability of NCES is very
high compared to
conventional sources.
5 They are more efficiently convertible into
useful from of energy as compared with
NCES because energy release per unit
volume of C.E.S is very high.
It is less efficient compared
to C.E.S.
6 For utilization, Initial costs are very high,
but are cheaper as for as running costs are
concerned.
Here Initial costs are very
less and are generally
maintenance free Ex: Wind,
Solar & bio-gas.
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BOILERS
STEAM AND ITS PROPERTIES
Pure Substances:
It is a substance, which has one chemical composition (or) structure but is
capable of existing in more than one phase.
Steam: Water existing in Vapour phase. It is used in various process industries for
heating purpose and also for power generation in steam power plants. It is a working
fluid in steam engines steam turbine.
Phase Transformation:
Melting (or) fusion of Ice: It is the transformation of solid phase (ice) to liquid phase
(water)
Freezing (or) solidification: It is the transformation of liquid phase to solid phase
Vaporization: It is the transformation of Liquid to vapour phase.
Condensation: It is the transformation of Vapour to liquid.
Sublimation: It is the transformation of Solid to vapour.
Fig : Phase transformation at constant pressure
One Kg of Water at 0
o
C is taken in a cylinder with a freely moving, frictionless
piston. A Wt W placed on the piston extents constant pressure p on water inside
the cylinder as shown in fig (a). Volume occupied by water is V. The condition of
water represented by point 1 in T h diameter. Heat is supplied to the cylinder and
temperature of water increases slowly and steadily fill it reaches the boiling
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temperature. That is represented by Point 2. At this condition volume of water is
slightly increases to V
f
.
The temperature at which water starts boiling is known as saturation
temperature of water. (T
s
). The amount of heat absorbed by the water to heat it from
freezing point is boiling point is known as sensible heat denoted by h
f
. The sensible
heat is also known as total heat of water. If the heating of water is continued, there
will be no further rise in temperature of water but evaporation of water takes place at
(T
s
). Now water exists as a two-phase mixture of saturated liquid and vapour
occupying volume Vfg. Steam, having small water particles held in suspension such
steam is known as Wet steam.
Fig : Formation of steam on temperature- enthalpy diagram
Temperature
T
sup
4
Degree of Superheat
2 p = c
T
s
3
P=c
T
1
=0
0
c Enthal py
Sensible heat Latent Heat Super Heat
H
f
h
fg
h
g
h
sup
14
If the heating of water is continued further, there will be no more water
particles and steam becomes completely dry. That represented by Point 3. The
volume occupied by the dry steam Vg, Pressure and temperature is constant in 2 3.
The amount of heat utilized to evaporate unit mass of water at saturation temperature
Ts to unit mass of dry saturated stem at constant temperature Ts and given pressure
p is known as latent heat of evaporation. Process of heating dry steam above its sat
temperature Ts is known as super heating and the temperature of steam above its
saturation temperature is known as super heat temperature (Ts) The volume occupied
by super heated steam is Vsup.The amount of heat required to miss the temperature of
dry steam above the saturation temperature (Ts) is known as enthalphy of superheated
steam (hsup).Degree of super heat Difference between the super heated
temperature and saturation temperature of steam.
= Tsup - Ts.
Wet Steam:
Two phase mixture which contains partly vapour (steam) and partly liquid
(water) at saturation temperature (Ts) and given Pressure.
Dryness Fraction:
Fraction of the steam that is in the vapour form. Dryness fraction (x) = Mass
of dry steam / Mass of wet steam.
= Mg/ mw = mg / mf + mg

Mass of suspended Mass of dry steam
water particles.
Dry saturated steam / Dry steam:
Steam without suspended water particles in it at the saturation temperature of
water (Ts) and at a given pressure. Dryness fraction of dry stem is unity.
Super heated Steam:
Steam which is heated above its saturation temperature (Ts) and a given
pressure. Dryness fraction will give the quality of the steam. If the quality of steam is
60 % dry, 1 Kg of steam contains 0.6 Kg of dry steam and 0.4 kg of water particles.
Heat absorbed by water during the transformation of water to steam is called latent
heat.
Advantages of Super heated steam:
15
1. It has high content (or) heat energy at a given pressure than wet steam (or) dry
saturated steam of same mass. Hence it is used for power generation in steam power
plants.
2. Superheated steam doesnt contain any water particles in suspension. The erosion
and corrosion of the steam turbine blades is eliminated. So we can improve the
efficiency of the turbine blades.
3. Overall thermal efficiency of the plant increases by the use of superheat steam.
Super heater tube high heat resistant alloy steel.
Disadvantages Production cost of super heated steam is high.
Specific volume of steam:
Volume occupied by unit mass of steam at a given pressure and temperature.
Specific volume of wet steam:
1 Kg of Wet steam x dryness fraction of steam. Wet steam contains x kg
of dry stem and (1 x) kg of water vapour.
V
f
special volume of saturated water
V
g
special volume of dry steam.
Specific volume wet steam V = x V
g
+ (1 x) V
f
If V
f
is very small, so it is neglected.
V = x V
g
. m
3
/kg
Volume occupied by wet steam in a unit mass of wet steam at a given
pressure.
Specific volume of dry saturated steam:
Volume occupied by unit mass of dry steam at a given pressure and
temperature. Specific volume of super heated steam: When the steam is super heated,
the steam obeys gas laws. Volume occupied by unit mass of super heated steam at a
superheat temperature and given pressure.
g
g
T
V
T
V
sup
sup
(charles law) Volume of given mass of gas is directly
proportional to the temperature when the pressure remains constant.
Vsup = T
sup
V
g
/T
g
in m
3
/kg.V/T = constant [when pressure is constant]
Enthalphy of Steam:
Amount of heat energy contained in a given unit mass of steam.
h = u + pv
16
Sum of internal energy of steam and product of pressure and volume.
h = u + pv
Differentiate, dh = du + pdv + vdp
dh = dq + vdp [1
st
law of td, dq = du + pdv]
At constant pressure, dp = 0.
dh = dq
At constant pressure change in enthalphy is equal to the amount of heat added.
Enthalphy of Wet Steam:
Amount of heat required to convert unit mass of water at freezing point into
wet steam of given dryness fraction at constant pressure.
h = hf + x hfg kJ/kg
Enthalpy of dry saturated steam:
The amount of heat required to convert unit mass of water at freezing point
into dry saturated steam at its sat temperature.
h
g
= h
f
+ h
fg
Enthalphy of Superheated Steam:
The amount of heat required to convert unit mass of water at freezing point
into superheated steam at superheated temperature constant pressure.
h
sup
= (h
f
+ h
fg
) + C
ps
(T
sup
T
s
)
h
sup
= h
g
+ C
ps
(T
sup
T
s
)
C
ps
Special heat of superheated steam 2.25 Kj/kg.
Latent Heat:
Amount of heat required to effect phase transition in a given unit mass of
substance at constant pressure.
External Work during Evaporation:
The latent heat absorbed during the evaporation by steam is utilized not only
for phase change but also to do external work due to large in volume. Due to
increased volume (V
f
to V
g
) the piston inside the cylinder move upwards. External
work of evaporation is the amount external work due to large increase in volume
water changes into steam.
For wet Steam, External work = x P
vg
KJ/kg
Dry saturated steam, External work = P
vg
KJ/kg
Super heated steam, External work = PV
sup
KJ/Kg.
17
Internal energy of Steam:
Difference between the enthalpy of steam and external work of evaporation.
For wet steam, Internal energy u = h
f
+ x h
fg
x P
Vg
KJ /kg.
Dry steam , Internal energy u = hg PVg
Superheated steam, Internal energy u = h
sup
P
vsy
.
Steam Problems
h
i
specific enthalpy of saturated solid
h
f
specific enthalpy of liquid at saturated temperature.
h
g
specific enthalpy of vapour at saturated temperature.
h
fg
specific enthalpy change from liquid to vapour at saturated temperature
(or) Enthly of vaporisation
h
sup
specific enthalpy of superheated vapour
V
i
specific volume of the solid phase at freezing
V
f
specific volume of liquid at saturated temperature.
U
f
specific internal energy of liquid at saturated temperature.
T
s
Temperature at saturated of liquid and vapour and during vaporizations.
P
s
Pressure at saturated of liquid and vapour and during vaporizations.
P
sup
Pressure of superheated vapour.
T
sup
Temperature of super heated vapour.
P
i
Pressure at freezing (or) during solidification.
T
i
Temperature freezing (or) during solidification.
1. Steam at 1 MPa is used in a process industry for heating purpose. Determine
the enthalpy of steam assuming (i) Steam is wet with 10 % moisture contained in it.
(ii) Steam is dry saturated (iii) Steam is superheated to 520
K. Assume
Cps = 2.3 KJ/kg
K
Given data:
T sup = 520
o
k
1 Mpa = 1 10
6
pa = 10 10
5
N/m
2
(1 pa = 1 N/m
2
)
18
= 10 bar (1 bar = 10
5
N/m
2
)
From the steam tables at 10 bar,
Ts = 179.9
o
C; h
f
= 762.8 KJ/kg; h
fg
= 2015.3 KJ/kg.
(i) Steam is Wet:
Steam contains 10 % moisture, so 90 % dry.
Hence x = 0.9
Enthalpy of wet steam h = h
f
+ x f
g
.
= 762.8 + (0.9) 2015.3
= 2576. 57 KJ/kg.
(ii) Enthalpy of dry saturated steam:
h
g
= h
f
+ h
fg
(x - 1)
= 762.8 + 2015.3
= 2778.1 KJ/kg.
(iii) Enthalpy of superheated steam:
h
sup
= h
g
+ C
ps
(T
sup
T
s
)
= 2778.1 + 2.3 (520 [179.9 + 273])
= 2932.43 KJ/kg.
2. The enthalpy of 1 Kg of steam at 8 bar pressure is 2373.5 KJ/kg. Find the
condition of the steam.
From steam tables at 8 bar,
h
f
= 721.1 KJ/kg ; h
fg
= 2048.0 Kj/kg.
H = h
f
+ x h
fy
.
2048
1 . 721 5 . 2373
fg
f
h
h h
x
x = 0.8
i.e., the steam is 80 % dry.
3. Find the special volume and enthalpy of 1 Kg of steam at 0.8 Mpa. a) When
the dryness fraction is 0.9. b) When the steam is super heated to a temperature of
300
o
C. The specific heat of superheated steam is 2.25 KJ/KgK.
Given data:
Pressure = 0.8 Mpa = 0.8 10
6
Pa = 8 bar.
X = 0.9 T
sup
= 300
o
C = 573
o
K
C
Ps
= 2.25 KJ/kg
o
-k
19
From steam tables at 8 bar,
Ts = 170.4
o
C
h
f
= 721.1 KJ/kg hfg = 2048 KJ/kg.
V
f
= 0.001115 m
3
/kg V
g
= 0.240 m
3
/kg.
a) Enthalpy of Wet Steam h
g
= h
f
+ xh f
g
= 721.1 + (0.9)2048
h
g
= 2564.3 KJ/kg
Specific volume of wet steam V = XV
g
= 0.9 0.240
V = 0.216 m
3
/kg.
b) Steam is superheated.
Enthalpy superheated steam h
sup
= h
g
+ C
ps
(T
sup
T
s
)
= 2564.3 + 2.25 (300 170.4)
h
sup
= 2855.9 KJ/kg.
Specific volume of superheated steam V
sup
= V
g

S
Sup
T
T
(T
s
= T
g
)
= 0.24
4 . 170
300
V
sup
= 0.422 m
3
/kg.
4. By actual measurement the enthalpy of saturated steam at 190
o
C is 2500
KJ/kg. What is the quality of the steam? If 500 KJ/kg of heat is added at constant
pressure, what is the final state of the steam?
Given data:
h = 2500 KJ/kg.
Ts = 190
o
C.
From steam tables at 190
o
C,
P = 12.544 bar, V
g
= 0.15654m
3
/kg.
h
f
= 807.62 KJ/kg h
fg
= 1978.8 KJ/kg, h
g
= 2786.4 KJ/kg.
Quality of the steam:
h = h
f
+ x h
fg
855 . 0
8 . 1978
62 . 807 2500
fg
f
h
h h
x
so the steam is 85.5 % dry
When 500 KJ/kg of heat is added at constant pressure
So, Enthalpy h
1
= 2500 + 500 = 3000 KJ/kg.
20
h
1
> h
g
(3000 > 2786.4)
Due to addition of additional heat, enthalpy will rise.
That enthalpy is more than the enthalpy of steam at saturated temperature.
So the steam is superheated.
h
sup
= h
g
+C
ps
(T
sup
T
s
)
3000 = 2786.4 + 2.3 (T
sup
- 190)
T
sup
= 282.86
o
C
5. A steam initially will be at 9 bar and dryness 0.98. Find the final quality and
temperature of the steam at each of the following operations.When the steam losses
50 KJ/kg at constant pressure. When the steam receives 100 KJ/kg at constant
pressure
From the steam table at 9 bar,
Ts = 175.4
o
C, Vg = 0.215 m
3
/kg , h
f
= 742.8 KJ/kg; h
fg
= 2031.1 KJ/kg, h
g
= 2773.9
Enthalpy of Wet steam h
g
= h
f
+ x h
fg
= 742.8 + (0.98) 2031.1
h
g
= 2733.27 KJ/kg.
(i) When the steam losses 50 KJ/kg at constant Pressure
h = h
g
50 = 2733.27 50 = 2683.27 KJ/kg.
h = h
f
+ x h
fg
1 . 2031
8 . 742 27 . 2683
fg
f
h
h h
x

x = 0.955.
(ii) When the steam receives 100 KJ/kg at constant pressure.
Enhalphy of steam h = 2733.27 + 100
= 2833.27 KJ/kg. h = h
f
+ x h
fg
1 . 2031
8 . 742 27 . 2833
fg
f
h
h h
x
= 1.02.
h > h
g
, so the steam is superheated.
h
sup
= h
g
+ C
p
(T
sup
T
s
)
2833.27 = 2773.9 + 2.25 ( T
sup
175.4)
T
sup
= 201.78
o
C
Properties Wet Steam Dry Saturated Steam Superheated Steam
Specific volume in
m
3
/kg.
V = XV
g
V = V
g
V
sup
= V
g

,
_
s
T
T
sup
21
Enthalpy in KJ/kg h = h
f
+ xh
fg
h
g
= h
f
+ h
fg
h
sup
= h
g
+ C
ps
(T
sup

T
s
)
Internal energy in
KJ/kg
U = h
f
+ xh
fg
xvgP V
g
= h
g
-PV
g
U
sup
= h
sup
PV
sup
External work of
vaporization in KJ.
X
p
V
g
PV
g
PV
sup
Steam Boilers
It is also known as steam generator. It is a closed vessel in which water is
converted into steam above atmospheric pressure by the application of heat.
Functions:
The steam is used for driving prime movers like steam engine (It is a form of
heat engine where heat energy is converted into mechanical work. It is used as a
prime mover for locomotives & ships], Steam Turbine for Power Generation. It is also
used for producing process steam as in the case of textile industries for sizing,
bleaching etc. (or) other industries like paper, sugar and chemical industries.
Primary requirements of Boiler:
1. Water must be safely contained
2. Steam must be delivered safely at the required temperature & pressure and at the
required rate
3. Maximum heat produced by the fuel in the furnace should be utilized for economy.
4. It should be accessible for inspection.
Types of Boilers:
(i) According to the flow of water & hot gases:
(a) Fire tube Boiler: Hot gases pass through the tubes which are surrounded with
water.
Ex: Cornish One large tube surrounded by water.
Lancashire Two large Tubes surrounded by water.
Vertical Coehran (or) Locomotive many smaller tubes surrounded by water.
(b) Water tube Boiler: Water circulates through a large number of tubes and hot gases
pass around them.
Ex: Bobcock & Wilcox boiler, Striling boiler.
(ii) According to the axis of the shell:
Horizontal & Vertical boiler (axis of the shell will be in vertical)
(iii) According to location (or) position of the furnace:
22
(a) Externally Fired Boilers: Furnace place outside the shell. Most of the water tube
boilers.
(b) Internally fired boiler Furnace is placed inside the shell. Most of the fire tube
boilers.
(iv) According to the method of water circulation:
(a) Natural Circulation boiler Water is circulated by natural convection currents,
which are setup due to the temperature difference.
Ex: Lancashire, Babcock & Wilcox.
(b) Forced Circulation boiler Water is circulated with the help of a pump driven by
motor. High pressure cap boiler.
Ex: Lamont, Velox, Benson.
(v) According to the Application:
(a) Stationary boilers It is installed permanently on a land installation.
Most of the industrial & power generation boiler.
(b) Mobile boiler These boilers are move from one place to the other place.
Ex: Locomotive & marine boiler.
(vi) According to the heat source:
(a) The combustion of fuel in solid, liquid (or) gaseous form
(b) By products of other chemical process
(c) Electrical energy
(d) Nuclear energy
(vii) According to Steam Pressure Low, high, medium pressure boilers.

