Electricity

When two particular materials are rubbed together, they acquire a property of attracting light bodies towards them like small pieces of paper, straws, etc. The substances having this property are said to be electrified. This property is said to be Frictional Electricity. Electrified substances are said to be charged bodies. Charging To create excess or deficiency of electrons in any body is said to be Charging. Excess of electrons = Negatively charged body. Deficiency of electrons = Positively charged body. Charging is done by : a) Friction b) Conduction c) Induction Glass, Flannel, Wool, Silk, Hard Metal, Hard Rubber, Sealing Wax, Resin, Sulpher are rubbed former is positive & later is negative. Eg. a) Glass rod with Silk Rod is positively charged & Silk is negatively charged. b) Ebonite rod with Wool Rod is negatively charged & Wool is positively charged. Negatively charged body will Increase its mass slightly & Positively charged body will Decrease its mass slightly. FUNDAMENTAL RULE Of Electrostatics Similarly charged bodies will Repel each other while oppositely charged bodies will Attract each other. Explanation Of Charging By Fiction When two suitable materials are rubbed together energy is used in overcoming the friction in between them is used in charging of bodies as a) Body having more loosely bound electrons will loose electrons & the body having less loosely bound electrons will gain electrons. b) Body having less work function will loose electrons & the body having more work function will gain electrons. c) Body having high electronic pressure will loose electrons & the body having low electronic pressure will gain electrons. Body loosing electrons will be positively charged & body gaining electrons will be negatively charged. Electric Circuit - The path required for the flow of charge is known as Electric Circuit. It consists of three components
Source The device which gives thrust or force to the charge or electrons to flow in the

circuit is known as Source. OR The device which gives the electromotive force in the circuit or potential difference to the circuit is said to be Source.
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There are Several types of Sources a) Direct current source (D.C. Source) b) Alternating current source (A.C. Source) DC Source are of 2 types: a) Primary cell b) Secondary cell B) Load - The device in which the current is to be passed or charged is to be flowed or across which potential difference is to be applied is said to be Load. Eg. Fan, T.V., etc. C) Connecting Wire The conducting wire which connects source to the load is known as Connecting Wire. > We can classify circuits as 1) Closed circuit - The circuit in which current is passing is known as Closed Circuit. This type of circuit has limited Resistance (obstacle). 2) Open Circuit The circuit in which current is not passing is known as Open Circuit. This type of circuit has unlimited Resistance (obstacle). CURRENT - Rate of flow of charge is known as Current. OR Amount of charge passing per unit time is known as Current. In solid conductors flow of charge is made by Free Electrons. The direction of current is taken opposite to the direction of flow of electrons. Formula of Current => Current = Charge passed / Time taken I=Q/t Unit of current Ampere = Coulomb / Seconds In addition of current, rule of vector addition is not applicable but rule of scalar addition is applicable. So, Current is a Scalar quantity. For vector addition: 2N 2N Resultant Force =0N 2N 2N Resultant Force = 4N For scalar addition: 1A 2A 3A 1 A 3A 4A

Electric Field - The space around any charged body in which influence or effect of charged body is observed is said to be Electric Field. > If we placed a charged body in the electric field then the charged body kept in the electric field will feel a force of repulsion or attraction > The electric field is represented by electrical line of force. Any field is measured by two quantities:2

(a) Intensity of electric field. (b) Electric potential

>INTENSITY OF ELECTRIC FIELD :The value of the intensity of electric field at any point in electric field is numerically equal to the force experienced by unit positive charge kept at any point in the electric field. > Intensity is a vector quantity. Direction of intensity of electric field at any point in electric field is given by the direction of force experienced by unit positive charge kept at the point. Unit of intensity of electric field will be Newton/Coulomb = N/C > If the intensity of electric field have same value and direction then the field is said to be Uniform Electric Field otherwise it will be NonUniform Electric Field. ELECTRIC POTENTIAL:The value of electric potential at any point in electric field is equal to the amount of work done in carrying or displacing any unit positive charge from infinity (outside the electric field) to the point in the electric field without acceleration. > If we take a very small charge say testing charge q0 which is displaced from infinity to any point p in the electric field and the amount of work done in this displacement is w then the potential of the point V=w/q0. > Potential is a scalar quantity and its unit will be VOLT VOLT = JOULE / COULAMB > POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE:- Difference of potential at 2 points is said to be Potential Difference. OR Potential difference between 2 points is equal to the amount of work done in carrying a unit positive charge from one point to other point. OHMS LAW If the physical conditions (like length , area of cross section , temperature & nature of substance)of any conductor remains constant then the potential difference between the end points of the conductor is directly proportional to amount of current passing through the conductor . If I is the current passing through the conductor & V is the potential difference , then V I