0.5 atm.pressure 30-200 atm pressure. 5-30 atm pressure
Lancashire Boiler:
It is a stationary, horizontal, straight tube, internally fixed, natural circulation,
fire tube boiler. The size of the boiler is approximately 7 9 m in length and 2 3 m
in diameter. Boiler can generate steam at the rate of 8.5 tones hr at a pr of 25 bar.
23
Fig:
It consists:
1. Cylindrical Shell: It is placed in horizontal position. It is filled about of its
volume by water submerging the fuel tubes.
2. Steam Space: The space above the water level serves for steam separation and
storage.
3. Furnace Tubes, Bottom flue and side flues: Two large internal furnace tubes
extend from one end to the other end f the shell. One bottom flue and 2 side flues are
formed by brick setting.
4. Grate:
It is provided at the front end of the main flue tubes. Coal is fed to the grate
through the fire hole. It is suitable for stationary boiler because it cannot withstand
jerks/vibration of mobile boilers. It is not suitable for high pressure boiler because
heavy weight is required to balance the steam pressure.
5. Fire Bridge:
24
It is provided at the end of the grate to prevent the flow of coal and ash
particles into the interior of furnace tubes. Otherwise the coal & ash particles carried
with gases from deposits on the interior of the tubes & prevents the heat transfer.
6. Dampers:
It is in the form of sliding doors are placed at the end of side flues to control
the flow of gases from side flues to the Chimney flue.
7. Steam Collecting pipe/ Antipriming pipe/ Dry pipe:
It is in the top of the steam space of the boiler. It is horizontal and closed at its
ends. It collects steam from different parts of the boiler and leads to the steam stop
value. When the steam leaves water, it takes some water particles also. The amount
of water is heavier than the steam hence it tends to fall down steam goes up and water
attempts to fall back.
8. Blow off Cock:
- It is used for the removal of mud & sediments
- To empty the water in the boiler during inspection.
9. High steam & low safety valve:
It having 2 valves.
(i) When the steam exceeds above the working pressure.
(ii) When the water level falls below the normal level. During that time it will
give some sound.
10. Man hole:
It is used for cleaning & inspection purpose.
Diameter should not less than 40 Cm.
Normally it is in oval shape.
11. Fusible Plug:
To protect the fire tube burning due to excessive heating.
Working:
The flue gases are formed due to the combustion of fuel on the furnace grate
move along the main flue tubes from front end to rear end. As a result of this first run
of flue gases, heat of combustion is transferred to water present in the boiler drum.
After approaching the rear end, flue gases are deflected by the rear-enclosed chamber
and enter the bottom central flue tube. During this second run, water present in the
bottom portion of the flue tube gets heated by the flue gases. Temperature of water
further increases. After traveling bottom central flue tube, flue gases reach the front
25
end and divided into the side flues tubes. During this 3
rd
run, hot flue gases contact the
two sides of the boilers shell. Heat is transferred from the flue gases to the boiler
shell. After the 3rd run, the flue gases will enter to the Chimney. Steam is formed due
to this heat transfer and occupies the steam space. Then it is passed to the super heater
for forming the superheated steam.
Babcock and Wilcox Boiler:
Fig:
It is a land type (or) stationary, horizontal straight tube, externally fixed,
natural circulation water tube boiler.
- It is suitable for all types of boiler.
- Normal working pressure 12 to 18 bar and in certain cases it can raise
steam to pressure as high as 40 to 42 bar.
- Steaming rates range between 2 to 20 tones/hr.
26
It consists of
1. Steam and Water Drum:
The drum is placed horizontally and half of the volume filled by water.
Size 8 m length & 2 m diameter.
2. Water Tubes:
It lies in between drum & furnaces, in an inclined position (angle of 10
o
to 15
o
)
to promote water circulation. These tubes are connected to the uptake leader & down
comes.
3. Uptake header & Down Comer: Drum is connected at one and to the uptake
header by short tubes and at the other end to the down comer by long tubes.
4. Grate furnace: Hot flue gases are forming in this zone.
5. Baffles: The fire brick baffles, two in number, it provided to deflect the hot flue
gases.
6. Super heater: Saturated steam from the drawn passes through the super heater
tubes where the steam gets superheated. It lies in between drum & water tubes.
7. Mud Box: The Sediments of water collected here.
8. Inspection Doors: For cleaning and inspection of boiler.
Working:
Coal is fed to the grate through the fire door and is burnt.
Flow of Flue Gases:
Hot flue gases rise upward and pass across the left side proton of the water
tubes. The baffles deflect the flue gases and hence the Flue Gases travel in a zig-zag
manner (hot gases are deflected by the baffles to move in the upward direction, then
downward again upward direction). Over the water tubes and along the super heater.
The flue gases finally escape through the Chimney.
Water Circulation:
Due to the heat, water density being decreased rises into the drum through the
uptake header steam being lighter is collected in the upper part of the drum. A
continuous circulation of water from the drum to the water tubes and water tubes to
the drum is maintained.
Super Heating:
Steam is taken from the steam space of the drum through a tube to the super
heater. Steam is superheated as it receives the additional heat.
27
Salient Features:
- Overall efficiency is high compare than fire tube boiler.
- Defective tubes can be replaced easily.
- All the components are accessible for inspection even during the operation
- Steam generation capacity & operating pressure is high compare than other
boiler.
- Water tubes are kept inclined at an angle of 10
o
15
o
to promote water
circulation
Advantages of Water Tube Boiler over Fire Tube Boiler:
1. Steam can be generated at very high pressure
2. Rate of evaporation and heating surface is more due to the large no.of small
diameter tubes.
3. The hot gases flow almost at right angles to the direction of water flow. Hence
maximum amount of heat is transferred to water.
4. Furnace can be altered easily because it present outside of the shell.
5. Boiler cannot be shutdown immediately.
6. Water circulation is cyclic i.e., from boiler drum to water tubes and again to boiler
drum
7. Cleaning, repairing, inspection is very easy
8. Bursting one (or) two tubes does not affect the boiler. So we can called as safety
boilers
9. The different parts of a water tube boiler can be separated. Hence it is easier to
transport
10. It is suitable for steam power plants
Disadvantages of Water Tube Boiler over Fire Tube Boiler:
1. Maintenance cost is high
2. Even small scaling sediments of water will make over heating the boiler & burst the
tube
3. Not used for mobile purposes
4. Water level must be watched very carefully
Boiler Mountings:
It is a external fittings which are required to ensure safe operation of the
boiler.
28
1. Water level indicator:
To indicate the level of water inside the boiler drum at any given instant.
- 2 Water ganges are fitted at front of the boiler drum
It warns the operator if the water level goes below a fixed mark, so that
corrective action may be taken in tome to avoid any accident.
Fig:
The Water and steam cocks are opened and drain cock (C
3
) is closed.
The steam enters from the upper metal tube M1 into the glass tube and water
enters from the lower metal tube M2 into the glass tube. Hence, water stands in the
glass tube at the same level as in the boiler.
2. Pressure gange [Bourdan Type]
Fig:
To indicate the steam pressure of the boiler.
29
When steam efforts the elliptical tube (S), the tube section tries to become.
Circular, which causes the other end of the tube to move outward. The movement of
the closed end of the tube is transmitted and magnified by the link and the toothed
sector. The magnitude of the movement of the sector is indicated by the pointer on the
scale.
3. Safety Valve:
To maintain a constant safe pressure inside the boiler. When the pressure
inside the boiler increases, the excess steam will escape to the atmosphere through the
value automatically.
(a) Dead Weight safety valve:
Fig:
Valve is made up of gunmetal to prevent from rusting. V restricts on seat (S)
and fixed on the top of the Pipe (P).P has a flange (F) for firing at the tope of the
boiler shell.
P Steam Pipe
C Weight Carrier (It carries cost iron rings)
The total weight must be sufficient to keep the valve on its seat against the
normal working pressure. When the steam pressure exceeds the normal working
pressure, it lifts the valve with its weight. The excess steam escape through the pipe
to the atmosphere, until the pressure reaches its normal value.
b) Lever safety value:
30
Heavy dead weight is replaced by a lever with a smaller weight used in
stationary boiler. The thrust of the lever with its weight is transmitted to the valve by
the strut. When the steam pressure exceeds the safe limit, the upward thrust of steam
lifts the valve from its seat and the lever with its weight. The required weight W at
the end of the lever for maintaining the pressure P in the boiler is obtained by taking
moments about the hinged pressure.
PaL
1
= WL
2
a Area of the valve exposed to steam
L
1
Distance of the valve centre from the hinged point.
L
2
Distance of the valve centre of the Weight to the hinged point.
C) Spring Loaded safety Value:
It is loaded with a spring instead of weights.
- 2 C.I body having two branch pipes P
1
and P
2
.
- 2 Valves are placed over the seating.
Fig:
31
The lever is attached to a spring at its middle. The spring pulls the lever in
downward direction. The lower end of the spring is attached to the value body
through the specific. Thus the values are half fight to their seats by the spring force.
When the steam pressure exceeds the working pressure, the value will open against
the action of spring.
- Due to the spring action it can withstand all kinds of jerks/vibration load, so
it is used the Mobile Boilers. (Locomotive & Marine).
d) High steam & Low Water safety valve.
4. Fusible Plug:
To put off the fire in the fusible of the boiler when the water level falls below
an unsafe level. To avoid explosion which may takes place due to overheating of
tubes and the shell.
During the normal operation, the fusible plug is submerged in water which
keeps the temperature of the fusible metal below its melting pressure. But when the
water level below the top of the fusible plug, it is uncovered by the water. Fusible
plug melt by the heat of the furnance. Thus the Cu plug drops down and is held within
the gunmetal body by the ribs. The opening so made allows the steam rush into the
furnance and extinguish the fire. Thus damage to the firebox which could burn up, is
avoided.
5) Steam Stop Value/ Junction Value: To shut of the steam flow (or) to regulate the
steam flow as per the requirement.
6) Feed Check Value: To regulate the flow of water to the boiler drum. It having 2
valves. One for to regulate the flow of water and another for prevents water rushing
back from the boiler.
7) Slow down valve (or) Cock: To remove the sediments collected at the bottom of
the boiler drum from time to time.
32
Boiler Accessories:
Boiler accessories are the appliances required for the effective, efficient and
economic operation of a Boiler.
1. Economizer:
To heat the feed water by utilizing the heat in the exhaust flue gases before
leaving the Chimney.
Water Out.
Flue Gases

Water in
It consists large no.of Vertical C.I pipes, which are connected to bigger
horizontal pipes at its both ends. Feed Water goes into the economizer from bottom
horizontal pipe. Hot flue gases are passed over the tubes and the floor is maintained in
opposite direction to that of flow of water. Cross flow provides a better heat transfer
between exhaust gases and feed water.
2. Super heater: Function of the super heater is to increase the temperature of steam
above its saturation temperature.
3. Air preheated: Function of the air heater is to recover the heat of a portion of
exhaust flue gases between the flue gases enter the chimney.
4. Feed Water pump: Function of the feed pump is to pump water at high pressure
to the water space of the boiler drum.
5. Pressure Reducing Valve: Function of the pressure reducing valve is to maintain
constant pressure on the delivery side of the valve, with the fluctuating boiler
pressure.
6. Steam trap: The function of steam trap is to drain off water resulting from the
partial condensation of steam in the steam pipe lines and jackets without allowing the
steal to escape through it.
7. Steam Separator: Function of the steam separator is to separate the water
particles in suspension that are carried by the steam coming from the boiler.
33
UNIT - II
TURBINES
Steam: It is pure substance. It is nothing but water existing in vapour phase.
Pure Substance: It has a homogeneous and invariable chemical composition,
irrespective of the phase (or) phases n which they exists. Ex: ice, water and steam.
Enthalpy: Amount f heat energy contained in a given unit mass of steam.
h = u + PV
Boyles Law: The volume of given mass of a perfect gas varies inversely as the
absolute pressure. When temperature is constant.
V 1/P (or) PV = constant f T is constant.
Prime Movers :
Prime Movers are devices which convert the energy from a natural source into
mechanical work.
Steam turbine
(1) Thermal Prime Movers IC engine
Gas turbine
(2) Hydralic Prime Movers Potential energy and kinetic energy of water is
converted into mechanical work.
IC Engine It is a heat engine in which may the heat energy of a fuel is converted
mechanical energy by combustion process (Conversion of chemical energy into heat
energy) inside the engine cylinder.
STEAM TURBINE
It is a prime mover used to convert heat energy of steam into mechanical
energy (mechanical rotary motion). It is used in thermal power plants to drive the
alternators. Steam turbines are directly coupled to the generators, pumps,
Compressors.
It is used in textile and sugar industry machines.
34
Expansion of steam in a convergent divergent nozzle:
Entry Exit
high enthalpy low enthalpy low pressure high velocity
high pressure
low Velocity
Convergent part Throat Divergent part
Steam nozzle is a passage of varying cross section by means of which the heat
energy of steam is converted Kinetic energy. Due to expansion of steam in nozzle, the
volume will increase and pressure, enthalphy will decrease.
Classification of Steam Turbine:
It depends on whether the drop in pressure of the steam due to its expansion
takes place before it passes on to the moving blades (or) while moving on the blades
itself and also type of propelling force.
(i) Impulse Turbine
(ii) Reaction Turbine
Impulse Steam Turbine:
Fig:
35
Arrangement of Blades and Nozzle:
Fig:

Variation of Pressure and Velocity (or) Impulse turbine stage:
Fig:
Blade Profile:
The Steam expansion in the nozzle causes a pressure drop & enormous
increase in steam velocity (about 1000 m/s) at the nozzle. High velocity steam coming
out from the nozzle strikes the blades fixed on the periphery of the rotor. So the
steam velocity decreases continuously. The high velocity jet posses over the curved
36
blades, and gets deflected because of the shape of the blades. The change in the
direction of motion of the steam jet results in a change of momentum (mass
velocity) and hence a force direction normal to the blade surface i.e and Impulse
(force Time ) force. The stem jet when moves over the curved surface of the blades,
exerts pressure on the blades due to Centrifugal action. Resultant of all these
centrifugal pressure and effects of change of velocity is the motive force, which
causes the turbine to move. In velocity, pressure variation, due to expansion pressure
drop will occur. After expansion the pressure remains constant in the moving blades.
In nozzle part volume exit at higher volume. It will drop in moving blades because
the moving blades absorb the Kinetic energy. However the final velocity is much
higher than the initial velocity.
Ex: Peltan, De lavel, Curits, Rateav Turbine.
Reaction Turbine:
In this turbine steam is expanded in a set of moving and fixed blades, No
nozzle provided here. It consists of rows of equal no. of fixed and moving blades.
The moving blades are attached to the turbine motor and fixed blades are attached to
the turbine casing. Minimum gap is maintained in between the fixed and moving
blades.
Fig: Blade Profile:
Fig: Impulse reaction turbine stage:
37
The fixed blade acts as a nozzle. The steam is admitted from casing through
the whole of circumference. In the first row of fixed blades, the pressure drop will
occur and velocity will increase. Next it will enter to the moving blades, due to charge
of momentum the velocity will decrease and continuous pressure drop also occur.
Here the driving force is a combination of impulse and reaction force.
Ex: Kaplan, Francis turbine,
Casing Material C.I
Blade Material C.I, S.S, Cast steel bronze.
Sl.No. Impulse Turbine Reaction Turbine
1. Steam expands in the nozzle. Steam expands partially in
the fixed blades and partially
in the moving blade.
2. Pressure remains constant during flow through
its blades passage.
Pressure of steam is not
constant during its flow
through moving & fixed
blade passage.
3. Steam flow over the blade is uniform due to
symmetrical blade profile.
Steam flow over the blade
varies due to aerofoil section
(Unsymmetrical) blade
profile.
4. Due to complete pressure drop in the nozzle,
the steam velocity and rotor speed are very
high, resulting in centrifugal stresses acting on
the blades. This may result in blade failure.
Pressure drop occurs in fixed
blades partially, so the steam
velocity and rotor speed are
not high. Hence stress
developed are less.
5. Speed of turbine is very high and hence
requires compounding.
Speed of turbine is low.
Does not require
compounding.
6. Turbine is compact less space. It is bigger. So requires more
space.
7. It is used in small capacity power plant. Medium and large capacity
power plants.
Advantages of Steam turbines over other prime movers:
1. No reciprocating parts. So no wear will occur. Hence its durability
38
2. No sliding parts so less lubrication is sufficient
3. Due to direct rotary motion, steam turbines produce uniform torque. It reduces
shock loads and hence vibrations are minimum
4. More compact
5. Less maintenance
6. More economical with respect to their construction and operation
7. Very high thermal efficiency and mechanical efficiency
8. Balancing of masses is easier as turbine contains rotating masses
9. It is used in large power plants
10. It is used to drive high speed generators, compressors
Parsons turbine:
The power obtained mainly by an impulsive force of the incoming steam and
small reactive force of the outgoing steam. This consists of a rotor of a varying
diameter. Moving blades are fixed on the rotor. Diameter of the casing also varies.
Fixed blades are attached to the casing. Steam is admitted to the first set of moving
blades through nozzles. The blades receive the impulsive force of the incoming steam.
Then it goes to fixed blades which act as nozzles. Thus steam flows alternatively
through moving and fixed blades.

Compounding of Steam Turbines:
If the entire pressure drop occur in the nozzle, so very high level is come out
from the nozzle. Steam Turbine speed is directly proportional to the velocity speed.
We are getting 30,000 rpm in turbine. Due to this very higher speed, large centrifugal
forces acting in the blade so blade will get failure and increase in vibration, quick
overheating of the bearings, impossibility of direct coupling to the other machines
these types of technical problems are came. This much amount higher speed wont
help practical purpose. The normal velocity force is 400 m/s. We are
reducing/controlling the rotor speed is called compounding.
Compounding Method of reducing blade speed for a given overall pressure drop.
(i) Velocity Compounding:
Fig:
39
- One set of nozzles and two (or) more moving blades.
- There is a row of fixed blades in between two moving blades.
- Function of fixed blades is only to direct the steam coming from first
moving row to the next moving row.
There are also known as Guide Blades.
ii. Pressure Compounding:
Fig:
One row of fixed blades (works as nozzles) at the entry of each row of moving
blades. Total pressure drop of the steam does not take place in a single nozzle but is
divided among all the rows of fixed blades, which works as nozzle.
40
Due to pressure compounding, smaller transformation of heat energy into Kinetic
energy takes place. Hence steam velocities become much lower and reduce volume
of blade and rotational speeds.
3. Pressure and velocity Compounded Steam Turbine:
Combination of both pressure and volume compounding. Pressure is divided
into a no.of stages as done in pressure compounding and velocity obtained in each
stage is also absorbed in several stages.
It is used in Curtis Turbine.
Drawing is a Combination of both pressure and velocity compounded steam
turbine.
WATER TURBINES
Hydraulic Prime movers is a mechanical device, which converts the potential
Energy of Water into mechanical energy.
Types of Water Turbines: -The various types of hydraulic turbines are given below:
(a) Classification according to the type of energy at inlet: -
(i) Impulse Turbine Ex: Pelton Wheel.
(ii) Reaction Turbine Ex: Francis & Kaplan Turbines.
(b) Classification according to the direction of Fluid flow:
(i) Tangential flow Turbine: The Water flows along the tangent to the
runner or the wheel. Ex: Pelton Wheel.
(ii) Radial flow Turbines: The water flows in the radial direction through
the runner. Radial flow turbines are divided into inward flow turbines and
outward flow turbines.
41
(iii) Axial flow Turbines: The water flows through the runner
parallel to the axis of the turbine. Ex: Kaplan Turbine.
(c) Classification according to the head at the inlet of the Turbine :
(i) High head turbine (>250 m) Pelton Wheel.
(ii) Medium head turbine (60 250 m) : Francis turbine Inward radial
flow reaction turbine.
(iii) Low head turbine (<60): Kaplan Turbine.
Hydraulic Impulse Turbine:
If the energy available at the inlet of the turbine is one Kinetic Energy (KE),
then the turbine is called as Impulse Turbine because the turbine runs by the
impulse of water. In the impulse turbine all the potential energy of water is converted
into Kinetic Energy before entering the runner by expansion through a nozzle. The
pressure of the water entering and leaving the wheel vanes is atmospheric and hence
the turbine should be placed above the tailrace.
The Impulse turbine may be Classified as:
a. Radial flow
b. Tangential flow and
c. Axial flow type
Pelton Turbine: The Pelton Wheel is a tangential flow type impulse turbine.
Description:-
The various parts of the Pelton Turbine are as follows:
a. Nozzle and fluid flow regulating arrangement (Spear head)
b. Runner or wheel with buckets
c. Turbine casing and
d. Breaking jet
42

(i) A nozzle is a gradually tapering small opening at the end of a pipe. Its purpose is
to convert a high pressure-low velocity water head into a low pressure high velocity
water jet. One or more jets can be used. A jet is located such that it directs the high
velocity water stream directly on the bucket, tangential to the runner.
(ii) The runner fixed with buckets (vanes) is a rotating part of the turbine. Buckets
with a concave shape, help in transferring energy from the high velocity jet to the
Runner. Runner converts the impact energy of water jets into Rotary motion of the
turbine.
(iii) Casing is provided all around the runner to prevent splashing of water, to direct
the used water to the tailrace and to act as a Safety Guard.
(iv) Breaking jet is located to act in a direction opposite to that of main jet, on the
vanes. Since water impinges at a very high velocity. The stoppage of water supply
does not immediately stop the runner. The breaking jet is activated to stop the runner
for maintenance and in emergencies.
The velocity of water jet is controlled by a spear by controlling the amount of
water entering the jet.
Working: -
A Pelton Wheel uses a high velocity jet impinging on its buckets. Water from
a high pressure head is converted into high velocity head at the jet. In doing so the
potential energy of water at a high level (like in a dam) is converted into K.E. The
high velocity stream of water which in turn is converted into Rotary motion
(Mechanical Energy) and utilized to run electric generators.
43
Fig: Francis Turbine
Construction:
Francis turbine is a reaction turbine. The construction of Francis turbine is as
shown in fig. The Components of a Francis Turbine are as follows:
(i) Spiral Ring
(ii) Guide Mechanism
(iii) Turbine Runner
(iv) Draft Tube
(i) It is a Radial flow turbine, for which a suitable casing is essential. The casing has
a circular cross section, whose area reduces gradually as it goes around as shown in
fig. Hence it is termed spiral casing such a casing helps in maintaining the pressure
head constant around the runner.
(ii) A Guide mechanism, Comprises fixed varies (whose direction can be adjusted
externally) held between two rings, which in turn is held in the casing. The guide
vanes help to allow the water to flow correctly over the moving vanes, and smoothly
enters the runner without shock.
(iii) The Turbine runner with blades, converts the pressure energy into mechanical
energy. The blades are designed so as to provide smooth flow of the water and to
convert maximum energy into useful work.
(iv) A Draft tube connects the turbine runner outlet to the tail race and is kept
submerged in the water. The function of draft tube is to increase the effective water
head and to improve the turbine efficiency.
44
Principle of Operation:
The Francis turbine is a radial inward flow reaction turbine. In operation, the
high-pressure water enters the turbine wheel through the casing from the periphery
and flows inward through the guide vanes then over the runner blades. It exists
axially from the direct the water onto the runner blades. The water under high
pressure exerts pressure on the moving blades as it flows through them, which causes
the wheel to rotate. Thus, the pressure energy of water gets converted into
mechanical energy in this turbine.
Fig: Kaplan Turbine
Construction: Kaplan turbine also called a propeller turbine, is an axial flow reaction
turbine. The construction of Kaplan turbine is illustrated as shown in the fig. The
turbine runner resembles the propeller in construction. It is placed vertically down as
shown in fig (a). The runner also called as the hub or the bores, is an extension so as
to allow smooth flow of the exit water. The vanes are fixed on the runner. The shaft
is held in axial thrust bearings. A suitable spiral casing and draft tube are provided to
utilize the available pressure energy efficiently. The casing has a gradually reducing
cross section similar to the Francis turbine.
Operation: - The water enters the casing, all round the runner. Then the water is
guided towards the axis of the runner, which then takes the axial path as shown in fig
(b). The pressure head of the water thus strikes the blades axially and transfers energy
to it. As the water flows over the vanes, the pressure head is converted into rotary
motion of the turbine runner. A Kaplan turbine is most suitable for low head and
large quantity of water.
45
Gas Turbines
Gas turbines are widely used as power plants of aircrafts. They are also used
as auxillary power generating units in aircrafts. Many electric power plants for
supplying energy to industries and domestic purpose use gas turbines as prime
movers. Gas turbines are similar to steam turbines, except that they use the thermal
energy released by the combustion of fossil fuels like pulverized coal, gaseous fuels
and liquid fuels.
Gas turbines in aircraft engines used high quality liquid fuels (aviation fuel).
Gas turbines are operated in multiple stages to make use of the maximum energy of
combustion.
Features of Gas Turbines:
1. They are compact and have high power to weight ratio (A 100 kg gas turbine with a
generator can produce about 100 kw power like in those used in auxiliary power unit
in aircraft).
2. They can use all the 3 kinds of fuels like solid (Pulverised) liquid and gaseous fuels
3. They are easy to start and a quick cold start
4. They can meet Peak load demands in power plants
5. They are reliable, economical to operate and maintain
Components of Gas Turbine: -
There are four important components of a gas turbine system:
1. Compressor and Inter Coolers: -
The Compressors used may be either reciprocating or rotary type. Because the
reciprocating compressors have frictional problems, low speed and low air capacity
they are not generally used, where as the rotary compressors have larger capacities,
can run at high speeds with no frictional problems, hence which are preferred more
for gas turbine plants. Centrifugal and axial; flow type of compressors are used.
Inter coolers are used in between the stages of compression. Generally
multistage compressors are used to get higher-pressure ratios. The compressed air
from one stage is cooled to its initial temperature (theoretically) before entering the
next stage. This increases the efficiency. A water-cooled, gross flow inter cooler is
generally used.
46
2. Combustion Chamber: -
This is the most important component of the system where heat energy is
released by burning fuels. Since the gas turbine system is continuous one it is
required to burn large quantities of fuel with large volume of air. In gas turbine the air
fuel ratio is as high as 100: 1, which is too thin for continuous combustion. This
necessitates a combustion chamber to allow only a part of the flowing high pressure
air for combustion and figs shows the schematic representation of a gas turbine
working on open cycle, generally using Brayton Cycle.
In this cycle the atmospheric air, compressed and mixed with burnt gases acts
as the working medium. In Operation the atmospheric air is drawn in by the
compressible and compressed isentropically to a higher-pressure usually axial flow
compressors are used for this purpose. The compressed air then flows to the
combustion chamber, where the fuel is burnt at constant pressure to increase the
temperature of the working fluid i.e. the compressed air. The hot gases are then
expanded isentropically in a gas turbine. The expanded hot gases are finally
discharged at initial pressure to the atmosphere. This process of compressing
atmospheric air, burning fuel, expanding in turbine and discharging gases to the
atmosphere continues in cycles. This cycle is known as Open cycle. Since the gases
are finally discharged to atmosphere rest to mix with the products of the combustion.
Also the velocity of incoming air in the combustion chamber is very high, it is not
47
possible to have a stabilized flame with ordinary burners. Hence the combustion
system must involve a flame stabilization technique.
3. Gas Turbine: -
Generally axial flow turbines are used, which are reaction turbines. Impulse
turbine can also be sued. The turbine will have more than two stages, which helps to
expand gases in more stages thereby reducing the stresses in the blades. The blades
over which high temperature and high velocity gases pass, are subjected to high
stresses. They are made of high strength corrosion resistant steels. Blades are
provided with air-cooling arrangement.
4. Heat Exchanger: -
Heat Exchanger are used to add heat energy to the air entering the combustion
chamber and extract heat from the hot air coming out of the turbine in case of a closed
cycle. The compressed air is heated by using the exhaust gases which carry heat
energy after expansion (in open cycle) or after heating the working medium i.e air in
case of a closed cycle. This regenerative heating improves the plant efficiency. Part
of the power developed by the gas turbine is used to run the Compressor.
Fig: Closed Cycle gas Turbine
Fig shows the schematic diagram of closed cycle gas turbine. This is known
as closed cycle since the same working fluid is recirculated after every cycle and not
let to atmosphere as in an open cycle. In this cycle atmospheric air or some other
stable gas like Argon, Helium, Nitrogen, CO
2
etc., is used as the working fluid. In
48
operation initially atmospheric air is drawn/ or any other stable gases which ever is
used as working medium and compressed is geotropically top higher pressures.
The working fluid then passes through the combustion chamber where heat is
added to the working fluid, by the combustion of the fuel. The working fluid will not
directly come in contact with the products of combustion instead heat is transferred
using a heat exchanger. The products of combustion after heating the working fluid
are used to preheat the compressed air or directly discharged to atmosphere. The hot
high-pressure fluid is then isentropically expanded in gas turbine. The expanded
working fluid is then passed through a water cooler to bring down its temperature to
its initial temperature, which is then recirculated for compression, heating an
expansion. The cycle repeats with the same working fluid.
49
UNIT - III
Internal Combustion Engines
Heat Engine:
It is a device, which uses chemical energy of fuel, which is transformed into
thermal energy by combustion and uses this energy to do mechanical work.
Heat Engine
External Combustion engine Internal Combustion engine
Combustion of fuel takes place Combustion of fuel takes place inside the
outside the working cylinders working cylinders.
Ex: Steam engines & Steam turbine Ex: Petrol engine, Diesel engine.
IC Engine advantage over EC engine (Steam Engine)
1. IC engine thermal efficiency (30 to 35 %) is much higher than steam engine (15 to
25%)
2. Higher mechanical efficiency
3.More compact
4. Power developed by the IC engine per Kg weight of engine is higher so it is lighter
& occupies less space.
5. It can be started quickly
Classification of IC Engine:
1. According to the type of fuel used:
a) Gas engine Gaseous fuels like natural gas product gas, coal gas.
b) Petrol engine Volatile liquid fuel is used
- Paraffin/ Kerosene also be used
- Air fuel mixture ignited by electric spark
-Carburetor is used for to accurate supply of fuel
c) Diesel engine Heavy liquid fuels, which cannot easily vapourise air used in
diesel engine
- Oil is injected by means of injectors
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2. No. of Stroke:
1. Four Stroke Engine: If an engine requires four strokes of the Piston (or) 2
revolution of the Crankshaft (flywheel) to complete the cycle. Both SI & CI engines
work on this principle.
2. Two Stroke Engine: If an engine requires 2 strokes of the piston (or) one revolution
of the crankshaft (flywheel) to complete the cycle. Both S.I & CI engines work on
this principle.
3. No. of Cylinders:
a) Single cylinder engines: If only one cylinder is used to develop power, power
developed in this engine is less and the engine is commonly used in 2 wheelers.
b) Multi cylinder engines: If more than one cylinder are used. Power developed in
this engine is more than single cylinder engine.
4. According to cycle:
a) Otto Cycle Engine:
Combustion of fuel takes place at constant volume.
- All gasoline & gas engines
- It is called as SI engines
b) Diesel Cycle Engine:
Combustion of fuel takes place at constant pressure
- Diesel engine
- It is called as CI engine
c) Dual combustion cycle engine: Combustion of fuel takes place partly at constant
volume and partly at constant pressure.
- All high speed diesel engine
- It is called as limited pressure cycle (or) mixed cycle engine.
5. According to the Speed:
a) Low speed engine Engine speed < 400 rpm.
b) Medium speed engine Engine speed is in between 400 & 900 rpm.
c) High speed engine Engine speed > 900 rpm.
6. Cooling System:
a) Air Cooled Engine: If engine is cooled by naturally/ Artificially by air.
51
b) Water Cooled Engine: If engine is cooled using water.
* The temperature of IC engine is very high (2000
o
C) as the combustion takes place
inside the cylinder. So cooling arrangement is necessary to prevent the overheating of
the cylinder.
7. According to the fuel supply:
a) Carbureted engines: Carburetor is atomize, vaporize, distributes metered
amount of fuel. All SI engines fitted with carburetor.
b) Injection type engine: A fuel injector is used to inject the fuel at very high
pressure just before the ignition. All CI engines are fitted with fuel injectors.
8. Based on the method of ignition:
a) Coil ignition system engine: Induction coil & battery that provides low
tension current.
b) Magneto-ignition system engine: Here magneto is used instead of battery.
Primary coils of a few turns and secondary coils of a large no. of turns are
wound across the armature of the magneto (or) generator.
9. Based on the engine Design:
a) Reciprocating engine Piston reciprocates inside of the cylinder.
b) Rotary engine Instead of piston, 3 sided rotor operates inside a chamber.
10. Based on the Arrangement of the Cylinder:
a) Vertical Cylinder Cylinder position is vertical. Ex: Scooter & motor cycle
engines.
b) Horizontal Cylinder Cylinder position is horizontal
c) Inline engine It has only one cylinder block. All the cylinders are linearly
arranged. Ex: Car & Bus.
d) Radial Engine: Engine has more than two cylinders arranged radially and
spaced equally around the crankshaft.
It is used in aircraft engine.
e) V-Engines: Combination of two in-line engines with two cylinder blocks.
- Heavier automobiles
f) Opposed cylinder engines: Engine has 2 cylinder blocks located an the opposite
sides of the crankshaft but in the same plane.
g) Opposed Piston engines: It has a single cylinder block with 2 pistons and 2
crankshafts.
52
10. According to the method of governing used:
a) Quantity governing method: The quantity of mixture of air & fuel is changed
maintaining air-fuel ratio of the mixture constant.
- Petrol engine
b) Quality governing method: Quantity of fuel supplied is changed as per the required
and the air fuel ratio cannot remain constant.
- Diesel engine.
Fig: IC Engine Parts
IC engine must have certain basic components to accomplish motion.
1. Engine Cylinder:
It is a round sleeve into which a close fitting piston can slide in and out to
make strokes. The cylinder is closed by the cylinder head at one end and the moving
piston covers the other end. The Cylinder head contains the provisions for placing
inlet and exhaust valves. Combustion of fuel takes place inside the cylinder.
2. Piston:
It is connected to a mechanism which controls its sliding with in the cylinder.
The movement of the piston changes the volume of the cylinder and provides the
combustion space. Material Al alloy (Due to light weight)
Piston rings To maintain sufficient lubricating oil on cylinder walls.
Throughout entire length of the piston travel.
53
It is used to maintain a pressure tight seal between the moving piston and the
cylinder wall. It conducts heat away from the piston head and prevent oil from
entering the combustion chamber.
Material fine grained alloy C.I containing Si & Mg. It has good heat & wear
resisting qualities.
4. Piston Pin/ Gudgeon Pin: It connects the piston to the upper end of the
connecting rod. It is made up of low carbon case hardened steel.
5. Valves: To admit the air (and/or) fuel into the cylinder and to remove the burnt
gases after they have done their work. 2 stroke cycle engines have only ports at the
cylinder walls and have no valves.
6. Connecting rod: It is attached to the piston-by-piston pin. It converts the up &
down motion of the piston to a rotary motion of a crankshaft. It is made up of
forging of steel (or) Malleable C.I, spheroidal C.I.
7. Crank Shaft: It receives power from piston and connecting rod and transmits this
power to the drive. It is made up of Cast steel (C, Ch, Si, Mg, C, P, S), spheroidal
graphite C.I.
8. Crank Case: It is a C.I case, which holds the cylinder and the crankshaft. It also
serves as sump for the lubricating oil.
9. Cooling Water Jackets: Normally the cooling water enters the jackets in the
cylinder head, which is comparatively hotter and passes on to jackets for the cylinder.
The purpose is to keep the combustion space & cylinder Walls Cool.
10. Flywheel: It is a big wheel, mounted on the Crankshaft. It is function is to
maintain its speed fairly constant.
IC Engine Technology:
1. Bore: The inside diameter of the engine cylinder is termed as Bore.
2. Stroke: It is the linear distance, measured parallel to the axis of the cylinder,
between extreme upper and lower positions of the piston.
3. Top Dead Centre (TDC): TDC in vertical engine is the extreme position of the
piston on the top of the cylinder (head side). The cylinder volume is at a minimum. In
case of horizontal engine this position is known as inner dead center (IDC).
4. Bottom Dead Centre (BDC): BDC in vertical engine is the extreme position of the
piston on the bottom of the cylinder. The cylinder volume will be maximum. In case
of horizontal engine. This position is known as outer dead center (ODC).
54
5. Compression ratio: It is the ratio of the volume when the piston is at BDC to the
volume when the piston at TDC. Compression ratio = Maximum cylinder volume /
minimum cylinder volume. R = V/Vc Cylinder volume.
6. Piston Area (A) It is the cross sectional area of the cylinder.
7. Displacement Volume/Swept volume (Vs): Volume covered by the piston
between TDC & BDC. It is also called as stroke volume. V
s
= A L
8. Clearance volume (Vc): Volume on the combustion side of the piston at TDC
9. Cylinder volume (V): V = V
s
+V
c
Four Stroke Petrol Engine:
It works on reciprocating piston principle wherein piston slides back and forth
in a cylinder and transmits power through connecting rod and crank mechanism to the
Crankshaft. Inlet & exhaust valves regulate the flow of fuel-air mixture and exhaust
gasses respectively combustion is initiated by spark plug and hence engine is called as
spark ignition engines (SI engines). It works on Otto Cycle. The cycle of operation is
completed in 4 strokes of the piston (or) 2 revolutions of the crankshaft. As heat
addition takes place at constant volume, this cycle is known as constant volume cycle.
Fig:
1. Suction Stroke: During suction stroke, the inlet value (I) opens and air & fuel
(petrol) mixture (charge) is sucked into the cylinder. The piston moves downwards
from top dead center (TDC) till it reaches bottom dead center (BDC). During suction
stroke exhaust valve (E) is closed. Due to the suction created by the downward
motion of the piston, inside of the cylinder pressure becomes slightly less than
atmosphere. Due to the pressure deferential, fresh charge will enter into the cylinder.
55
4
Fig:
Reversible adiabatic
Pressure 3 5
P
am
b Constant volume
2
1 a
V
1
V
2
Volume
During ideal conditions, suction is represented by 1 to 2. But actual suction is
along the path 1 a 2 as shown in fig. The suction stroke completes during half
revolution of the crankshaft. Energy for this stroke is supplied during starting by
cranking the engine.
2. Compression Stroke:
During this stroke, both the inlet & exhaust valves are closed. The air fuel
mixture is compressed as the piston moves upwards from BDC to TDC. As a result
of compression, pressure and temperature of the charge are increased. Shortly before
the piston reaches TDC, the charge is ignited by spark plug. It suddenly increases the
pressure and temperature of the products of combustion but the volume practically
remains constant. Combustion of the mixture releases enormous amount of heat
energy. That shown as 3 to 4. Here compression ratio 6 to 11 and temperature rise
about 2000
o
C. This stroke will complete another half revolution of the crankshaft.
Energy during this stroke is supplied by cranking the engine during starting and
flywheel supplies the energy when the engine is running.
3. Working/Power/Expansion stroke:
During this stroke, both the values remain closed. Due to the rise in pressure,
Piston pushed down with a great force. The hot burnt gases expand pushing the
piston from TDC to BDC. Both pressure temperature inside the cylinder decreases as
shown by the curve. 4 -5. At the end of the stroke, exhaust value opens and pressure
inside the cylinder suddenly drops to the atmosphere pressure. It shown by 5-2 in fig.
56
Power developed during the stroke is used to run the crankshaft and hence the
engine. The expansion stroke completes during further half revolution of the
crankshaft.
4. Exhaust stroke:
During this stroke, the exhaust value opens, as piston moves from BDC to
TDC. This movement of the piston pushes out the hot gases from the cylinder. The
exhaust gases are exhausted through the exhaust value into the atmosphere.
It shown in fig 2 b 1
It completes during further half revolution of the crankshaft.
The same 4 cycles are repeated.
Four stroke Diesel Engine:
It is similarly to a 4-stroke petrol engine except the mode of combustion.
Combustion is initiated by injecting fuel from a fuel injector instead of a sparkplug.
Air alone is compressed and hence the name compression ignition (CI) engine/Diesel
engine. The cycle of operation is completed in 4 strokes of the piston/ 2 revolution
of the crankshaft. Heat addition takes place during constant pressure combustion
process and hence the name constant & Pressure cycle.
57
1. Suction Stroke:
During suction stroke, inlet value opens and exhaust value remains closed.
The piston travels downwards from TDC. Air is drawn in from outside to enter the
cylinder through the inlet value till the position reaches BDC. The air is taken at
atmospheric pressure. Energy for this stroke during starting is provided by cranking
and flywheel supplies energy when the engine is running.
2. Compression Stroke:
At the end of the suction stroke, both valves remain closed. The piston moves
from BDC to TDC. Air alone gets compressed in the combustion space. Both
temperature & pressure of air increases beyond the self-ignition temperature of diesel.
At the end of the compression stroke, fuel is injected through the fuel injector. Rapid
combustion takes place due to very high temperature of air. The stroke is completed
when crankshaft completes one full rotation. The compression ratio between 16 to
22. Energy for this stroke during starting is provided by cranking and flywheel
supplies energy when the engine is running
3.Expansion/Power/Working stroke:
The ignited mixture of air & fuel (Diesel) expands and forces the piston
downwards from TDC to BDC. During the expansion stroke both valves are closed.
Now both pressure and temperature will come down inside the cylinder. It
represented by 4 5. The power is used to run the crankshaft.
58
4. Exhaust Stroke:
During this stroke, the inlet value is closed and the exhaust value is opened.
The piston move from BDC to TDC, forcing the burnt gases out of the cylinder
through the exhaust value. It represents in 2 b 1.
2 Stroke Petrol Engine:
One cycle is completed in 2 strokes of the piston in one revolution of the
crankshaft. It has only ports at the cylinder walls and has no valves.
Scavenging:
The exhaust gases are removed from the cylinder with the help of fresh
compressed charge. This process of removing exhaust gases is called scavenging.
Deflector:
To prevent the loss of incoming charge and helps for exhausting hot gases
respectively. It is mainly used in scooters and motor cycles. It is having 3 ports.
1. Inlet Port: Through this inlet port only, Fresh charge from the carburettor is taken
into the cylinder.
2. Transfer port: Through this Transfer port only, fresh charge from the bottom of
the piston is supplied to the cylinder.
3. Exhaust port: The Hot exhaust gases are pushed out from the combustion
chamber. The cycle beginning at the point when the piston reaches TDC at the end of
the compression stroke.
59
Fig:
First Stroke:
Fig.1 shows the position of the piston at the end of compression. The spark is
produced by the spark plug as the piston reaches TDC. The pressure and temperature
of the gases are increased and hence the gases push the piston downwards producing
the power stroke. Fig.2 When the piston opens the exhaust port during the downward
stroke; the burnt gases leave the cylinder through the exhaust port. Fig.3 A little later,
the piston uncovers the transfer port and the crank case is directly connected to the
cylinder through the transfer port. The downward stroke of the piston compresses the
charge in the crank case underside of the piston. In this position, the compressed
mixture of petrol and air is transferred through the transfer port to the upper part of
the cylinder. The exhaust gases are pushed out with the half of compressed charge.
This is known as scavenging. This is continued until the piston reaches BDC.
Second Stroke:
As the piston moves upwards, it converts the transfer port. Hence the flow of
charge into the cylinder is stopped. The upward motion of the piston lowers the
pressure in the crankcase below atmosphere and fresh air is induced in the crankcase
60
through the inlet port, as it is uncovered. A little later, the piston covers the exhaust
port and actual compression of the charge starts as shown in fig. 4. The compression
is continued until the piston reaches TDC. The cycle is thus completed within 2
strokes.
Two Stroke Diesel Engine:

First Stroke:
Fig.1 shows the position of the piston at the end of the compression. Diesel is
injected using fuel injector just before completing the compression. It starts burning
the high pressure and temperature gases push the piston downwards, producing the
power stroke. As the piston moves little down, the supply of fuel (diesel) stops. Fig.2
In which the piston uncovers the exhaust port during the downward stroke. Hence the
burnt gases leave the cylinder through the exhaust port. Fig.3 A little later, the piston
uncovers the transfer port as shown. Now the crankcase is directly connected to the
cylinder through the transfer port. Air in the crankcase is compressed by underside of
the piston and the compressed air is transferred to the cylinder through transfer port.
The exhaust gases are pushed out with the help of fresh air until the piston reaches
BDC (similar to 2 stroke petrol engine)
Second Stroke:
The piston moves upwards. It first covers the transfer port and stops the flow
of air into the cylinder. A little later, the piston covers the exhaust port as shown in
fig.4 and actual compression of air starts. The upward motion of the piston lowers the
61
pressure in the crankcase below atmosphere and fresh air is induced in the crankcase
through the inlet port, as it is uncovered. The compression of air is continued until the
piston reaches TDC. The fuel supply starts just before the piston reaches TDC and the
cycle is completed.
Comparison of 4 stroke & 2 stroke engine
Sl.No. 4 Stroke Engine 2 Stroke Engine
1 The cycle completes in 4 strokes of the
piston (or) in 2 revolution of the crankshaft
The cycle completes in 2 strokes
of the piston (or) in 1 revolution
of the crankshaft
2 Develops one power stroke in every 2
revolution of the crankshaft
Develops one power stroke in
one revolution of the crankshaft
3 Due to more no. of strokes turning moment
is less uniform and heavier flywheel is
needed
Due to lesser no.of strokes,
turning moment is more uniform
and lighter flywheel is needed
4 Power produced for same size of the engine
is small due to one power stroke in 2
revolutions.
Power produced for the same
size of the engine is more due to
one power stroke in 1
revolution.
5 Engine is heavy & bulky Engine is light & compact
6 Lesser cooling & lubrication requirement as
one power stroke is produced in 2
revolution of the crankshaft
Greater cooling and lubrication
requirement as one power stroke
is produced in 1 revolution of
the crankshaft
7 Less wear and Tear because every 2
revolution of crankshaft only power stroke
exist
Higher wear and tear because
every one revolution of
crankshaft power stroke exists.
So more heat is produced.
8 Engine contains complicated valves and
value mechanism
Engine contains simple ports
9 Higher initial lost due to heavier weight &
complicated valve mechanism
Lower initial cost due to lighter
weight & simple construction
10 Higher volumetric efficiency due to high
rate of induction
Lower volume efficiency due to
low rate of induction
11 Thermal efficiency is higher and efficiency
part load, is better
Thermal efficiency is lower and
efficiency part load is lesser
12 Fuel consumption is less and as no charge is
last.
Fuel consumption is more as
some fresh charge is lost in the
62
exhaust during scavenging
13 Noise is less due to slower expansion of
exhaust gases
Noise is more due to rapid
expansion of exhaust gases
14 Used where efficiency is main
consideration Ex: Cars, Buses, Trucks,
Industrial Engines etc.
Used where exist, compactness
and light weight is the main
consideration Ex: Scooters,
Motor cycles Mopeds etc.,
63
Comparison between Petrol & Diesel Engine
Sl.No Details Petrol Engine Diesel Engine
1 Fuel Ignition By spark plug (SI
Engine)
By hot compressed air (CI
engine)
2 Charge during
suction stroke
Air & fuel mixture are
admitted
Air alone is admitted and
fuel is injected
3 Compression ratio Low (6 to 8) High (16 to 20)
4 Fuel admission Through carburetor Through fuel injector
5 Cycle of operations Otto Cycle Diesel Cycle
6 Engine Speed High-about 3000 rpm Low-400 to 1500 rpm
7 Engine starting in
cold weather
Easy Difficult due to high
compression ratio
8 Engine Cost Less More
9 Fuel consumption More Less
10 Fuel Cost More Less
11 Maintenance Requires change of spark
plug after few thousand
Km
Fuel injection does not
required frequent
maintenance
12 Weight Light Heavy
13 Uses Automobiles & aero
planes
Buses, Tractors, Trucks etc.
14 Vibration & Noise Almost nil More due to high
15 Vehicle Chassis Due to less weight of
engine and smooth
working, vechicle chassis
is not made very strong
Due to heavy weight and
engine and more vibration,
chassis is made extra strong
Indicated Power:
Total power actually developed on the piston of the engine. It is expressed in KW.
P
m
Mean effective Pressure, in n/m
2
.
P
m
=
diagram indictor the of Length
t cons spring diagram indicator the of area Net tan
P
m
=
l
s a
P
m
is the hypothetical pressure acting on the piston throughout the power
stroke.
L Stroke length (m)
A Cross sectional area of the cylinder (m
2
)
X No.of cylinders in the engine
64
n No.of revolution required for each power stroke delivered 2 for 4 stroke
engine & 1 for 2 stroke engine.
N Engine speed (rpm)
Work developed by the cylinder piston stroke length on piston in one cycle (stroke)
= Mean effective pressure cross sectional area of the cylinder piston stroke length
= P
m
A L in Nm
=
1000
LA P
m
in KNM.
Work developed by the Work developed by the
Cylinder in one minute = cylinder in one stroke
n
Speed Engine
=
1000
LA P
m