V = RI
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Where , R = Resistance of the conductor. V = RI R = V/I RESISTANCE The property of the substance due to which they oppose the flow of charge through them is said to be Resistance. Explanation Of Resistance 1) If we take a metallic conductor, there will be free electrons in it. These electrons will be the charge carrier or current carrier in the conductor . If we assume that each atom is contributing one free electron then the no. of free electrons in the conductor will be 1030m3. 2) These free electrons are moving in the conductor or say in the inter atomic spaces of conductor with Random or Zig-Zag motion with a very high velocity of 10 5 m/s. The free electrons moving will have collision with the atoms of the conductor. So, their direction will change rapidly & frequently. In this condition amount of charge passing in a particular direction will be zero. Thus, no current in the conductor is due to its own. * Motion of free electrons is due to the Thermal Energy & this motion will cease at 0 K (-273 ).

3) If we apply potential difference between the ends of the conductor, these free electrons will feel a force on them & will start moving towards the positive end. Now the velocity of the electrons will be very less & will depend upon the potential difference applied. This velocity is said to be Drift Velocity. During drift motion the free electrons moving will have collision with the positive ions or atoms of the conductor. Due to the collision, free electrons will loose their kinetic energy. Thus the electrons moving towards the positive end will feel obstruction in their way which is said to be Resistance. Formula for ResistanceResistance = Potential difference / Current passing R = V /I Unit of Resistance Ohm = Volt / Ampere V I If we plot a GRAPH between the current passing in the conductor & the potential difference between the end points of the conductor, there will be a Straight Line which will tell that the Current passed is directly proportional to the potential difference. Factors On Which The Resistor Of A Conductor Depends : 1) On the Length of The Conductor : If area of cross section, temperature & substance of the conductor remains constant &
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the length of the conductor is increased then the Resistance of the conductor will also increases. As the length of the conductor increases the collision of free electrons with the ionized atoms also increases. R l (Area of cross section , temperature & nature of subs. are

constant) On The Area Of Cross Section Of The Conductor : If the length, temperature & the nature of the substance are constant then the Resistance of the conductor is Inversely proportional to the area of cross section . R 1/A ( If length , temperature & nature of subs. are constant)

2) On The Nature Of The Substance Of The Conductor : If the length, temperature & area of cross section of the conductor remains constant then the Resistance of the conductor changes with the change of substance. So, Resistance also depends upon the nature of the substance. R R Then, R l/A
R=

l
A

is a constant which is known as Specific Resistance or Electrical Resistivity of the substance. If l is unit length & A is equal to unit area of cross section then R is equal to. Specific Resistance of the substance. It is numerically equal to resistance of the substance having unit length & unit area of cross-section. OR Specific Resistance of any substance is the resistance of unit cube of the substance. Specific Resistance will change as the substance of the conductor changes or simply say that the specific resistance of all conductors (big or small) of same substance is same . = RA/l Unit Of Specific Resistance/Resistivity Ohm x m The resistivity of an alloy is generally higher than the constituent metals. Alloy do not burn even at high temperature , so, we use the alloys in electrical heating devices like toaster, electric heater, etc.. In the electric bulb we use the filament Tungsten. For Electrical transmission lines we use Copper wires.

 If we increase the temperature of metallic conductor then its resistance increases . Increase in Resistance per unit Degree Celsius ( ) is said to be Temperature Coefficient Of Resistance. (alpha). is more for metals & less for

It is denoted by alloys.

Combinations Of Resistors When the required resistance is not available, we can get it by the combinations of Resistors . The Resistors are combined in 2 ways 1) In Series 2) In Parallel Combination of Resistors in Series a) In series combinations of resistors the current passing in each resistor will be same. b) Value of potential difference across different resistors will be different. The resistor having more resistance will be having more potential difference & the resistor having less resistance will be having less potential difference. c) This Combination is used to have more resistance or higher resistance by the combination of small resistors. d) To Find The Equivalent Resistance In Series Combination Of Resistors: Consider three resistors having resistances R 1, R & R connected in series. Let the combination is connected to the source having potential difference V. Let the current passing in the circuit or the current passing in each resistor is I. Let the potential difference across R1, R respectively, then we can say; V1 = I V =I V =I R R R & R will be V1, V & V

Total potential difference across R , R & R be V = V +V +V V = IR + IR + IR V = I(R1+R2+R ) .(1)