,
_
n
N
KNM / min
Work developed by one
1000
LA P
m

,
_
60
N
,
_
n
1
KNM / Sec
Cylinder in one sec
Work developed by x cylinders in one sec } =
n
x LAN P
m
1000 60
KNm/s
=
n
x LAN P
m
1000 60
KW.
If P
m
is expressed in bar,
IP =
,
_
n
x LAN P
m
60
100
Brake Power (B P): Power developed by the engine at the shaft output Brake power
is always lesser than IP. This is because some of the IP developed is lost to overcome
friction between the moving parts like piston, connecting rod and crank.
Friction Power (FP = Difference between the IP and BP.
FP = IP BP
T Torque developed due to net load on the engine, K.N.
W Net load applied, kg
R Radius of the brake down, m
N Engine speed, in rpm.
Torque developed T = 9.81 WR/1000 in KNM.
65
BP =
60
2 NT
in KW.
Mechanical Efficiency:
It indicates the efficiency of moving parts.
Efficiency m =
IP
BP
100
Thermal Efficiency:
Ratio of power output to the energy supplied by the combustion of fuel.
Thermal efficiency =
100
Supplied Heat
Output Power
Thermal Efficiency indicated =
f
cv me
IP
Supplied Heat
ower IndicatedP
) (
100

Efficiency Brake thermal =
10
) (
100

f
cv mf
BP
Supplied Heat
BP
M
f
= mass of fuel in kg.
(cv)
f
= calorific valve of fuel in KJ/kg..
Simple Problems
1. A Single cylinder, 2-stroke cycle IC engine has a piston of diameter 105 mm and
stroke length 120 mm. The mean effective pressure is 6 bar. If the crank shaft speed
is 1500 rpm. Calculate the indicated power of the engine.
Given Data:
Diameter (d) = 105 mm = 0.15m, area =
4
d
2
=
4
(0.105)
2
.
Stroke length (l) = 120 mm = 0.12 m. = 8.65 10
-3
mm
2
.
Mean effective Pressure (Pm) = 6 bar
2 stroke cycle so n = 1
Crank shaft speed (N) = 1500 rpm.
Single cylinder so x = 1
Indicated Power =
,
_

1
1
60
1500 10 65 . 8 12 . 0 6 100
3
.
IP = 15.58 KW.
2. A 4-stroke IC engine running at 450 r.p.m has a bore diameter of 100 mm and
stroke length 120 mm. The indicated diameter details are; area of the diagram 4 cm
2
.
Length of the indicated diameter 6.5 cm and the spring valve of the spring used is 10
bar/ cm. Calculate the IP or the engine.
66
Given Date:
Diameter (d) = 100 mm = 0.1 m.
Stroke length (l) = 120 mm = 0.12 m.
Speed N = 450 r.p.m.
Area of the diagram (a) = 4cm
2
= 4 10
-4
m
2
.
Length of the indicated diameter (l) = 6.5 cm = 0.065 m.
Spring constant = 10 bar/cm = 10 10
5
N/m
2
cm.
= 10 10
5
10
2
N/m
2
/m.
= 10 10
2
bar/m.
Mean effective pressure (Pm) =
l
s a
=
065 . 0
10 10 10 4
2 4

P
m
= 6.15 bar.
Indicated Power =
,
_

n
x LAN P
m
60
100
=
,
_

2
1
60
450 ) 1 . 0 (
4
) 12 . 0 ( 15 . 6 100
2
I P = 2.17 KW.
3. A four-stroke diesel engine has a piston diameter 250 mm and stroke 400 mm. The
mean effective pressure is 4 bar and speed is 500 r.p.m. The diameter of the brake
drum is 1000 mm and the effective brake load is 400 N. Find the indicated power,
Basic power, and Frictional power.
Given data:
4 stoke so n = 2.
Piston diameter (d) = 250 mm = 0.25
So area (A) =
4
(0.25)
2
= 0.049 m
2
.
Mean effective pressure (P
m
) = 4 bar
Speed (N) = 500 rpm.
Stroke (L) = 400 mm = 0.4 m
Diameter of the brake drum = 1000 mm = 1 m.
Brake load = 400 N
67
Indicated power =
,
_

n
x LAN P
m
60
100
,
_

2
1
60
500 049 . 0 4 . 0 4 100
IP = 32.66 KW.
Brake power (BP) =
60
2 NT
Torque developed T =
1000
radius load Net
in KNm.
T =
1000
5 . 0 400
T = 0.2 KNM.
Brake Power =
60
2 . 0 500 14 . 3 2
Brake Power = 10.47 KW.
Fractional Power (FP) = IP BP = 32.66 10.47
Fractional Power = 22.18 KW.
4. A single cylinder 4-stroke engine runs at 1000 rpm and has a bore of 115 mm and
has a stroke of 140 mm. The brake load is 60 N at 600 mm radius and mechanical
efficiency is 80 %. Calculate the brake power and mean effective pressure.
Given Data:
4 stoke, so n = 2
Speed (N) = 1000 rpm
Bore (d) = 115 mm = 0.115 m, so A =
4
(0.115)
2
= 0.020.
Stroke (l) = 140 mm = 0.14 m
Brake load = 60 N
Drum Radius = 600 mm = 0.6 m
Mechanical efficiency = 80 %
X = 1 (single cylinder)
Brake power (BP) =
60
2 NT
T =
1000
radius Drum load Brake
=
1000
6 . 0 60
68
T = 0.036 in KNm.
Brake Power =
60
036 . 0 1000 2
Brake power = 3.76 KW.
From mechanical efficiency we can find out the IP. Then from the IP we can
find the mean effective pressure.
Mechanical efficiency =
efficiency mechanical
power Brake
100
=
80
76 . 3
100
IP = 4.7 KW
IP =
,
_

n
x LAN P
m
60
100
P
m
=
,
_
n
x
N A L
IP
100
60
P
m
=
,
_
1
2
1000 0103 . 0 14 . 0 100
60 7 . 4
P
m
= 8.2 bar 3.88 bar.
5. A single cylinder, 4-stroke IC engine has a bore of 180 mm, stroke of 200 mm and
has a rated speed of 300 rpm. At full load, the torsion of the brake drum was 200 Nm
and 4 kg of fuel was consumed in one hour. If the calorific valve of the fuel is 42,000
KJ/kg. Calculate the brake power, Indicated Power, mechanical efficiency, Indicated
thermal efficiency, Brake thermal efficiency.
Given Data:
No. of cylinder = 1 so x = 1
Engine is 4 stroke so n = 2
Bore (d) = 180 mm = 0.18 m so A =
4
(0.18)
2
= 0.025 m
2
.
Speed (N) = 300 rpm.
Stroke (L) = 200 mm = 0.2 m
Torsion of the brake drum = 200 N M = 200 10
-3
KN m
Mass of the fuel (m) = 4 kg/hr.
=
3600
4
kg/sec = 1.11 11 10
-3
/ sec.
69
Brake Power (BP) =
60
10 200 300 14 . 3 2
60
2
3

NT
Brake Power = 6.283 KW.
As P
m
is not given with the data , assume P
m
= 7 bar.
Indicate Power =
,
_

n
x LAN P
m
60
100
=
,
_

2
1
60
300 025 . 0 2 . 0 7 100
Indicated Power = 8.75 KW.
Mechanical efficiency =
100
75 . 8
28 . 6
100
Power Indicated
Power Brake
Mechanical efficiency = 71.77 %
Indicated thermal efficiency =
f f
CV m
power Indicated
) (
100
=
42000 10 1111 . 1
100 75 . 8
3

Brake thermal efficiency = 13.45 %

NOTE:
* Instead of brake load, if the load on brake band and spring balance reading is given
in the data means,
Calculate, The net brake load = load on band spring balance.
In some other problems, instead of stroke and speed if average piston speed is
given, then,
Average piston speed V = 2 L N
UNIT IV
REFERIGERATION AND AIRCONDITIONING
Refrigeration:
It is the process of maintaining a body at a lower temperature than that of its
surroundings by artificial means. A machine, which produces cold, is known as
refrigerator. The process known as refrigeration. It has wide applications in chemical
industries, food industries, air-conditioning, domestic, medical, industrial fields and
etc.
Concepts of refrigeration:
1. Heat transfer is possible from a high temperature region to a low temperature
region.
70
2. Heat transfer is possible from a lower temperature system to higher
temperature surroundings by some external means as per the 2
nd
law of
thermodynamics.
3. The working fluid changes from vapour phase to liquid phase after heat
rejection and from liquid phase to vapour phase after heat absorption.
4. The change of phase of the working fluid from liquid phase to vapour phase
results in cooling effect.
Principle of Refrigeration:
It is based on 2
nd
law of thermo dynamics. As per Clausius Statement, heat
cannot flow from a body a lower temperature to a body at a higher temperature unless
assisted by some external means. In refrigeration, heat is continuously removed
from the system at a lower temperature and same heat is rejected to the surroundings
at a higher temperature. This is done by using an external source like a compressor
(or) a pump. Heat from a system at lower temperature is abstracted by using a
working fluid/medium called refrigerant. The refrigerant rejects the heat to the high
temperature surroundings. The refrigerant may be Freon, Ammonia, CO
2
, SO
2
,
hydrocarbon refrigerant, methylene chloride, Ethylene, Ethane, Air, and Water.
71
Parts of a Refrigerator:
Expansion value
1. Compressor (or) Pump:
To compress and circulate the low temperature and low pressure working fluid
into high temperature and high-pressure vapour. They are power absorbing
mechanical devices and need input power. An electrical motor supplies power to
these drives.
2. Condenser:
The high pressure, high temperature refrigerant entering from the compressor
rejects its heat to the surrounding atmosphere in the condenser. It consists of a series
of coils in the form of U tubes. The latent heat of the refrigerant is given to the
surrounding atmosphere, which results in change of phase of the refrigerant.
3. Expansion Value:
The high pressure and temperature liquid refrigerant expands in the expansion
valve to low pressure & low temperature two-phase mixture. The temperature of the
refrigerant drops in the expansion valve due to partial evaporation.
4. Evaporator:
It has cooling coils arranges in form of U tubes. The function of the
evaporator is to reduce the temperature of the refrigerator cabinet. The low
temperature two phase mixture of refrigerant passing through the evaporator coils
absorbs heat from the cabinet and changes into vapour phase.
This effect of cooling is also known as refrigerating effect.
Coefficient of Performance (COP):
The performance of a refrigerator is measured by COP.
input Work
body cold from removed Heat
COP
(or)
system the to plied Work
or refrigerat the from absorbed extracted Heat
COP
sup
) (

72
Condenser
Evaporator
Compressor (or) pump
(or)
2 1
2
T T
T
W
Q
absorbed Heat rejected Heat
absorbed Heat
COP
Ton of Refrigeration:
This is the unit of refrigeraton. It is defined as the amount of heat absorbed
(required) or to be removed to form one ton of ice in 24 hours, when the initial
temperature of the water is 0
o
C.
Time
heat Latent ice of Mass
ion refrigerat of ton

1
= 210 KJ/min = 3.5 KW.
Types of refrigeration systems:
1. Air refrigeration system:
Air is used as a refrigerant to absorb heat from the low temperature source and
reject the same into the high temperature sink.
2. Vapour Compression System:
Refrigerant vapour is compressed in a compressor, condensed in a condenser,
expanded in the expansion value and finally evaporated in the evaporator.
3. Vapour absorption system:
A combination of an absorbed and a refrigerant is used. The absorber absorbs
the refrigerant solution and gives up the vapour refrigerant when heated.
Vapour Compression refrigeration systems:
Refrigerant vapour absorbs heat from the cooling cabinet and rejects the same
heat in the condenser. Here the refrigerant used alternately, undergoes a change of
phase from vapour to liquid and liquid to vapour during the cycle. The latent heat of
vaporization is used for absorbing the heat at low temperature from the refrigerated
space and the same heat is rejected during the condensation at high pressure.
Analysis of the Cycle:
It consists of compression, a condensor, an expansion value and an evaporator.
Different processes are represented on the pressure-enthalpy (p h) diagram. The
evaporator and the condensor pressures are Pe & Pc respectively. Different processes
of the cycle are analysed briefly as follows.
73
Fig:
74
(1 2) Compression:
The low temperature vapour refrigerant at evaporator Pressure (Pe) leaving the
evaporator coils enters the compressor at point 1. Vapour gets compressed into high
pressure, high temperature. The electrical energy supplied to the motor to run the
compressor is the work input to the system.
(2 3) Condensation:
The latent heat gained by the refrigerant vapour from the cooling
compartment/evaporator is rejected to the surrounding medium (air). Due to the heat
transfer, high pressure vapour cools and changes into liquid phase. This shown by
point 3 on p h diagram.
(3 4) Expansion:
The liquid refrigerant at the saturation temperature corresponding to condenser
pressure enters the throttle value at state 3. Expansion of the refrigerant takes place in
the throttle value/Expansion value and both pressure & temperature of the refrigerant
drops to state 4. Partial evaporation of the liquid refrigerant takes place resulting in a
two phase mixture at the evaporator inlet.
(4 1) Evaporation:
The two phase liquid vapour mixture of the refrigent at evaporator pressure
enters the evaporator. The cold refrigerant mixture absorbs heat from the cooling
compartment of the refrigerator as it passes through the evaporator coils. Due to
absorption of heat, refrigerant changes into vapour from at the exit of the evaporator
75
coils. This process, which results in the cooling of the high temperature system, is
known as refrigerating effect. At the end of evaporation, the low temperature
refrigerant vapour enters the compressor at point 1. Thus the cycle repeats. Most
commonly used refrigerant in domestic refrigerators is Dichloro Difluromethane
(Freon 12) (or) R 12.
Fig: Vapour absorption refrigeration:
In this system, compressor is replaced by vapour generator, an absorber and a
liquid pump.
Functions of the absorber:
Condensing the refrigerant vapour at low pressure. Due to this weak solution
gets transformed into strong solution. The latent heat of condensation increases with
the temperature of solution. The heat of water mixture increases the temperature of
the solution. To absorb the refrigerant vapour by its week solution and to form a
strong solution using a suitable absorbent. Here we are using the absorbent is NH
3
because.
(i) NH
3
having high latent heat value
(ii) It is easily available
(iii) NH
3
readily dissolves in water and vapourises when its solution is
heated.
Dry ammonia will come from the evaporator that will dissolve in the cold
water contained in the absorber, which will produce a strong ammonia solution. That
will enter to the pump, the pressure will increase. That will enter the shell & coil type
76
of heat exchanger so the warm-strong solution is passed to the generator. The
generator changes the refrigent liquid into vapour at high pressure by using the
heating coil of generator. So the dry ammonia vapour will form. That will enter to the
condenser, now the temperature of the refrigerant is reduced. After that in expansion
valve pressure is reduced. So the two-phase mixture (liquid + Vapour) is formed in
the expansion valve. That will enter to the evaporator, at the evaporator; it absorbs
the heat and becomes vapour. Thus the cycle again repeats. Resulting in cooling
effect.
*Refrigeration Process of transferring heat from the substance to be cooled to
some other substances like water/air.
Sl.No Vapour Compression System Vapour absorption system
1 Refrigerant vapour is compressed Refrigerant vapour is
absorbed and heated
2 COP is high COP is low
3 The design capacity is limited since a single
compressor unit can produce up to 1000 tons of
refrigeration
The absorption systems can
be designed to capacities
well above 1000 tons
4 Noise is more due to the pressure of compressor Almost quiet in operation as
there is no compressor
5 Refrigerant used may be Freon-12, Freon-22 Refrignent used may be
NH
3
, water etc
6 Space requirement is more per ton capacity of
refrigeration
Space requirement is less
per ton capacity of
refrigeration
7 Maintenance cost is more due to wear & tear of
moving parts
Maintenance cost is less due
to less wear & tear
8 Presence of liquid at the compressor inlet gives
corrosion of moving parts
Presence of liquid at the
pump inlet does not give
major problem except
reducing refrigerating effect
9 Operating cost is high since electrical energy is
expensive
Electrical energy is required
to run the pump is relatively
less
Properties of a good refrigerant:
77
1. Boiling point: An ideal refrigerant should have low boiling temperature at
atmospheric pressure. So that it vapourises on absorbing heat from the body to be
cooled.
2. Freezing Point: Low freezing point is necessary for an ideal refrigerant
3. Condenser and Evaporator Pressure: For an ideal refrigerant, both condenser &
evaporator pressure should be positive and slightly higher than atmospheric pressure.
4. Critical temperature and pressure: It should be higher than the temperature in
the condenser for easy condensation of refrigerant vapour.
5. Latent heat of refrigerant: High latent heat of evaporation of the refrigerant at
evaporator temperature is desired as it increases the refrigerating effect per kg of
refrigerant circulated.
6.Non toxic (Toxic Gives injury to the human being)
7.Non-flammable in the presence of air
8. Corrosive Property: It must be chemically inert with the materials as well as inlet
in the presence of water and air.
9. Chemical Stability: It should be chemically stable & should not decompose at the
operating temperature of the system.
10. Specific volume: Low specific volume as it reduces the compressor size for the
same refrigeration capacity.
11. Specific heat of liquid & vapour: Low liquid specific heat & high vapour
specific heat as both tend to increase the refrigerating effect/kg of refrigerant
circulated.
12. It should have high thermal conductivity in both liquid & vapour phases
13. Viscosity: Low viscosity in both liquid & vapour phases. It results in better heat
transfer and low pumping power.
14. It must be odourless
15. The leakage of the refrigerant should be detected easily
16. It must have high capacity & Less power consumption per ton of refrigeration
17. It should be easily available with cheaper
Common Refrigerants:
1. Ammonia (NH
3
)
High latent heat, moderate working pressure & low freezing temperature of
about 77.8
o
C. It is used in industrial refrigeration. Boiling temperature is 33
o
.3
o
C.
78
COP is 4. Highly toxic, inflammable, corrosive. Not preferred for domestic
refrigerator.
2. Carbon dioxide (CO
2
)
Low specific volume so plant size is compact. It is used in ships where space
considerations are more important. It cheap, non corrosive, non flammable.
Boiling point is - 78. 5
o
C. It has high working pressure of about 70 bar.
3. Sulphur Dioxide (SO
2
):
Highly toxic & corrosive. Non-flammable. Boiling temperature is 25.6
o
C. It
has low working pressure of 4.5 bar. It is used in small plants & domestic
refrigerators.
4. Freon 12 (CCl
2
F
2
):
It is colourless, odourless, and non-toxic in nature. It is used in domestic
refrigerator; it has working pressure 8 bar. Cost is high, small specific volume
compared to NH
3
. It has boiling point is 29.8
o
C. Non-flammable, non explosive.
5. Freon 22 (CHClF
2
):
Low specific volume then Freon 12. Cost is high. Boiling temperature is
40.8
o
C. Small & medium commercial plants.
6. Air:
COP is 0.6. Not suitable for refrigeration system on commercial scale. It is
employed aircraft.
Air-Conditioning:
The process of treating air with respect to temperature, humidity, and
cleanliness and distribute it as per the requirement of the conditioned space. It is used
in public places, offices, and factories.
Classification:
1. Comfort air-conditioning: To provide the environment which is comfortable to
the occupants.
a. Summer air-conditioning: To reduce the sensible heat & water vapour content
of air by cooling & dehumidifying.
b. Winter air-conditioning: To increase the heat & water vapour content of air
by heating & humidifying
79
c. Year round air-conditioning: It controls the temperature & moisture content
of air throughout the year as per the changing condition of season.
2. Industrial air conditioning:
To provide the air at the required temperature and moisture content for
different industrial purpose. Psychrometry: A systematic study of air & water vapour
mixture and their measurements. Specific humidity/ humidity ratio: Ratio of mass of
water vapour to the mass of dry air present in a given volume of mixture. Absolute
humidity: Mass of water vapour present in a given volume of air.
Relative humidity:
vapour water of Mass
volume given a in vapour water of Mass
Principles of Air-Conditioning:
An air conditioner draws air from an indoor space to be cooled, cools it by the
refrigeration principles and discharges back into the same indoor space that needs to
be cooled.
Fig: Air conditioner
It consists of a compressor, a condenser, a capillary tube, an evaporator. The
condensor & evaporator fans driven by same motor. The evaporator fan & evaporator
coils of the unit always lie inside the building (or) space which is to be conditioned
condenser & the condenser fan of the unit projects outside the building (or) space to
enable heat transfer with the atmosphere. The high-pressure refrigerant leaving the
compressor enters the condenser coils. The latent heat of the refrigerant is given to
80
the surrounding atmosphere. Condensation takes place due to this heat transfer as the
condenser for draws air form the outside building and circulate it over the condenser
coils. The high-pressure liquid refrigenet enters the capillary tube, so pressure is
reduced. This cold refrigenet enters the evaporator coils. The evaporator fan
continuously draws hot air from the conditioned space and circulates it over the
evaporator coils. The hot air passing through the air filters comes in contact with cold
evaporators coils and exchanges its heat. The cool fresh air enters the conditioned
space. As a result, complete evaporation of the refrigerant takes place which enters
the compressor again. The cycle repeats again and again. Desired temperature inside
the room can be adjusted by thermostatic value.
Central Air Conditioning:
It is used in public building offices, stores, and theatres. All the components of
the system are grouped together in one central room and conditioned air is distributed
from the central room to the required places through ducts. The capacity of the
system is usually above 25 tons. It contains heating coils, cooling and dehumidifying
coils, sprays for cooling and Dehumidifying, blower with motor, air cleaning
equipments and control device.
PART B
UNIT V
LATHE AND DRILLING MACHINE
Lathe: It is a Father of all machine tool.
- In 1797, Hery Moudslay (Englishman) first designed the screw-cutting lathe.
Working Principle/ function:
To remove metal in the form of chips from a work piece to give the required
shape and size. It is accomplished by holding the work securely and rigidly on the
lathe and then rotating it against a cutting tool. Generally single point tool is used as a
cutting tool. Tool material should be harder than the work piece material.
Operations:
Turning, facing, thread cutting, cylindrical shapes it can also perform the
operations of other machine tool like drilling, boring, milling, gear cutting. Hence it
is called versatile machine tool.
81
Fig: Parts of a Lathe
82
1. Bed:
It is a base of the lathe. The headstock mounted on the left end, the carriage in
the middle and tail stock at the right end of the bed. It is having flat (or) inverted v
guide ways. The carriage and tailstock move along the bed.
Bed should satisfy the following conditions:
1. It should be sufficiently rigid to prevent deflection under tremendous cutting
pressure transmitted through the tool post and carriage of the lathe bed.
2. It must be massive with sufficient depth & width to absorb vibration.
2. Head Stock:
It carries hollow spindle. A live centre can be fitted into the hollow spindle.
The live centre rotates with work piece and hence called live centre. The spindle nose
is threaded. Chucks (or) face plates can be attached to the spindle nose. Spindle is
made up of carbon (or) N Chrome steel. This is usually of a large diameter to resist
bending and it should be perfectly aligned with the lathe axis and accurately machined
for producing work surface. It has a gear box (speed changer). Power is transmitted
from the headstock to the different parts of the lathe.
Speed Changing: In a lathe it is necessary to vary the speed of the work piece to suit
to different machining operations.
(i) Type of material to be cut: Hard and tough materials like C.I will require
slower speed than soft materials like brass (or) Al.
(ii) Type of cutting tool material used: Spindle speed may be increased while
using hard material like Tungsten Carbide.
(iii) Type of finish required: - Small depth of cut & work is rotated at higher
speed.
(iv) Type of cutting fluid used: N 40 oil. Proper selection of coolant and
lubricant permits higher spindle speed.
(v) The rigidity and condition of the machine: New and rigidity machine can
work at a speed high than old
(vi) Diameter of work: If it is high, it requires slower spindle speed.
(vii) Type of Operation: turning, boring, drilling requires higher spindle speed
than thread cutting, tapping (or) reaming.
83
3. Tails tack:
(i) It supports other end of work when it being machined centres
(ii) It hold tools for performing operations such as drilling, reaming, tapping.
It is mounted on the bed at right end. It is used to support the right end of the
Work Piece by means of a dead centre. Dead centre does not revolve with the Work
Piece and hence called dead centre. It can be moved by Hand Wheel. Upper casting
of body can be moved forward (or) away from the operator by means of the adjusting
screws.
4. Carriage:
It is supported on the lathe bed-ways and can move in a direction level to the
lathe axis. The carriage is used for giving various movements to the tool by hard and
by power. It carries saddle, cross slide, compound rest, Tool post, Apron.
(a) Saddle: It carries cross slide, compound rest (or) compound slide, tool post. It is
a H shaped casting fitted over the bed. It moves along the guide ways.
(b) Cross Slide: It can be moved by hand (or) power feed through carbon
mechanism. In order the move the cross slide, the feed screw is turned by rotating
wheel Transverse movement is obtained when the must mounted on the feed screw in
engaged with the binder screw of the Cross Slide.
(c) Compound rest: Top of Cross slide. It has circular base graduated in degrees.
For obtaining angular cut and short taper. It can be moved by hand wheel.
(d) Tool Post: - Over on the compound nest. Tool is clamped in the tool post
(i) Single screw tool post
(ii) Four bolt tool post
(iii) Open side tool post
(iv) Four way tool post
2 straps, 4 bolt. Loose-coiled springs are filtered to each bolt to keep the trace in
place and greatly facilitates the setting up of the tools.
(e) Apron: Lower part of the carriage. Attached to the saddle and hangs in front of
the bed. It contains clutches, gears, levers for moving the carriage by hand wheel (or)
presented.
84
5. Feed Mechanism:
Feed: This is defined as the movement of tool relative to the W/P.
LogititudinalTool moves parallel to axis of lathe, done by carriage.
Feed Cross Tools moves perpendicular to the carriage

Angular Tool moves angle to axis of lathe, done by carriage
Feed Rod: It is a large shaft, used to move the carriage, cross slide for turning, facing,
boring and all other operations except thread cutting. Power is transmitted from the
spindle to the apron gears through the feed rod via a large no.of gears.
6. Thread Cutting Mechanism:
Lead screw is a long threads shaft used to cut thread. All other times it is
disengaged from the gearbox and remains stationary. Rotation of the lead screw is
used to traverse the tool along the work to produce screw thread.
Types of Lathe:
1. Speed Lathe:
- Simple construction and operation. It has a headstock, tailstock, tool post
mounted on a adjustable slide.
- No feed box, lead screw (or) conventional type of carriage
- These lathes operations are carried out by very speed. So we called the
speed lathe
- Spindle speed range 1200 to 3600 rpm
- Tool is controlled by hand; depth of cut and thickness of chips is very
small.
2. Engine (or) Centre Lathe:
Early lathes are driven by Steam engine
In later it is driving by electric motor
Most widely used. Headstock of an engine lathe is much more robust
construction. It contains additional mechanism for driving the lathe spindle at
multiple speeds
Geared Head Lathe: It gets power from constant speed motor and all speed changes
are obtained shifting gears located in the headstock.
85
3. Bench Lathe:
- Small, mounted on the bench
- Similarly to engine lathe and operations also
- It is used for small, precision works.
4. Tool room Lathe: Wide range of spindle speed up to 2500 rpm. It is used for
precision work on tools, dies, Ganges and in machining accuracy is needed.
5. Capstan and turrent lathe:
Tailstock is replaced by hexagonal turret, on the face of which multiple tools
may be fitted and fed into the work in proper sequence.
- Semi automatic. It carries 6 Tools.
Advantages:
Several different types of operations can be done on a work piece without
resetting of work (or) tools and a no. Of identical parts can be produced in the
minimum time.
Automatic Lathe:
All the operations, tool movements are automatic
- High speed, heavy duty, mass production
- Changing of tool, feed, speed all are automatic
- After job complete, the machine will continue to repeat the cycles
producing identical parts
- An operator can attend the machine 5 (or) 6 at the same moment.
Definitions:
1. Speed (n) Rate of rotation of work piece, in rpm.
2. Cutting Speed (v) Speed at which metal is removed by the tool from the work
piece.
v = dn mm/ minute
d diameter of work piece in mm
3. Feed: Distance the tool advances for each revolution of the work piece, mm/rev.
Both cutting speed, feed is depends work piece material, cutting tool material,
surface finish required.
4. Depth of Cut: It is the perpendicular distance measured from the machined surface
to the uncut surface of work.
D
1
diameter of work before machining
86
D
2
diameter of work after machining
Depth of cut = (d
1
d
2
)/2
Specifications of a Lathe:
(i) Overall length of the bed
(ii) The largest diameter of work piece that can be rotated without touching the
guide ways of the bed
(iii) Height of centers from the bed
(iv) Maximum distance between live and dead centre
(v) Motor horse power and RPM
(vi) Spindle bore
(vii) Range of speeds
(viii) Tailstock sleeve travel
(ix) Lead screw pitch
Operations performed on Lathe:
1. Turning: Turning tool is fed similar to the lathe spindle axis and cylindrical
surface is produced.
2. Facing: Facing tool is perpendicular to the axis of rotation of the work piece.
Machining of the end of work piece to make it flat.
87
3. Knurling: In thumble of micrometer surface is not smoothy, rather cross (or)
diamond shaped pattern. This process by which such pattern called knurling.
It gives good gripping surface on the work piece. Knurling tool has one (or) 2
steel rollers. Rollers have teeth cut on their cylindrical surface. Very slow speed.
4. Drilling: Making hole in work piece Dead centre is taken out and drill is inserted
in it, when job rotates, the drill bit listed into work piece by turning tail stock hard
wheel.
5. Boring: Enlarging a hole produced by drilling boring tool fitted to the tool past. It
is used when correct size drill is not available.
6. Counter Boring: Enlarging a hole through certain distance from one end instead
of enlarging the whole drilled surface.
88
7. Chamfering: Beveling the extreme end of w/p. It is done to remove burrs and to
protect the end of the w/p from being damaged. It is done after drilling, boring,
turning, thread cutting. In thread cutting, if we done chambering only the nut may
pass freely threaded w/p.
8. Taper turning: Taper is the uniform change in the diameter of a work piece
measured along its length.
L
d D
Tan
2

L Length of taper
D Larger diameter of work piece
2 Angle of taper
It was done by 4 methods.
1. By swiveling the compound rest:
Here feeding the tool at an angle (half taper angle) to the axis of rotation of
work piece. Tool is mounted over on compound rest, which is attached to the circular
base graduated degrees. Tool is fed by hand by rotating the compound rest hand
wheel. Half taper angle.
D d
89
2. By form tool method:
It is for short work only. Taper turning form tool is broad nose tool having
straight cutting edge. It is set on to the work at half taper angle and is fed straight into
the work to generate tapered surface.
Fig:
3. By taper turning attachment:
Fig
:
Bracket/ frame is attached to the rear end of the lathe bed. It supports a guide
bar pivoted at the centre. Guide bar has graduation in degrees and may be swiveled
and set at the desired angle with the lathe axis. Cross slide is fastened to the guide
block by belt. When longitudinal feed is engaged, tool mounted on the cross slide
will follow the angular path, as the guide block will slide on the guide bar set are an
angle to the lathe axis. The guide bar must be set at half taper angle and taper
on the work must be converted in degrees.
Maximum angle through the guide bar 10 to 12
o
.
4. Taper turning by setting over tailstock:
Shift the axis of rotation of work piece is shifted (or) rotated at an angle to the
lathe axis. When the tailstock centre is set out to alignment, the work piece gets taper
turned because its axis will be inclined at an angle with the longitudinal movement of
90
the tool which will be similar to the lathe bed. It is suitable for less taper for long
work piece.
Thread Cutting:
(1) Pitch (P):
Distance from one point on one thread to the corresponding point on adjacent thread.
It is expressed in mm.
(2) Major Diameter (D): Outside diameter of a screwed part.
(3) Minor Diameter (d): Inner diameter of a screwed part.
(4) Depth of the thread (t):
2
d D
t

(5) Right hand thread Left hand thread

Threads sloping downwards Threads sloping downwards from
From top, from left to right. Top, from right to left.
DRILLING MACHINE
Drilling:
It is the operation of producing circular hole in the work piece by using a
rotating cutter called drill. As the machine exerts vertical pressure to originate a hole
it is loosely called a drill press. The hole is generated by the rotating edge of a cutting
tool known as the drill.
Types of drilling machine:
(i) Portable
Bench
(ii) Sensitive
Floor
Round column
(iii) Upright
Box column
Plain
(iv) Radial Semi universal
Universal
91
(v) Gang
(vi) Multiple spindle
(vii) Automatic
Vertical
(viii) Deep hole
Horizontal
Fig Sensitive Drilling machine, Bench Drilling machine:
92
It is a light, high-speed machine tool. If it is mounted on a bench it is called
bench type and if it is mounted on a floor it is called floor type. It can drill holes
from 1.5 mm to 15 mm. Speed 800 to 900 rpm.
Sensitive drilling machine The drill is fed into the work piece by hand only, so
that the operator can fed (or) sense the progress of the drill into the work piece. As
the operator senses the cutting action at any instant, it is called sensitive drilling
machine.
1. Column: It is a vertical cylindrical post standing on the base. It supports the table,
spindle head, motor and the driving mechanism.
2. Table: It supports the work piece. It has T-slots for clamping the work piece. It
can be moved vertically up (or) down along the column and can be clamped in any
position. It can also be swiveled.
3.Spindle head: It is provided at the top of the column with motor. The motor drives
the spindle through V belt and stepped cone pulleys. Sensitive hand feed is provided
by the drill feed handle through a rack and pinion, arrangement. The drill is brought
down highly to the location and with drawn after drilling. This is called quick
transverse feed.
Radial Drilling machine: It is the largest and most versatile of the drilling machine.
Drilling medium to large and heavy work piece.
Speed 20 to 1600 rpm
Feed 0.05 to 3mm
93
Radial Drilling machine
1. Base: It is a large rectangular casting. It supports a heavy, vertical cylindrical
column and other parts.
2. Column: It supports the radial arm. The motor for elevating the radial arm is
mounted on the column.
3. Radial arm: The radial arm can be swung (move to and fro/ oscillate) radially
about the column to any position over the work bed and hence the name radial
drilling machine. The radial arm can also be raised (or) lowered along the column by
means of an elevating screw to accommodate work piece of different heights. The
drill head and motor for driving the drill spindle are mounted on the radial arm.
94
4. Drill head: It has a motor, which drives the drill spindle. The drill head can be
adjusted radially. It can be moved along the guide ways of the radial arm. It can be
adjusted In the correct drilling position and then located.
5. Spindle speed and feed mechanism: A constant speed motor is mounted on the
drill head. By means of a gear train within the drill head, the speed of the spindle may
be varied. Thus multiple spindle speeds may be obtained to suit to various machine
conditions. Through another gear train provided within the drill head, different feeds
of the spindle are obtained feed is affected by the vertical movement of the drill into
the work. Quick traverse feed is provided by rack and pinion arrangement to bring
down the drill rapidly to the hole location and withdrawing it after drilling.
Specifications:
Length of the arm, column, diameter, maximum drilling radius, spindle speed
Drilling Machine Operations:
In addition to drilling, the following operations are carried out on a drilling
machine.
1. Reaming.
2. Boring
3. Counter-boring
4. Counter-sinking.
5. Spot facing.
6. Tapping
1. Reaming:
Reaming is the operation of finishing an already drilled hole using a reamer.
Fig shows a reaming operation. A reamer which matches the diameter of the already
existing hole is filled n to the machine spindle is used for this operation. The
operation is employed to manufacture interchangeable parts on mass production basis.
The material removed is very less and the drilled whole surfaces are finished with
high accuracy. The accuracy of a reamed hole may be within t 0.005 mm.
95
2. Boring:
Boring is the operation of enlarging an already drilled hole using a boring tool.
Fig. Shows a typical single point bring tool. The boring tool is field to the boring bar
which in tern fits into the machine spindle. The speed of rotation of a boring tool is
lesser than the speed of rotation of a corresponding reamer. Holes with accuracy of t
0.00125 mm can be obtained by this operation.
3. Counter-Boring:
Counter-boring is the operation of enlarging an already drilled hole to the
required depth using a counter bore. A multi-point counter-boring tool with a pilot
fixed to the drill spindle generates a shoulder on the work as shown in figure. The
tool is guided by the pilot, which extends beyond the end of the acting edges of the
tool. The size of the pilot is always equal to the size of the already existing hole with
96
some clearance. The size of the pilot is different and the pilots can be interchangeable
for enlarging holes of different sizes.
4. Counter-sinking:
Counter sinking is the process of generating a beveled or a conical shape at
the end of an already drilled hole. A counter sinking operation using a counter sink
tool is shown in fig. The speed of rotation of the counter sink tool is about one-half
the speed of rotation of a drilling tool of corresponding size. The process can be
employed as an effective means of deburring the holes. Counter sunk screws can be
fitted perfectly into the counter sunk holes. This provides a perfect plane surface on
the top of the work piece.
5. Spot Facing:
Spot facing is the process of generating a flat and finished surface around an
already existing hole. Fig. Shows spot facing operation using two different types of
spot facing tools. The flat surface generated provided a perfect platform or seat for a
screws and bolt heads. The operation can also be done using a counter-boring tool is
shown in fig.
97
6. Tapping:
Tapping is a machining process of producing internal threads in an already
existing hole. A tap with the desired thread profile on the periphery is used as a
cutting tool and the threads are generated by imparting a combined rotary and axial
motion to the tap. Fig. Shows tapping operation which uses a fluted threaded tool
called tap. A tap is a cutting tool with threads cut accurately on its periphery. These
threads are hardened and ground and act as cutting edges. The top removes metal
when screwed into the hole and generates internal threads. A hole of required size in
which internal threads are to be generated is drilled using a twist drill. The drill
spindle is fitted with a tap and the feeding is done by preparing the feed lever similar
to conventional drilling operation. During this operation spindle speed should be
much lower than that used in conventional drilling.
Twist Drill Nomenclature:
98
Figure shows a twist drill. The drill consists of mainly two parts-body and
shank. Both are separated by a neck. Two long and diametrically opposite helical
grooves called flutes run throughout the length of the drill.
99
UNIT VI
Grinding:
Grinding is a metal cutting operation performed by means of a rotating
abrosive wheel that acts as a cutting tool. By grinding, we can obtain very good
surface finish quality, high dimensional accuracy in the work piece. We can get good
finish for very hard surfaces also.
Principle of Operation:
Grinding wheel is made of small abrasive particles held together by bonding
material. The abrasive particles are very hard. These abrasive particles (or) grains
project on the surface of the wheel. The wheel is rotated and the work is fed against
the wheel. The abrasive particles are moved with very high velocity and shear off
small metal particles from the work piece. While machining, the blunt abrasive grains
will be released from the wheel surface. In their place, new abrasive grains project
from the surface of the wheel. This is called the self-sharpening of the grinding
wheel. It removes metal, usually 0.25 to 0.5 mm. Accuracy of dimension
0.000025 mm.
Abrasives:
Abrasive are hard substances, which are used as cutting edges in the grinding
wheel. It is small size. It should be pure and have uniform physical properties of
hardness,, toughness and resistance to structure to be useful in manufacturing grinding
wheels.
100
Types of abrasives:
A. Natural abrasive: They are prepared from the abrasive grains obtaining in nature
and Small percentages of grinding wheels are produced from natural abrasives.
1. Sandstone (or) solid quartz: It is soft. So harder than quartz material cannot be
abraded.
2. Emery: - It is natural Al
2
O
3
the chemical composition of this is as follows.
- 55 to 65 % Al
2
O
3
+ Iron Oxide (Fe
2
O
3
) + impurities.
3. Corundum: (75 to 95% Al
2
O
3
+ impurities)
Both emery and corundum are harder and better abrasive action than quartz.
4. Diamond: It is used to grind cemented carbide tools and to make lapping
compound.
B. Artificial abrasive:
1. Silicon Carbide (Sic): - 56% silica sand, 34% powdered coke, 2% salt, 12%
sawdust in a long, rectangular electric furnace of the resistance type that is built up of
loose brickwork.
2 Types of Sic:
(i) Green grit 97 % Sic
(ii) Black grit 95% Sic
Materials:
Low tensile strength such as cemented carbides, stone, ceramic materials,
Gray C.I, brass, bronze, Cu, Al vulcanized rubber. It is manufactured under the trade
nature of carborundum, carbolon, Electroton. It is denoted by S.
2. Aluminum Oxide (Al
2
O
3
):
It is manufactured by heating mineral bauxite, a hydrated Al
2
O
3
clay
containing silica, iron oxide, titanium oxide, etc, mixed with ground coke and iron
borings in arc type electric furnace. Material: Al
2
O
3
is tough and not easily fractured,
so it is better adopted to grinding materials of high tensile strength, such as most
steels, carbon steels, high speed steels, Annealed malleable iron, Wrought iron, tough
bronzes. Brand name Aloxide, Alundum, Borolon, Electrite, Abrasite. Denoted by
A. Bond It is an adhesive substance used to hold absorb grains together in the
grinding wheel.
Types of Bond:
101
1. Vitrified bond (V):
Clay and abrasive grains are mixed thoroughly with water. This mixture is
poured into moulds and dried. After drying the material is cut to the correct size and
shape. Then it is heated to about 700
o
C. During heating, the clay gets fuse. The fused
clay forms a strong bond with abrasive grains. It is strong. Not affected by acids and
alkaline, 75% of the wheel manufactured by this bond.
2.Silicate bond (S):
It consists of abrasive grains and silicate of soda. This mixture is packed into
moulds and dried. After drying the moulded metal is kept in furnace at 250
o
C for
several days. It is waterproof. Abrasive grains are released more readily. Cutting
tools, cutting blades.
3. Resinoid bond (B):
It consists of abrasive grains and synthetic resin. Moulds and heated to 200
o
C.
Due to this temperature resin forms bond. These wheels run at higher speed. Rough
grinding of iron and steel castings are made by resinoid bond.
4. Rubber bond (R):
It consists of abrasive grains liquid rubber and sulphur. This mixture is rolled
into sheets of required thickness. Wheels are most elastic and very food surface
finish. Cutting of metal bar, required wheels in centreless grinding are made by
rubber bond.
5. Shellac bond (E):
It consists of abrasive grains and shellac. Heated, pressed into moulds. Again
heat 150
o
C in furnace for four hours. It is good elasticity similar to rubber wheel.
Applications:
- Finishing iron castings and steel rolls.
- Very thin wheels also used for cutting off operation.
6. Oxychloride bond (O):
Abrasive grains and MgCl
2
/Mgo, it is pressed into moulded and dried. It is
heated in a furnace. This bond is used to make disc shaped wheels.
102
\
Grinding Machine
Rough grinding Precision grinding
a) Floor stand grinders
b) Bench grinders
c) Portable grinders
d) Abrasive belt grinders
e) Swing frame grinders Cylindrical Internal Surface Tool &
Cutter
(i) Centre type i) chucking Reciprocating Universal
Plain type table horizontal
spindle

(ii) Centre-type planetary Reciprocating table Special
Universal type vertical spindle.