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Let the combination of resistor have equivalent resistance Rs, Then the current passing in Rs will be I & potential difference across the equivalent resistance be V, then we can say V = IRs ..(2) From (1) & (2) , Rs = R1 + R2 + R3 Combination of Resistors in Parallel a) In this combination potential difference across each resistor will be equal & equal to the total potential difference applied to the combination. b) One end of all the resistors will be at the point A & other end of all the resistors is connected to point B. Potential difference between A & B will be the potential difference across each resistor. c) The current passing in different resistors will be different. More current passing through the resistor will have Less resistance & Less current passing through the resistor will have More resistance. d) To Find The Equivalent Resistance In Parallel Combination Of Resistors : Consider three resistors having resistances R 1, R2 & R3 connected in parallel. One end of each resistor is connected to point A & other end of each resistor is connected to point B. We apply potential difference between A & B. So , potential difference across each resistor will be V.

Let the total current in the circuit be I. The current passing in R 1, R2 & R3 will be I1, I2 & I3 respectively. Current in different Resistors : I1 = V/R1 I 3 = V/R3 Total Current, I = I1+I2+I3 I = V / R 1 + V / R2 + V / R 3 > I=V (I / R 1 + 1 / R2 + 1 / R3) (1) Let the equivalent resistance of the combination of resistors will be Rp then the current passing in equivalent resistance will be I & potential difference will be V. So, I = V / Rp .....(2) From (1) & (2),
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1 / Rp = 1 / R1 + 1 / R2 +1 / R3 In Series combination of Resistors the equivalent resistance will be Maximum. In Parallel combination of Resistors the equivalent resistance will be Minimum. In houses the different devices or equipments are in parallel combination. As the no. of devices increases the total resistance decreases & the current taken from the main line will increase. So, Reading of the meter will be more . Potential difference applied in each device remains the same as main line. HEATING EFFECT OF ELECTRIC CURRENT : When electric current is passed in any resistor then the current carrying electrons passing through the resistor will be having collisions with the positive ions or atoms of the resistor. Due to these collisions the charge passing will loose their energy. The energy lost by electrons will charge into heat. So, the temperature of the resistor will increase. Thus, the temperature of the resistor increases as the current is passed in it. This effect of current is known as Heating Effect Of Electric Current. Consider any conductor having resistance R. If I current is passed through it, then potential difference across it will be V. The amount of charge passed through the conductor in time t will be Q, Q = It
Now, the amount of work done in carrying the charge Q through the conductor will be W,

W = QV > W = IVt > W = IRt The amount of heat produced is directly proportional to the amount of work done, then W H

Or W = JH Where J = constant = mechanical equivalent of heat =4.18 J/C J = 4.18 10 J/Kilocalorie

4.18 Joule = 1 Calorie Or 1 Joule = 1/ 4.18 Calorie = 0.239 Calorie MECHANICAL EQUIVALENT OF HEAT: The amount of work done to produce one kilo calorie of heat is said to be Mechanical Equivalent of Heat. It is denoted by J.

J is not a physical quantity. It is conversion constant. Hence, amount of heat produced due to the resistance R when I current is passed in it for the time t will be H H=
W J

= IRt / J

Joule

H = VIt / J Joule H = Vt / RJ Joule Rate Of Producing Heat Will Be (Heat/Time) H/T = IR/J Watt =VI/J Watt

Heat produced by current is given as H = IRt Joule = VIt Joule = V/R t Joule

Heat produced per unit time H = VI Watt = IR Watt = V/R Watt H = IRt/J K. Calorie = VIt/J K. Calorie = Vt/RJ K. Calorie Joule/Sec = Watt Joule = Watt 1000 3.6 3.6 Volt 60 Sec 60 Joule = 1000Watt 60 Sec

106 Joule = KWH 106 Joule = 1 unit Ampere = Watt

PRACTICAL APLICATIONS OF HEATING EFFECT OF ELECTRIC CURRENT: Heating effect of electric current has many useful applications asa) Electric Iron b) Electric Toaster c) Electric Oven d) Electric Ketlie e) Electric Heater f) Heating effect of current is used in producing light in Electric Bulb. g) Electric Fuse
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 POWER - Rate of doing work is said to be Power. P = W/T Unit J/S = Watt 1 Watt = 1 Volt 1Ampere

Practical unit 1KW = 1000W Commercial unit of electric energy 1KWH = 3.6 Unit of energy in mks system 1 Joule = 1 Newton 1 Meter 106 Joules = 1 Unit

Electron Volt - When any electron is accelerated by the potential difference of 1 Volt, the kinetic energy with the electron will be 1 Electron Volt. 1 Electron Volt = 1.6 x 10-19 Joules.

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