(iii) Centreless centreless Rotarytable speed grinder
horizontal
spindle

Rotary-table vertical Spindle
103
Centreless Grinding:
It is a method of grinding exterior cylindrical tapered and formed surfaces on
work piece that are not held and rotated on centres. It has a grinding wheel and
regulating wheel. These wheels having separate driving motors. Both wheels rotate in
the same direction. The Grinding wheel is larger and Regulating wheel is smaller and
rotated at slow speed. There is a work rest between the wheels. Work piece is placed
over the work rest between grinding wheel and regulating wheel both and work rest
move together towards grinding wheel. So the work on the work rest is pressed
against the Grinding wheel surface. By friction Regulating wheel, makes the work
piece to rotate. The rotating work piece is pressed between the two wheels. So the
Grinding wheel grinds the work piece. Regulating wheel is not remove metal as it
rotates slowly.
Here the work is not held between centres. Work piece is placed in a floating
condition between Grinding wheel and Regulating wheel .So it is called centre-less
grinding. The work piece is fed in the following methods:
The axial movement of the work past the Grinding wheel is obtained by
tilting the R.W ar a slight angle from horizontal. An angular adjustment of 0 to 8 (or)
10 degrees is provided in the m/c for this purpose.
S = d n Sin () Angle of indication of wheel.
Revolutions per min.
Diameter of regulating wheel in mm
Feed in mm/min
104
Advantages:
(i) Work piece is supported throughout the entire length by work rests small diameter
work piece with long lengths can be ground without any deflection.
(ii) Size of work piece can be controlled easily by the Regulating wheel
(iii) It is continuous process. So it is suitable for mass production
(iv) Work holding devices like chucks; drive dogs, mandrel, centres etc are not
needed
(v) Less skilled worker is sufficient
(vi) Heavy cut can be taken with minimum distortion/overheating
Disadvantages:
(i) Work piece with steps and multiple diameters cannot be ground easily
(ii) Cylindrical surface with a key way (or) holes cannot be ground
(iii) Grinding outside diameter of hollow work piece is not done with reference to the
inside diameter. So these two diameters may not be concentric.
Surface Grinding:
It is used to grind flat and plane surfaces. It is also used to grind irregular,
curved, tapered and other formed surfaces, machining guide ways, piston rings,
valves, dies, and surface plates.
Fig Horizontal spindle reciprocating table surface grinder
The work piece clamped on the table reciprocates under the rotating grinding
wheel. The work piece may be held by magnetic chuck (or) fixture. The periphery of
the grinding wheel does the grinding. Cross feed is given to the work piece after
105
energy stroke. After the full width of work piece is ground, the wheel head is lowered
downwards to give the depth of cut.
Fig. Cylindrical Grinding:
It is a one of the precision grinding. All precision grinders used for grinding
cylindrical bores, gauges, tools cutters, machine guide ways, threads, cylindrical pins,
gears, cams etc. Metal removal is very less and good surface finish.
Main Parts: Base, Tables, Headstock and tailstock and Wheel head.
Base (or) Bed: It rests on the floor and supports all other parts. On the top of the bed
there are length wise machined guide ways.
Tables: Lower, Upper table. Lower table slides over the guide ways of the bed. This
sliding movement gives the transverse/longitudinal feed to the work piece. This
movement can be obtained by hand wheel. The upper table is mounted on the lower
sliding table. The upper table is pivoted at its centre. It can be swiveled and clamped
in position over the lower table. Maximum angle of swing is 10
o
on either side. The
swiveling is used for grinding tapers. Upper table having lengthwise T slots for
fitting the headstock and tailstock.
Headstock and Tailstock: Both are mounted on the upper table. Work piece is held
between these two. W/p is held using a chuck in the headstock.
Wheel head: It carries grinding wheel and the wheel driving motor. Wheel head is
placed over the bed at its backside. Wheel head is mounted on a slide. It can be
moved perpendicular to the table guide ways. This movement is the cross feed can be
given either by hand (or) by power.
106
Cutting speed = DN mm/ min, P diameter of work piece in mm
N speed of work piece in rpm.
MILLING MACHINE:
Milling is a machining process in which, metal is removed in the form of chips by a
rotating multipoint cutter.
Principle of Operation: The work piece is fed to the cutter. The cutter rotates at a
higher speed and it removes metal at a very fast rate because of the multiple cutting
edges. One or more no. Of cutters can be used at a time compare than other machine
tools, milling machine gives accuracy and better surface finish. The milling machine
has a rotating cutter. The cutter is mounted on a rotating spindle (or) arbor. The
cutter has multiple cutting edges. Work piece is clamped in the table. The cutter
rotates at the required cutting speed. The work piece is fed slowly past the cutter.
The feed may be longitudinal cross wise (or) vertical. Angular feed also is given in
certain milling machine.
As the work is fed, the cutting edges remove metal from the work piece in the
form of chips. During cutting, each cutting edge cuts the metal only during a part of
the cutter revolution. So in the remaining part of cutter revolution the cutting edge
rotates idle and can cool off. Therefore the stress on the cutting edge is not
continuous. So the cutting will be effective.
Types of milling machine:

Milling Machine
Column & Manufacturing Special type Planer
type
Knee type or fixed bed type
(i) Plain/ horizontal (i) Simplex (i) Rotary table
(ii) Vertical (ii) Duplex (ii) Drum
(iii) Hand (iii) Triplex (iii) Planetary
(iv) Universal (iv) Pantograph
(v) Omuniversal
107
Plain (or) Horizontal milling machine:
Here spindle of the machine is horizontal.
(1) Base: It is the foundation of the machine. It supports all other parts. It serves as
the reservoir for the cutting fluid.
(2) Column: It is supported for knee, Arbor and over arm. It consists motor, driving
mechanism, spindle.
(3) Knee: It projects from column and moves up and down on the vertical guide
ways of the column face. It supports the saddle and table.
(4) Saddle: It slides on the guide ways on the top of the knee. It carries the table. The
top of the saddle has horizontal guide ways similar to the face of the column. The
table travels longitudinally along these guide ways.
(5) Table: It is provided with T slots for clamping the work. It rests on the saddle.
Vertical movement of knee, cross feed movement of the saddle and the longitudinal
movement of the table can be obtained by hand (or) power.
(6) Over arm: It is mounted on the top of the column. It gives support for the other
end of arbor.
108
(7) Spindle: It projects from column face. It is provided with a tapered hole for
inserting the arbor.
(8) Arbor: Milling cutters are mounted over on the Arbor. The Arbor is provided
with several spaces (or) collars for fixing the cutter exactly where desired.
(9) Spindle drive: It gets power from combination of belts, gears.
Salient features:
It can hold one (or) more no.of cutters at a time. So it is used in wide
application of production work. Better surface finish and accuracy while doing heavy
cut also. It is used for slotting, key way cutting, grooving, machining concave (or)
convex surface, cutting spur and helical gear, forming of cam profile.
Fig: Vertical milling machine:
Table: movement of the table is perpendicular to the spindle axis.
Spindle head: spindle head can be swiveled at an angle for machining the angular
surface.
Uses: For machining grooves, flat surfaces, slots. End milling cutter and face milling
cutter is used.
Here the spindle head is vertical and the axis of the spindle is perpendicular to
the worktable. In this machine, unlike the horizontal milling machine, the w/p can be
109
moved only in the horizontal plane both longitudinally and transverse direction, but
not vertically. Rotating cutter can be raised lowered to give the required depth of cut.
Milling Process: The various milling process performed by different milling cutters.
1. Up milling/Conventional milling: It is the process of removing metal by a milling
cutter rotated against the direction of travel of the work piece. Metal is removed when
the cutter teeth move upwards and the cutter rotates opposite direction of feed of the
w/p. Chip thickness is minimum at the beginning of the cut and it reaches the
maximum at the end of the cut. The cutting action of the teeth is upwards. Hence it
will try to lift the w/p from the vise.
- Machined surface is not very smooth
- Applying the coolant in the cutting edge also difficult
2. Down milling/Climb milling: Metal is removed when the cutter teeth move up
words and the cutter rotates in the same direction as the travel of the work piece. Here
chip thickness maximum at the beginning of the cut and it decreases to the minimum
at the end of the rod. Cutting action of the teeth press the work downwards. This
helps clamping the work. It gives good surface finish
- Coolant can be poured directly at the cutting edge.
The chips accumulate at the back of the cutter away from the cutting zone. So
chips can be removed easily.
Milling Operations:
(i) Plain milling / slab milling
(ii) Face milling
(iii) Side milling
(iv) Straddle milling
(v) End milling
(vi) Angular milling
(vii) Gang milling
(viii) Saw milling
(ix) T-slot milling
(x) Dovetail milling
(xi) Form milling
(xii) Gear Cutting
110
(i) Plain (or) Slab milling: It is the operation of producing plain, flat and horizontal
surfaces parallel to the axis of the rotation of the cutter. The cutter used is called plain
milling cutter.
(ii) Slot milling: It is the operation of producing grooves, slots keyways using an end
mill cutter. It is produced by T slot milling cutter is a special form of end mill cutter.
First a plain slot is produced by end mill. Then T slot cutter is fed from the end of
work piece.
(iii) Face milling: Milling flat surfaces on the face of the work piece. It is done by
face milling cutter rotated about an axis perpendicular to the work piece.
(iv) Side milling: Producing flat vertical surface on the side of the work piece using
side milling cutter.
(v) Straddle milling: Producing flat vertical surfaces on both side of the work piece
simultaneously by using two side milling cutter.
(vi) End milling: Producing flat surface, which may be horizontal, vertical inclimed
on the table.
(vii) Angular milling: Angular grooves producing angular surface on a work piece.
(viii) Gang milling: Combination of 2 (or) more cutters. Cutters are mounted
common arbor, for milling no.of flat, horizontal, vertical surface of a work piece
simultaneously.
(ix) Saw milling: Producing narrow slots (or) grooves on a w/p by using saw cutter.
(x) Dovetail milling: Producing dovetails shape
(xi) Form milling: For producing concave and convex surface
(xii) Gear Cutting:
Form Cutter
Indenting dividing the periphery of work piece into many no. Of equal parts.
Indexing types:
(i) Direct 24/N (ii) Simple 40/N (iii) Compound 40/N (iv) Differential (v)
Angular Angular displacement in degree.
Milling Cutters: It mounted on the arbor (or) connected directly to the spindle nose.
Cutters held directly on the spindle have straight/taped shank ends.
111
UNIT VII
JOINING PROCESS, LUBRICATION AND BEARINGS
SOLDERING, BRAZING AND WELDING
Metal Fabrication:
Soldering:
Process of joining two pieces of metal by adding fusible alloy/metal is called
soldering. That fusible alloy, metal is called solder. Solder acts as a filler rod.
Process:
Soldering iron is used to heat the work piece to just above the melt point of
solder. Irons are available with heating elements ranging from 25 to 150 W and 240 v,
single phase supply. 25 w iron with 5/32 diameter bit is satisfactory for electronic
work, small size metal. 80 w iron with 3/8 diameter bit is satisfactory for medium
sized metal one. Shank is the heating element. Shank is a steel rod. Bit is used to carry
the current from shank to the work piece. It is made up of Cu. So it can conduct
current easily.
Solder is melted and the molten solder is picked up by any tip of the soldering
iron and is deposited along the joint. The molten solder joins the work piece and
solidifies. A good joint should use less solder and good adhesion. Before joining the
metal, we preheat the metal. Clamp: when the work piece is being soldered together
and particularly while the joint is cooling. This clamp must not be allowed to move.
Applications: Joining wires, repairing radiators, thin sheet of metal.
Solder : It is an Alloy of tin and lead. It has melting point 150 350
o
C. Common
proportion of solder: 3 parts of tin and 2 parts of lead. 40% of tin and 60 % lead
repairing Cu, brass, steel, tin plate. 60% of tin & 40% of Lead More expensive.
Too strong. Used for electronic work.
Flux:
(i) To remove the oxide from the metal being soldered
(ii) Prevent the re oxidization to the metal being soldered.
Types:
112
(i) Inorganic (or) acid corrosive flux:
Zn and NH
4
Cl
2
.
Types of Soldering:
Soft Soldering: In soft soldering the solder is made of an alloy of lead and tin and the
melting point is around 150 to 350
o
C.
Hard soldering: In hot soldering the solder s made of an alloy of Cu and Zn having
the melting point above 900
o
C. It is stronger than soft soldering.
Fluxes for Soldering:
Material Flux
Iron, Cu, Zn ZnCl
2
.
Lead Hcl
Steel salt ammonia
Brass resin
Tin Tallow
Brazing:
It is the process of joining two similar/ dissimilar metals by a fusible alloy
called Spelter.
Spelter : It is the filler material used in brazing and it is a harder filler rod, it having
melting point 600
o
C which is below the melt point of material.
Cu alloys Cu, Tin, Zn
Filler
Metal
Silver alloy silver and Cu.
Process:
Work piece cleaning can be done by, brushing, filing, grinding, chemical
cleaning by using some acids. So we can remove oil, dirt, grease, and rust from the
surface.
113
Fig: Joining the Pipes:
Brazing tip
Torch
Filler rod (Spelter)
The pasting of Borax powder and water are applied to the surfaces to be
brazed before they are heated. Heating done by oxy-acetylene flame (or) furnace. Flux
applied on the work surfaces melts and flows in the gap between surfaces when the
spelter is applied to the joint, it is melted. The molten spelter flows in the gap
between the work piece and solidifies, forming and hard brazed joint.
Flux: Borax, fluoride, chloride and boric acid.
Types:
(i) Torch: Oxy Acetylene neutral flame is using
(ii) Dip brazing: Parts are dipped into molten filler metal. Filler metal flows into the
joint. It is used for joining small metal strips. Suitable holding is necessary.
(iii) Furnace brazing: The filler metal melted by furnace.
Applications:
Thin sections, dissimilar metals, joining pipes, carbide tips on tool holders,
repairing radiators, heat exchangers materials like brass, bronze, Cu steel, stainless
steel.
- Al brazed by Al alloy
114
N/P
Soldering Brazing
1. Filler metal
2. Classifications
3. Strength
4. Flux
5. Applications
Solder
It is a alloy of tin & lead
It having melting point <
427
o
C
Soft, hard
Low
ZnCl
2
, Hcl, Alcohol and
resin.
Connections in electrical
and electronic instruments
Spelter
It is Cu base alloy (or)
silver base alloy
Melting point > 427
o
C
Torch, Dip, furnace
High
Borox, boric acid,
Chloride, Fluoride.
Pipe fittings, carbide tips
on tools.
Welding:
Process of joining similar metals by the application of heat. It can be done
with/without the application of pressure and with/without addition of filler metal,
called electrode.
Applications:
1. Automobile:
(i) Arc welded can wheels
(ii) Steel rear axle housing
(iii) Frame side rail
(iv) Automobile frame, bracket
115
2. Aircraft:
Turbine frame for jet engine. Rocket motor fuel and oxidizer tanks
3. Storage tanks Oil, gas, and water
4. Bridges Section length, shop
5. Buildings Trusses, Column base plate, erection of structure
6. Pressure vessel and tanks: Shell construction, joining of nozzle to the sheel
7. Piping and pipelines: Open pipe joint, rolled plate piping, oil, gas, gasoline
pipelines.
8. Ships shade frames
9. Trucks & Trailers
10. Machine tools frames, cutting tools and dies
11. Earth moving machine, Cranes
12. Fabrication of jigs, fixtures, clamps
13. Repair of broken and damaged components and machinery such as tools, punches,
dies, gears, machine tool frame, pressing, shearing
14. Boilers, furnitures
15. Pipe line fabrication in thermal plant
Types: Welding
Fusion (or) Non-pressure Welding Plastic (or) Pressure Welding
Resistance Welding
Gas Arc 1. Spot
2. Seam
(i) Air-acetylene (i) TIG 3. Projection
(ii) Oxy acetylene (ii) MIG 4. Flash butt
(iii) Oxy hydrogen (H
2
) (iii) Carbon arc 5. resistance butt
(iv) Pressure gas (iv) Submerged arc 6. Percussion
(v) Plasma arc 7. High frequency
(vi) Shield metal arc resistance welding.
(vii) Flux cored
(viii) Electroslog and electro gas.
116
Gas Welding It is a fusion welding process. It joins metals, using the heat of
combustion of an O
2
/air and fuel gas (acetylene, H
2
, propane, butane) mixture. The
required heat to melt the metal parts is supplied by a high temperature flame obtained
by a mixture of the gases. Welding torch: The gases are mixed proper proportions in
a welding blowpipe. Oxy-acetylene Welding: Temperature of Oxy-acetylene flame
3200
o
C. We can weld sheets and plates thickness is 2 to 50 mm.
Filler rod (or) Welding rod:
It is used to supply additional metal to make the joint. It is used to assist
filling the gap. Chemical Composition is neat to the base metal. Welding filler rod
available in a variety composition and sizes.
If thickness < 15 mm, the filler rod is not required
If thickness > 15 mm, the filler rod is not required.
Material: Low C steel alloying elements such as Ni (or) Ch (or) Mn can be added
to the filler rod to increase the strength of the joint. Diameter of rod is 0.3 to 12 mm
it depends work piece thickness.
Flux:
Gas Welding equipment:
(i) Gas Cylinder
(ii) Pressure regulator
(iii) Pressure gauge
(iv) Welding torch
(v) Hoses
(vi) Safety devices
117
Fig: Gas Welding Equipment
Gas Cylinder:
O
2
, C
2
H
2
are stored under pressure in separate cylinders
O
2
Cylinder colour black C
2
H
2
Cylinder colour maroon
Pressure of O
2
15,000 KN/m
2
Pressure of C
2
H
2
1,600KN/m
2
Pressure Regulator:
To regulate the proportion of the gases and control working pressure of the
gases. Pressure of the gas depends on the thickness of metal to be welded.
3. Pressure gauges:
2. Pressure gauges on each cylinder
One shows cylinder pressure
Another shows working pressure for welding
4. Welding torch:
O
2
,C
2
H
2
are mixed in the desired volume
Mixture is ignited at the end of its tip
2 control values are used to control the quantity of O
2
,C
2
H
2
.
5. Hoses:
O
2
Hose colour Black C
2
H
2
hose colour Red
6. Safety devices:
Leather gloves protect hands from burning and injures, goggles protect eyes
from heat and ultraviolet rays.
118
Types of Flame:
It depends on the gas compositions; flame temperature is not constant
throughout the flame. Flame must be proper size, shape and condition in order to
operate the maximum efficiency.
1. Neutral Flame: Flame Temperature 3260
o
C (ratio 1:1)
Fig:
Neutral / balance flame produced by equal volume of O
2
& C
2
H
2
.
It is used for steel, S.S, C.I, Cu, Al.
It is used for cutting operations also.
3.Oxidising Flame: (Excess O
2
) Flame Temperature 3482
o
C

Here outer flame is much shorter. We get high temperature of oxidizing flame
(O
2
: C
2
H
2
=1.5:1). It tends to combine with many metals to form hard, brittle, low
strength oxides. Due to the excess of O
2
the weld bead appearance is dirty. It is not
used for steel. Used for Cu and Zn based metals. Cu, brass (zinc 25 to 40% Cu),
bronze, tin.
3. Carburizing (or) reducing Flame:

Flame temperature 3038
o
C
O
2
:C
2
H
2
0.9:1
Between luminous cone and outer envelope, there is an intermediate cone of
white colour.
119
- Alloy steels, Al
4. Chemistry of Oxy-acetylene Flame:
Oxy acetylene flame temperature 3100
o
C 3300
o
C
Centre of the heat concentration is just extreme tip of the white cone.
Combustion of gas mixture:
1
st
Stage:
(i) 2C
2
H
2
+ 2O
2
4CO + 2H
2
2
nd
Stage Co uses O
2
supplied from the air surrounding.
4 Co + 2H
2
+ 3O
2
4 CO
2
+ 2H
2
O (Water vapour)
Combining (i) and (ii) equations
2C
2
H
2
+ 5O
2
4 CO
2
+ 2H
2
O
Whenever open, first C
2
H
2
value will open and after words O
2
value open, we
will increase gradually. First we get carburising flame, Due to O
2
we get oxidizing
flame after words we get the neutral flame.
After welded, close C
2
H
2
valve, O
2
valve.
Close O
2
cylinder valve. Release the pressure on the hose.
Flux: During welding, flux chemically reacts with oxides and slag is formed that
floats and covers the top of the molten metal and helps keep out atmospheric O
2
, other
gases. After welding, the slag over on the welded joint can be removed by chipping,
filing (or) grinding.
Fluxes are in the form of powder, paste, and liquid.
Material Fluxes
1. Steel, Ni Nil
2.C.I Boric acid, soda ash, Nacl
3. S.S boric acid, soda ash, fluorspar
4. Al & Al alloys Lithium chloride, potassium chloride
5. Mg and Mg alloys Nacl
2
, Potassium fluoride, MgCl
2
, Bacl
2
Advantages of Gas Welding:
1. Most versatile because it can be used for welding, flame cutting, brazing and pre-
heating
2. Cost of equipment and maintenance cost is low
3. Welder can control the source heat and filler rod metal deposition results
120
4. Welding flame can be controlled easily by using the valves
Disadvantages:
1. Strength of the joint is low
2. Strong and handling of gas cylinder need more care
3. Process is slower compare than arc welding. Heavy sections it is not economically
4. Refractory metals (eg: Tungsten, molybdenum, tantalum)
5. O
2
, C
2
H
2
gases are expressive.
Arc Welding:
Arc is produced between electrode and work piece. Electrical energy is
converted into heat energy.
Fig: Manual Metal arc Welding:
Metal rod is used as electrode. Arc is established between ends of electrode also.
Depth of fusion:
The depth to which the metal is melted and is deposited along the joint. Flux
coated electrode is preferred because
(i) To establish and maintain the arc
(ii) It protects molten metal from O
2
, N
2
.
121
(iii) It removes impurities from melten metal and forms slag.
Arc Length: Distance between electrodes tips and work piece. Usually 3 to 4 mm.
Temperature in arc around 6000
o
C Electrode kept at 70
o
inclination.
Arc Crater: At the end of work piece while complete the welding (or) in between the
work piece where one electrode finishes and welding is restarted with new electrode.
Because of starting and finishing the welding we should the increase current, voltage
gradually. So it occurs.
D.C Generator/ A.C. Transformer
Cable 2 numbers [one for work piece, one for electrode]
Electrode/filler rod, electrode holder, chipping hammer, wire brush, safety devices-
goggles, hard gloves.
A.C Transformer D.C. Generator
3 Phase, 50 cycles /sec 3 Phase, 50 cycles/se
Current 50 to 400 A Current 125 to 600 A
Voltage 50 to 90 v Voltage 30 to 80 v
Energy consumption 4 KWh/kg Energy consumption 6 to 10
kwh/kg.
3 mm 25 A 6 mm 70 A 10 mm 125 A
If diameter of electrode increases, the current also increases.
Electrode Holder: Just of the holder, which retains the electrode, remain under
spring pressure.
Sl.No DC AC
1 Ferrous and non-ferrous
metals
Not suitable for non-ferrous
2 Stability of arc is more Less
3 Non-coated bare electrodes Only coated electrodes can be used
4 Preferred for thin sections Not preferred. It is preferable for thicker
section
122
Electrode
Non Consummable (Refractory) Consummable
(metallic)
Carbon (or) graphite Tungsten Bare electrode Flux
covered
(Without flux containing)
electrode. Pure Thorided Zirconiated
Advantages:
Equipment is portable. Cost is less. Big range of metals and alloys can be
welded. Welding can be carried out by any position.
Disadvantages: Crater.
Application: 1. Almost all commonly employed metals and their alloys can be
welded by this process.
2. Repair jobs and maintenance jobs
3. Air receiver, tank, boiler and pressure vessel fabrication
4. Ship buildings
5. Pipes and penstock joining
6. Building and bridge construction
7. Automotive and aircraft industries.
Resistance Welding:
It is based on the well known principle that when electric current resistance,
heat is generated. The amount of heat generated is related to the magnititude of
current, the resistance to current, time the current is allowed to flow.
H I
2
RT
H Heat generated in joules
I Current in Amps.
Usually here large current 3000 A to 1,00,000A. We are using
123
T Time (from fraction of a sec to few see) of current flow through the
pieces to be welded.
It is done by passing electric current through two metal parts to be welded.
There are to copper electrodes in the circuit. The metal parts are placed between the
electrode. When current is passed heat is generated. Hence the metals are brought to
red hot plastic condition. Now mechanical, hydralic, Pneumatic pressure is applied to
complete the weld.
Fig: Spot Welding
No filler rod/ flux is used here.
- Metals are placed in between 2 Cu electrodes.
Cu high thermal, electrical conductivity
Clamping fixed arm, movable arm.
Current is passed and the parts are heated to plastic state at their areas of
contact by electrical resistance. Electrodes are pressed against the metal parts by
mechanical, pneumatic, hydrallic pressure.
Weldable metals: Low C steel (M.S), H.S.S, hardened steel, S.S, coated steel, Al,
Al mg alloys, Al Mn alloys.
Cu, Al having thermal conductivity. So doing the welding is difficult.
Advantages: Low cast, - high speed of welding, less skilled worker can do,
Operation can be done by automatic/ semi-automatic. High uniformity of products.
Disadvantages: Bigger job thickness cannot be welded
124
Applications:
1. Automobile and aircraft industries
3. Attachment of braces, brackets, pads, and clips to formed sheet metal parts such as
cases, covers, bases (or) trays.
Welding defects:
1. Crack due to durability low
a) Longitudinal Crack axis parallel to the weld
b) Transverse Crack axis perpendicular to the weld
c) Star shaped Clustering of the cracks at the same point
2. Porosity Due to atmospheric particles continuation
a) Individual (or) isolated single pore
b) Linear Isolated pore closely related to the same line
c) Cluster Group of isolated pore
3) Inclusion:
a) Tungsten & metallic presence of foreign matters (or) tungsten electrode.
4) Distortion Heating and cooling the joint
5) Undercutting Lack of metal in the form of groove, which spreads on a certain
length of edges of weld.
125
LUBRICATION AND BEARINGS
Necessity of Lubrication:
When one metallic parts moves over another metallic part, due to the surface
irregularities friction is developed at the contact of the two rubbing surfaces which
tends to oppose the motion. Due to this surface friction, heat will be produced which
results in the loss of power transmitted between them. So lubrication is necessary for
reduce the friction, power loss, wear and increases their life. To reduce corrosion and
transmission of heat developed by friction.
Lubricant:
It is a gummy substance applied over the rubbing surfaces to minimize power
loss and friction and increase the life of the machine parts.
Functions of the Lubricant:
(i) To reduce the friction between the rubbing metallic parts
(ii) To reduce wear and tear of the machine parts
(iii) To reduce power loss due to friction
(iv) To carry away the heat generated by friction
(v) To prevent corrosion of the metallic parts by forming protective thin layer over
them.
(vi) To remove the metal chips formed in machining operation
(vii) To act as an electric conductor (in welding machine)
Types of Lubricants:
1. Solid Lubricants: Whenever there exists high pressure between the rubbing
metallic surfaces, it is not possible to maintain an oil film. Either oil may disintegrate
(or) it may squeeze out from the rubbing surfaces due to high temperature and
pressure. In order to over come this problem a solid lubricant both in colloidal and
powder form is used. It is stable at high temperature and has low coefficient of
friction
Ex: Graphite, Mica, Soapstone, Talc, French chalk, Molybdenum Disulphide.
2. Liquid Lubricants: It is mostly oils, are generally used because of their good
adhering and higher fluidity characteristics. It is used in high-speed machineries and
transmission system where good recirculation of the lubrication is an essential
requirement. It having some special characteristics such as viscosity, surface tension,
heat carrying capacity, ability to withstand higher temperature.
126
(a) Animal Oils:
They are obtained from animal fat. They are not suitable for lubrication because they
are oxidized easily and they become gummy after use for some time.
Eg: Tallow oil, Lard oil etc.
(b) Vegetable Oils:
Produced from seeds fruit of trees etc. It is mainly used in automobile
industry due to high viscosity and high film strength.
Eg: Castor Oil, Olive Oil, Lotton seed oil.
(c) Mineral Oils:
They are desired from petroleum products and are widely used in industries. It
contains hydrocarbons.
Advantages:
(i) Greater chemical stability at higher temperature
(ii) Cheaper and available in larger quantities
It is a mixture of paraffins, nab, thenes and aromatics.
According to the viscosity and service ratings these oils are graded by SAE
(Society of Automotive Engineers) number.
The machine oils may be extra light, light, heavy, extra heavy depending on
their viscosities
Ex: 5W, 10W, 20W, 20,30,40,50 etc.
Oils with W used in winter
Oils without w used in summer
Higher number, denser in the oil.
(d) Synthetic Oils:
It is produced artificially from sand, coal etc. They have superior properties
than mineral oils but are costly to manufacture.
Ex: Polyorgano siloxanes (or) silicon fluids, polyglycol others.
3. Semi liquid Lubricants:
Grease is the most commonly used semi liquid lubricant. It is a suspension
of metal soaps like Ca, Na soaps of fatty acids dispersed in lubricating oil. It is
preferred in machineries due to the following reasons.
(i) If the working Pressure is too high
(ii) If the machine part encounters higher temperature. Ex: automobile axles
127
(iii) If the clearance between mating surfaces is more. Ex; gear drive and chain drive.
(iv) If the atmospheric condition is conductive to corrosion of exposed machine parts.
(a) Na base grease: It can withstand high temperature due to its high adhesive
property. It is used in automobile engines.
(b) Ca base grease: It is applied to slow moving parts and parts which come in direct
contact with water, as in hrdrallic machine. It is used in wheel bearings, chassis
lubrication of automobiles.
(c) Al base grease: Not suitable for high temperature application. It is used in
chassis, transmissions and chains.
(d) Li base grease (or) multipurpose grease: It can withstand high temperature. It is
suitable for use on wheel bearings, Universal joints, brake cables. It is commonly
referred as multipurpose grease.
Properties of a Good Lubricant:
To choose a lubricant for specific use, knowledge of a good lubricant is
essential.
1. Viscosity: It is a measure of internal friction of fluids. It is defined as the
resistance offered by one layer of a moving fluid over its adjacent layer purely by
shear. At higher temperature, viscosity of the lubricant decreases and hence the fluid
film cannot be maintained between the mating parts. At lower temperature, viscosity
decreases and hence it offers more resistance to the moving parts. For an ideal
lubricant, the viscosity should not vary with the operating temperatures.
2. Physical Stability: The lubricant should not separate from its solid state at lower
temperature and should not vapourise at higher temperature beyond certain limit. An
ideal lubricant must be physically stable at the lowest and the highest temperature
encountered.
3. Chemical stability and carbon Residue: The lubricant should have no tendency
to form oxides and should not decompose at higher temperature to form carbon. An
ideal lubricant should not decompose and deposit carbon residue at higher
temperature.
4. Flash and Fire Points: Flash point of oil is the lowest temperature at which the
vapours of oil flash when subjected to a naked flame. Fire point of oil is the lowest
temperature at which the oil, if once lit with flame, will burn steadily at least for 5 sec.
Flash and fire point are good indication of flammability of oil ensuring safety from
128
fire hazards. An ideal lubricant should have flash point sufficiently higher than the
temperature at which it is put to use.
5. Cloud and pour points:
Cloud point when lubricating oil is cooled; it starts solidifying at room
temperature. That room temperature is called cloud point. So free flow of oil is
interfered.
Pour Point That temperature oil will cease to flow. It affects the flow in the
pressure line of the lubricant oil. Lubricant should posses low cloud and pour point.
6. Oiliness: To cling the metal surfaces by molecular action developing a very thin
layer of lubricant is known as oiliness (or) lubricity. Lubricant should have oiliness at
higher pressure.
7. Cleanliness: Water is not a lubricating fluid but promotes corrosion. Dirt and
small foreign particles of insoluble matter present in the lubricant oil cause wear and
tear. Lubricant should have no water particles and sediments.
Methods of Lubrication:
Method of lubrication depends on the type of lubricant and the place of
application. Modern machinery requires not only a proper lubricant but also an
effective method of applying it.
Different Methods of Lubrication:
(i) Gravity Feed Method of lubrication and lubricating oil flows due to gravity.
(ii) Forced Feed lubricating oil is supplied at higher pressures by means of a pump
(iii) Splash method Parts are lubricated by splashing of oil over the parts
Lubricators:
Lubricators are the mechanical devices used for supplying a regulated amount
of a lubricant to machine bearings, gears, engine parts etc.
Drop Feed Lubricator: It is useful for intermittently operated equipment.
When the snap lever is raised into the vertical position, the needle will be
lifted and oil will be enter through oil entry holes. The flow of oil seen through the
sight glass. It is mounted over the part to be lubricated with its threaded end screwed
in place.
129

2. Wick feed Lubricator:

Main advantage of this lubricator is that the oil is filtered and consequently no
dirt is transmitted by the wick. It consists of oil reservoir (or) cup and a central tube,
which houses the wick. It works on syphon principle. The wick which rests inside the
central tube is twisted and held in position by a metallic wire. One end of the wick
dips in the reservoir and drains oil into the bearing purely by capillary action. The rate
of flow of oil varies with oil level in the cup, the temperature and viscosity of the oil
and composition of the wick. The oil feed rate can be increased (or) decreased by
adding (or) removing the no. of stands used for the wick. When the machine is not
running, the wick is withdrawn using the hook and left in the reservoir. Due to
capillary action. Only filtered oil is transmitted by the wick.
130
Splash Lubrication:

It is employed IC engines to lubricate the cylinder, piston, crankpins etc. It is
also used for gears, chains, bearings and other moving parts that can be partly
submerged in an oil reservoir. The crank partly dips into the oil sump in the
crankcase. As the crankshaft rotates, it continuously splashes the surface of the
cylinder, piston etc. It is also employed to lubricate the gear wheels in a gearbox.
Needle oiler or (Bottle oiler Lubricator):
It consists of an inverted glass or plastic container with a needle passing from the oil
reservoir through wooden stopper to the bearing. The needle rests on the journal and
is loosely fitted to the stopper. When the journal rotates, the needle is shaken by
irregularities on journal surface and oil passes from oil reservoir, through the gap
between the needle and the stopper to the bearing. When the journal is stationary,
there is no oil feed to the bearing.
131
Ring oiler:
This employs one or more rings which hang loosely over the journal and revolve with
it through friction. The lower part of the ring dipping in the oil carries it to the top of
the journal where it is distributed through oil groves to bearing surfaces. The ring
oiling method is considered as one of the most reliable methods and is extensively
used for line shafting and horizontal machine bearings. The ring oiler is not very
satisfactory at high speed as the oil may be thrown off due to centrifugal force and the
rings may slip very much from journal. The advantages are
1. Uniform lubrication
2. Greater oil economy
3. Cleanliness and less attention required
132
Pressure lubrication:
Bearings may be positively lubricated by introducing the lubricant under pressure at
the proper point of the bearings. Oil is sucked by a pump from the oil sump, delivered
under pressure to the lubricating points through a filter. From the bearing oil returns
to the sump by gravity and is recirculated by the pump The flow of oil may be in such
quantities that most of the heat generated in the bearings will be carried away by the
lubricant itself, so that the viscosity of the lubricant may thus be controlled. This is
necessary in heavily loaded bearings.
Screw cap Lubricator:
This is simple grease lubricator manually operated by turning the cap on the cup and
forcing out grease to the surface to be lubricated. Grease is used as a lubricant where
dripping or spattering of oil is not permissible as in food or chemical processing
equipment. Grease is not a mobile lubricant, hence it must be applied directly to the
surface to be lubricated under pressure. Grease is used where the parts are loaded
heavily and where the fluid film lubrication is not possible due to slow speeds.
133
Tell Tale lubricator:
It consists of a cap that carries a spring-loaded piston. The pressure on the grease due
to the spring force and forces out the grease to the surface to be lubricated. The
aperture through which the grease passed can be varied by means of slotted crew. The
movement of the piston rod end indicates whether the lubrication is in progress or not.
This lubricator is best suitable where a continuous supply of grease flow is to be
maintained.
134
BEARINGS
Bearings are machine elements, which support the rotating shafts and permit
constrained relative motion of the rigid parts. It ensures free and smooth rotation.
Ex: Crankshafts of engines, axles of automobiles, spindles of machine tools such as
lathe, drilling, milling, grinding machine, shafting in workshop etc.
For reliable and lasting high performance of the bearings under varied
conditions of use, certain requirements with regards to the construction and
maintenance have to be fulfilled.
(i) The shaft mounted in the bearings should have a proper fit without undue
slackness.
(ii) There should be provision for the replacement of worn-out part of the bearing
surfaces.
(iii) Should have provision for good lubrication
Bearings
Sliding contact Rolling contact
Journal Thrust Ball Roller
Sliding Contact Bearings:
If the contact between the shaft and bearing surface is strictly by sliding only,
the bearing is known as sliding contact bearing. Due to the surface contact between
the shaft and the bearings more friction and hence heat is generated. Hence the type of
bearing required an efficient lubricant system.
Journal Bearing:
Load is applied perpendicular to the axis of the shaft
Pivot bearing: Load applied is parallel to the axis of the shaft.
Collar (or) Thrust bearing: The load acts parallel to the axis of the shaft and the
shaft extends through the bearing.
135
Journal Bearings: It is the type of bearing where the bearing pressure acts
perpendicular to the axis of the shaft.
Types:
(i) Solid bearing:
It consists of a block having a hole in it to introduce the shaft, which needs to
be supported. The problem that mainly arises in such a bearing is the wear of the shaft
(or) the block. Usually the block is only made to wear by making it from soft
materials such as C.I, compared to the shaft, which will be of steel, harder materials.
Bushed bearing:
It consists C.I bearing block and a brass/gunmetal bush. The bush is driven
into the hole in the bearing block with a tight fit. Bushes are fitted in the bearing for
convenience with the intention that they may be replaced when worn without
replacing the main bearing block. The base plate replacing the main bearing block. At
the top of the bearing counter sunk oil hole is provided both in the bush and the block
to facilitate lubrication of the shaft and bush. The main disadvantage of this bearing is
that the introduction and the removal of the shaft has to be made by endwise only. It is
mainly used in large shaft at smaller speed and large diameter shaft at low speed,
smaller diameter shaft at higher speed.
136
(iii) Plummer block:
When a long shaft is to be supported at several intermediate points, bushed
bearings cannot be used since it requires the endwise introduction of the shaft in the
bearing. In such cases, the Plummer blocks are used. It is a improved version of
bushed are liable to rotate along with the shaft. In order to prevent such rotation
various techniques are employed. The projecting snug is provided in the lower split
bush fits into the corresponding hole made in the body to prevent the rotation of the
bush along with the shaft. The axial movement of the bushes is prevented by the
collates provided at the ends of the bushes. After the shaft rests in position the top
split bush is placed over it. Finally cap is held down by bolts and nuts. A small
clearance being left between the cap and body.
137
Thrust bearing:
Here the bearing pressure will be axial. The axis of the shaft may be
horizontal (or) vertical. When the axis of the shaft is vertical, the thrust bearing is
called footstep bearing. When the axis of the shaft is horizontal; the thrust bearing is
called collar bearing. It consists of C.I block and a gunmetal bush. The lower end of
the shaft rests on a steel disc having concave seating. The disc is prevented from
rotating along with the shaft by a pin inserted partly into the block and partly into the
disc. The bush is prevented from rotating along with the shaft by the snug provided at
its neck just below the collar.
Disadvantages: Cannot achieve for the efficient lubrication. It is used for slow speed
shafts carrying light loads and in machine practice in machine tool turn tables, textile
machinery etc.
Rolling contact bearings/Antifriction bearings:
If the contact between the shaft and bearing is strictly by rolling only the
bearing is known as rolling contact bearing. Here the starting friction is negligible in
comparison with the sliding contact bearing. It is suitable for machinery, which have
top be frequently started, stopped, restarted.
Ball Bearing:
It consists of hardened steel balls positioned between two suitable grooved, hardened
steel rings. These rings are known as traces. The balls are retained in position buy a
separator, also known as cage, usually of pressed brass. As the inner race tightly fits
with the shaft it always rotates when the shaft is rotating.
138
The outer race fits into the bearing housing tightly, but not rotates. The ball
bearings can be designed to take either radial/axial loads. The radial loads act
perpendicular to the axis of the shaft whereas the axial/thrust loads act similar to the
axis of the shaft. A ball bearing can be designed to take both the above types of loads;
139
some lubricant must be always applied to these bearings to ensure free rotation of the
balls in the cages. The radial bearings are used in wheel bearings. The thrust type of
ball bearings are fitted in the spindles of lathe, drilling, milling machine etc.
Roller Bearings:
The roller bearings are better suited for heavy loads then ball bearings,
because contact is made along the entire line between the roller and traces, instead of
point contact between the balls and the traces in ball bearings.
In a roller bearing, a series of small-hardened steel cylinders, called rollers are
fitted in between the inner and outer race. It consists of 2 hardened steel races, an
inner race and the outer race. Between the two races hardened steel rollers are
positioned, and are retained there in equally spaced positions by a gunmetal cage
comprising two rings secured by steel pins. The inner race tightly fits with the shaft
and hence rotates along with the shaft. The outer race fits firmly in the bearing
housing and hence does not rotate. The ordinary type of roller bearing (radial) is used
when the load is in the radial direction. The tapered roller bearing is used when both
the radial and thrust loads acts.
Advantages of roller bearings:
(i) Low friction except at high speeds
(ii) Relatively accurate shaft alignment can be maintained
(iii) Heavy momentary overloads can be carried
(iv) Lubrication is simple
(v) It can carry both radial and axial loads
(vi) Replacement of the bearing is easy
140
(vii) Selection of the bearing from manufactures information is simple
Disadvantages:
(i) Very expensive
(ii) Failure of the bearing can occur without warning and hence causing damage to the
machinery
(iii) Perfect geometry of the raceways, balls and rollers is a must.
UNIT VIII
POWER TRANSMISSION
Power Transmission:
The method of transmitting power from source by using transmission systems.
Depending on the distance between driver and driven and speed, transmission systems
are classified as
(ii) Belt drives
(iii) Rope drives
(iv) Chain drives
(v) Gear drives
BELT DRIVES:
When the distance between shafts not more than 10 meters and speed 25 m/s.
The pulley mounted on driving shaft is called driver pulley and pulley mounted on
driven is called driven pulley. The portion of the belt having less tension is called
slack side whereas the portion of the belt having more tension is called tight side. If
the pulley of driver shaft rotates in clockwise direction, then the lower side of the belt
will be tight side and upper side is slack side. Belt drives are usually arranged such
that slack side is always above tight side because this arrangement results in larger
angle of contact.
Materials: Leather, Rubber, Fabric, and Balata.
Types of belt drives:
1. Open belt drive: Both driver, driven are rotated in the same direction. Due
to lesser tension on the slack side, the belt sags due to its weight and hence
increases the arc of contact and transmission capacity.
2. Cross belt drive: Both shafts are rotating in opposite direction.
Open belt drive cross belt drive
Slack side
141
Slack side
Tight side tight side

Types of Pulleys:
The transmit power from one shaft to another shaft using belts (or) ropes.
They are made of cast iron, wrought iron, steel (or) wood.
Fast and Loose Pulleys:
A machine can be easily stopped /started whenever required by means of a
pair of fast and loose pulleys.
The loose pulley is free to rotate; fast pulley is fixed on the shaft rigidly. This
pair is mounted on a counter shaft placed near the machine to be operated. Counter
shaft rotates when driving belt from main shaft is engaged on fast pulley. The belt
142
can be shifted from fast pulley to loose pulley using belt shiften (or) belt fork. When
the belt from counter shaft is engaged to loose pulley, counter shaft stops rotating.
The belt fork is fixed to a striking bar. The whole assembly of belt fork and striking
bar can be moved along with belt to left and back again using hanging wires.
2. Stepped Cone Pulley:
Driven Driver
C C
B B
A A
Belt
It has pulleys of difference diameters in steps on which belt can be engaged.
A main spindle can be driven at different speeds by fixing stepped pulley on the
spindle. One set of stepped pulley is mounted on counter shaft (or) driven shaft in the
reverse direction.
3. Guide Pulleys:
To connect 2 non similar shaft which may intersect (or) may not . Also used
when the shafts to be connected are closed to each other. Each portion of the belt as
posses from one pulley to another is guided by guide pulley, which is placed suitably.
143
4. Jockey Pulley:
When one pulley diameter is very small than other, arc of contact will be small,
results is less tension. To increase arc of contact jockey pulleys are used. The pulley
presses down the slack side due to its own weight as well as the bearing loaded in it.
Velocity ratio: Ratio of speed of driven pulley to speed of driver
d
1
,d
2
diameter of driver and driven
N
1
,N
2
Speed of driver and driven
Linear speed of belt surface speed of driven s.s. driven
d
1
N
1
= d
2
N
2
Velocity ratio =
2
1
1
2
d
d
N
N
(without considering belt thicknesst)

Velocity ratio =
t d
t d
N
N
+
+
2
1
1
2
(with considering belt thickness t)
Length of the belt (open)
Consider 2 pulleys connected by a flat belt, C
1
, C
2
Centres of 1
st
and 2
nd
pulley.
Draw the line C
2
G similar to FA
Draw C
1
F, C
1
D, C
2
A, C
2
C.
Let
r
1
= radius of larger pulley
r
2
= radius of smaller pulley
144
c Centre distance between C
1
and C
2
.
l length of the belt
L = Arc length DEF + tension FA + Arc length ABC + Length CD
length FA = length CD
L = Arc length DEF + 2 (length FA) + Arc length ABC
Length of arc = radius of arc inclined angle = r
r
1
( + 2) + 2 Cos + r2 ( - 2)
L = (r
1
+ r
2
)+ 2 (r
1
- r
2
) + 2C cos (1)
From GC
2
C
1
, sin = r
1
r
2
/C
=
) (
2 1 2 1 1
issmall
C
r r
C
r r
Sin

,
_
(2)
Cos =
2
sin 1
Using binominal theorem and ignoring higher order powers.
Cos = 1 sin
2
= 1 sin
2
= 1
2
2 1
,
_

C
r r
(3)
Substituting (2) and (3) in (1)
L = (r
1
+ r
2
) + 2
,
_

C
r r
2 1
(r
1
r
2
) + 2c (1
2
2 1
,
_

C
r r
)
= (r
1
+ r
2
) + 2
2
2 1
) (
c
r r
+ 2c -
2
2 1
) (
c
r r
L = (r
1
r
2
) +
2
2 1
) (
c
r r
+ 2c
145
Length of the crossed belt:
r
1
, r
2
radius of larger, smaller pulleys
L = Arc length DEF + length FC + Arc CBA + length AD
= r
1
( + 2) 2 length FC + r
2
( + 2)
= ( + 2) (r
1
+ r
2
) + 2c Cos (1)
From GC
2
C
1
, Sin =
C
r r
2 1
+
=
2
2 1
,
_
+
C
r r
( is very small) (2)
Cos =
2
sin 1
Using binominal theorem, neglected higher power orders
1- Sin2 = 1
2
2 1
,
_
+
C
r r
(3)
Substitution (2) and (3) in (1)
L = + 2
2
2 1
,
_
+
C
r r
(r
1
+ r
2
) +2c [1
2
2 1
,
_

C
r r
]
= (r
1
+ r
2
) + 2
2
2 1
,
_
+
C
r r
+ 2c -
2
2 1
,
_
+
C
r r

L = (r
1
+ r
2
) -
2
2 1
,
_
+
C
r r
+ 2c
Belt Tension:
146

The belt drive is stationary and left is tightened by adjusting the centre
distance, the tension around the belt will be equal and is known as initial tension To.
Consider a driven pulley rotating in clockwise direction, hence upper portion of belt is
slack side and lower portion belt is tight side.
Let T
1
, T
2
Tension on tight, slack side in KN.
Angle of contact in rad.
Consider an electrical strip CD. Let be angle suspended.
T Tension on black side
T + T Coefficient of friction
Resolving the forces along normal reaction N:
N = T Cos (90 - )+ (T + T) Cos (90 - /2)
= T sin /2 + (t + T) sain s/2
= 2T sin /2 + T sin /2
= 2T /2 = T
N = T (1)
Resolving the forces along perpendicular to N:
T sin (90 - /2) + N = (t + T) sin (90 - /2)
N = (t + T) Cos /2 T cos /2
N = T cos /2 ( is small)
N = T (2)
Substituting (1) in (2)
T = T
t/T =
147

0
1
2
T
T
T
T
in (T
1
/T
2
) =
T
1
/T
2
= e
Log T
1
/T
2
= 0.4342
Effect of initial Tension (To):
Increase in tension is tight side = Decrease in tension on slack side
T
1
= To + To (1) T2 = To To (2)
Solving (1) and (2)
To =
2
2 1
T T
Power Transmitted by a belt drive:
Force Effective paull
1000
2 1
T T
KN.
Power = Force Velocity
P
000 , 60
) (
2 1
v T T
in kw.
Slip and its influence on velocity ratio:
The phenomenon of sliding of belt due to relative motion between pulley and
the belt. Effect of slip is to reduce the velocity ratio and to reduce capacity of belt to
transmit power.
S
1
= % of slip between driver and belt, S
2
= % of slip between driven and belt.
S = s
1
+ s
2,
Surface speed of driver = d
1
N
1
Due to slip reduced speed of driven V1 = d
1
N
1
- d
1
N
1
S
1
/100 (1)
Due to slip at driven V
2
= V
1
(1 S
2
/100) (2)
d
2
N
2
= V
2
= V
1
(1 S2/100) (3)
Put (1) in (3)
d
2
N
2
= d
1
N
1
(1- S
2
/100) (1 S
2
/100)
d
2
N
2
= d
1
N
1
(1 S/100)
Velocity ratio = N
2
/N
1
= d
1
/d
2
(1-S/100)
=
,
_
+
+
100
1
2
1
s
t d
t d
(Considering thickness t)
148
Creep in a belt drive: The relative motion between the belt and the pulley surface
due to uneven stretching of the belt is known as creep. It reduces power t o be
transmitted.
Advantages of flat belt drive:
1. Can be used when distance between shafts is more and where exact
alignment of driver and driven is not of prime consideration.
2. Highly flexible to overloads
3. Low installation and operating costs.
Disadvantages:
1. Cannot be employed when centre distance is small
2. Drive is not positive
3. Possibility of slip and creep
4. It belt is endless may fail at the joints
V belt drives:
They are in trapezoidal cross section and run in a V shaped groove made of
fabric (or) leather (or) vulcanized rubber. Groove angle = 30
o
to 40
o
. Due to wedging
action, the power transmission is greater than flat belt drive. For proper wedging
action, the belt should always make contact with sides of groove but not at bottom.
Advantages:
1. Compact. It can transmit higher power
2. Slip between pulleys and belt is negligible
3. To get high velocity ratio up to 10
4. Can be used when shaft axes are horizontal, vertical (or) inclined.
Disadvantages:
1. Shorter life span due to continuous rubbing of belt into the groove
2. Not suitable when centre distance is more
3. Their construction is not simple.
Chain Drives:
To overcome slip that reduces efficiency, also to transmit power upto 100 kw
at speeds. 10 to 15 m/sec, chain drives are employed. Distance between shaft some
few centimeter to 8m. It is used in bicycles, motor cycles, machine tools, conveyors,
road rollers etc. It has an endless chain, sprocket wheels.
149
(i) Bush roller chain: It consists of outer plate pin link plates and inner plates called
roller link plates. A pin passes through the bush secured in the holes of roller.
- Motor cycles and bicycles etc.
(ii) Inverted tooth chain/silent chain:
It is employed whenever noiseless and smooth operation is required. Contains
chain links which secure tightly in the teeth of the sprocket wheel.
Velocity ratio =
wheel sprocket driver of Speed
wheel sprocket driven of Speed
Linear Velocity = Linear velocity of driver = Linear velocity of driven
d
1
N
1 =
d
2
N
2
2
1
1
2
d
d
N
N
d

= Teeth on sprockets
2
1
1
2
T
T
N
N
Advantages of Chain Drives:

1. No slip hence velocity ratio is constant.
2. Positive drive hence high efficiency.
3. Occupies less space hence compact.
4. Drive has lighter velocity ratio.
5. Low maintenance lost.
Disadvantages of chain drives:
1. Need accurate alignment of shafts.
2. Production cost is more.
3. Needs regular lubrication and case.
4. Needs more careful maintenance.
150
GEAR DRIVES
Transmits power by successive engaging teeth. Any rotation in driven gear
imparts opposite rotation in driven gear. We can have more than one gear in between
driver and driven called gear trains.
Classification:
1. Spur gear To connect similar shafts
2. Helical gear To connect similar, non-intersecting shafts
3. Level gear To connect similar only intersecting shafts
4. Spiral gear To connect non-similar, non intersecting shafts
5. Worm gear To connect no similar, noncoplarar shafts
6. Elliptical gear To connect similar shafts
7. Rack and pinion To convert the rotary motion to linear motion.
Forms of a gear tooth:
Law of gearing:
151
For efficient gearing, the common normal at the point of contact between a
pair of teeth must pass through pitch point.
Cyclodial teeth: A cycloid is the curve traced by a point on the circumference of the
circle which rolls without slipping on a fixed straight line.
In volute teeth: It is a plane curve generated by a point on a tangent which rolls on
the circle without slipping.
Velocity ratio of gear drives:
Linear velocity of driven = linear velocity of driven
d
1
N
1 =
d
2
N
2
N
2
/N
1
= d
1
/d
2
(1)
As pitch of both gears is same,
P = d
1
/T
1
= d
2
/T
2
(2)
Velocity ratio = N
2
/N
1
= d
1
/d
2
= T
1
/T
2
For worm gears,
Velocity ratio =
wheel worm of rpm
shaft worm of rpm
=
shaft worm of teeth of no
wheel worm of teeth of no
.
.
152
Advantages of gear driver:
1. Can be used to connect similar, non-similar, intersecting, non-intersecting,
coplanar, non-coplanar shafts
2. No slip. High transmission efficiency
3. Velocity ratio remains constant
4. Well suited for small centre distances
5. Used for low, medium high power transmission.
Disadvantages:
1. Unsuitable for longer center distances
2. Need regular lubrication and have high operating cost
3. Have higher cost of production
4. Drive is bulky.
Gear Trains:
If power transmission done by using 2 (or) more gears meshing with each
other then such as arrangement is called gear trains.
a) Simple gear Train:
Let N
1
,N
2
,N
3
,N
4
rpm of gears 1,2,3 & 4
T
1
,T
2
,T
3
& T
4
No.of teeth of gears 1,2,3&4
Velocity ratio of gear 1 & 2, N
2
/N
1
= T
1
/T
2
(1)
3
/N
2
= T
2
/T
3
(2)
4
/N
3
= T
3
/T
4
(3)
Velocity ratio =
1
2
2
3
3
4
1
4
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N

From (1) & (2) & (3)
2
1
32
2
4
3
1
4
T
T
T
T
T
T
N
N

4
1
1
4
T
T
N
N
If odd no.of intermediate gears are in the series both driver and driven rotates
in the same direction. If even no.of idler gears are used, both driver and driven rotates
in opposite direction.
153
2. Compound gear Train: When center distance between gears is small, when a high
(or) low level ratio is required, a compound gear train is used.
Velocity ratio of gear 1 & 2
N
2
/N
1
= T
1
/T
2
(1)
Gears 2 and 3 are compounded
T
2
T
3
but N
2
= N
3
Velocity ratio of gear 3 & 4
N
4
/N
3
= T
3
/T
4
Velocity ratio =
2
1
4
3
1
2
1
4
1
4
T
T
T
T
N
N
N
N
N
N

154
3. Reverted gear Train:
When the axes of 1
st
and last gear are co-axial
r
1
+ r
2
= r
3
+ r
4
T
1
+ T
2
= T
3
+ T
4
.
4. Epicyclical gear Train/sun planet gear train:
155
The wheels A & B mesh and can rotate along arm C. If wheel A is fixed and
arm is rotating.
Problems:
1. An engine is driven by a flat drive using an electrical motor. The diameter of the
pulley on motor is 1200 mm and radius of the pulley on engine is half radius of motor
pulley. If engine is running at 360 rpm. Find motor speed.
d
1
= 1200 mm ; N
1
= ?
d
2
= d
1
/2 ; N
2
= 360 rpm.
2
1
1
2
d
d
N
N
N
1
= 2
2
1
N
d
d
= 180 rpm.
2) Velocity ratio of a belt drive is 3:2. Diameter of driven pulley is 120 cm runs at 180
rpm. Find diameter and speed of driver pulley and linear velocity of belt.
d
1
= ? N
1
= ? d
2
= 120 cm N
2
= 180 rpm.
Velocity ratio = 3 : 2 = d
1
/d
2
d
1
= 3/2 d
2
3/2 120 180 cm.
Velocity ratio = 3 : 2 = N
2
/N
1
N
1
= 2/3 N
2
= 2/3 180 120 rpm
Linear velocity of the belt,
V = d
1
N
1
= d
2
N
2
V =
180
100
120
678.58 M/min
156
3. A flat belt drive is used to transmit power using pulleys from a motor to a nearby
engine. The motor shaft and engine shaft are placed 4m apart and lie in the same
plane. The diameter of the motor pulley is 800 mm and that of engine shaft pulley is
400 mm. Find the length of the belt for
(i) If the drive is open
(ii) If the drive is closed
Solution:
Radius of motor pulley (r
1
) 800/2 = 400 mm
Radius of engine shaft pulley (r
2
) = 400/2 = 200 mm.
Distance between centers C = 4m = 4000 mm.
a) For an open belt system:
Length of belt L = (r
1
+ r
2
) +
2
2 1
) (
C
r r
+ 2C
= (400 + 200) =
2
4000
) 200 400 (
+ 2 4000
9894.96 mm.
b) For a crossed belt system:
Length of belt L = (r
1
+ r
2
) +
2
2 1
) (
C
r r +
+ 2C
= (600) +
2
4000
) 600 (
+ 2 4000
= 9974.96 mm.
4). The tension of tight side of a belt is 3000 N and angle of lap is 160
o
C. If the
coefficient of friction is 0.3. Find the tension on slack side of the belt.
= 160
o
C 160 /180 2.793 rad
T
1
= 3000 N; = 0.3
Ration of Tensions, T
1
/T
2
= e
T
2
= T
1
/ e

N
e
85 . 1297
3000
993 . 2 3 . 0

5) Two pulleys having the diameter 450, 200 mm are on similar shaft, 1.95 m apart.
Connected by crossed belt. Find length of belt, angle of contact. What power can be
transmitted when larger one rotates at 200 rpm of the max permissible tension is 1 KN
and = 0.25. Also the effective pull.
157
Given Data:
D
1
= 450 mm r
1
= 225 mm C = 1950 mm T
1
= 1Kn
d
1
= 200 mm r
2
= 100 mm = 0.25 mm N
1
= 200 rpm
Length of a crossed belt:
L = (r
1
+ r
2
) +
2
2 1
) (
C
r r +
+ 2C 4975.19 mm
Angle of lap ()
Sin =
C
r r
2 1
+
= 9.59
o
= 180 + 2 = 199.18
o
119.18 /180 3.476 rad
Ratio of Tensions:
T
1
/T
2
= e
T
2
= T
1
/ e
= 419.37 N
Power to be transmitted:
P = (T
1
T
2
) V
= (1000 419.37) 4.712
P = 2.736 KW
Effective Pulley in the belt drive:
T
1
T
2
1000 419.37 579.63 Kw.
6) An engine shaft running at 200 rpm is required for drive a generator at 300 rpm by
means of a flat belt drive. Pulley on driving shaft is 500 mm diameter. Determine
diameter of pulley on generator shaft, if the belt thickness is 8 mm and slip is 4 %.
d
1
= 500 mm d
2
= ?
N
1
= 200 rpm N
2
= 300 rpm t = 8 mm S = 4%
N
2
/N
1
= d
1
+t/d
2
+ t (1-S/100)
d
2
= [N
1
/N
2
(d
1
+ t) (1 S/100)] t
=
( ) 8
100
4
1 ) 508 (
300
200
1
]
1
d
2
= 317.12 mm
7) A belt transmits power to shafts at 3m apart. Driven pulley diameter 500 mm &
160
o
angle of lap runs at 180 rpm = 0.3 T
o
= 8KN (Initial Tension). Find power
transmitted.
T
1
/T
2
= e
T
1
= 2.31 T
2
.
158
16
2
8
2
2 1
2 1 2 1
0
+
+

+
T T
T T T T
T
3.31 + T2 = 16 T2 = 4.88 KN
T1 = 11.17 KN
Belt speed V = d
2
N
2
/60 2.36 m/s
P = (T
1
T
2
) V (11.17 4.83) 2.36 14.96 KW.
8) A gear train consists of 4 gears A,B,C,D with teeths 20,40,80 and 1000
respectively show the gear arrangement for the speed reduction of 10.
B
A
D
C
A
D
N
N
N
N
N
N

T
C
T
B
N
C
= N
B

10
1
100 80
40 20
D C
B A
T T
T T
Note: Velocity ratio =
2
1
1
2
T
T
N
N
9) A simple gear train consists of 3 wheels having 40,50, 70 teeth respectively. Find
the velocity ratio. Driven wheel having 40 teeth rotates at 210 rpm in clockwise
direction. Determine the speed and direction of driven wheel.
Gear 1 drives 2,
Velocity ratio =
2
1
1
2
T
T
N
N
=
5
4
50
40
N
2

5
4
N
1
= 168 rpm.
Gear 2 drives 3,
7
5
70
50
3
2
2
3

T
T
N
N
N
3
=
7
5
N
2
= 120 rpm.
Speed of the driven speed is 120 rpm in clockwise direction.
159

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PART A

Brake thermal efficiency = 13.45 %

Elements of Mechanical Engineering - MES 14

(5) Right hand thread Left hand thread

Tight side tight side

(without considering belt thicknesst)

Advantages of Chain Drives:

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