CHAPTER-1

INTRODUCTION 1.1 Underground Electric Transmission Lines (Cables )

The electric transmission lines which are installed underground, rather than overhead on poles or towers are known as underground cables. Underground cables have different technical requirements than overhead lines and have different environmental impacts. Due to their different physical, environmental, and construction needs, underground transmission generally costs more and may be more complicated to construct than overhead lines. The design and construction of underground transmission lines differ from overhead lines because of two significant technical challenges that need to be overcome. These are: 1) providing sufficient insulation so that cables can be within inches of grounded material; and 2) dissipating the heat produced during the operation of the electrical cables. In contrast, a number of different systems, materials, and construction methods have been used during the last century in order to achieve the necessary insulation and heat dissipation required for undergrounding transmission lines. The first underground transmission line was a 132 kV line constructed in 1927. The cable was fluid-filled and paper insulated. The fluid was necessary to dissipate the heat. For decades, reliability problems continued to be associated with constructing longer cables at higher voltages. The most significant issue was maintenance difficulties. Not until the mid-1960s did the technology advance sufficiently so that a high voltage 345 kV line could be constructed underground. The lines though were still fluid filled. This caused significant maintenance, contamination, and infrastructure issues. In the 1990s the first solid cable transmission line was constructed more than one mile in length and greater than 230 kV.

1.2 Underground Transmission in ASET

There are approximately 5 km of transmission lines currently in ASET. Less than one percent of the transmission system in ASET is constructed underground. All underground transmission lines are 138 kV lines or less. There are no 345 kV lines constructed underground, currently in ASET.

1.3 Types of Underground Electric Transmission Cables

There are two main types of underground transmission lines currently in use. One type is constructed in a pipe with fluid or gas pumped or circulated through and around the cable in order to manage heat and insulate the cables. The other type is a solid dielectric cable which requires no fluids or gas and is a more recent technological advancement. The common types of underground cable construction include:

1. 2. 3. 4.

High-pressure, fluid-filled pipe (HPFF) High-pressure, gas-filled pipe (HPGF) Self-contained fluid-filled (SCFF) Solid cable, cross-linked polyethylene (XLPE)

1.3.1 High-Pressure, Fluid-Filled Pipe-Type Cable

A high-pressure, fluid-filled (HPFF) pipe-type of underground transmission line, consists of a steel pipe that contains three high-voltage conductors. Figure 1 illustrates a typical HPFF pipe type cable. Each conductor is made of copper or aluminium; insulated with high-quality, oilimpregnated craft paper insulation; and covered with metal shielding (usually lead) and skid wires (for protection during construction).

Figure 1 HPFF or HPGF Pipe-Type Cross Section Inside steel pipes, three conductors are surrounded by dielectric oil which is maintained at 200 pounds per square inch (psi). This fluid acts as an insulator and does not conduct electricity. The pressurized dielectric fluid prevents electrical discharges in the conductors insulation. An electrical discharge can cause the line to fail. The fluid also transfers heat away from the conductors. The fluid is usually static and removes heat by conduction. In some situations the fluid is pumped through the pipe and cooled through the use of a heat exchanger. Cables with pumped fluids require above ground pumping stations, usually located within substations. The pumping stations monitor the pressure and temperature of the fluid. There is a radiator-type device that moves the heat from the underground cables to the atmosphere. The oil is also monitored for any degradation or trouble with the cable materials. Problems associated with HPFF pipe-type underground transmission lines include maintenance issues and possible contamination of surrounding soils and groundwater due to leaking oil.
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1.3.2 High-Pressure, Gas-Filled Pipe-Type Cable

The high-pressure, gas-filled (HPGF) pipe-type of underground transmission line (see Figure 1) is a variation of the HPFF pipe-type, described above. Instead of dielectric oil, pressurized nitrogen gas is used to insulate the conductors. Nitrogen gas is less effective than dielectric fluids at suppressing electrical discharges and cooling. To compensate for this, the conductors insulation is about 20 percent thicker than the insulation in fluid-filled pipes. Thicker insulation and a warmer pipe reduce the amount of current the line can safely and efficiently carry. In case of a leak or break in the cable system, the nitrogen gas is easier to deal with than the dielectric oil in the surrounding environment.

1.3.3 Self-Contained, Fluid-Filled Pipe-Type

The self-contained, fluid-filled (SCFF) pipe-type of underground transmission is often used for underwater transmission construction. The conductors are hollow and filled with an insulating fluid that is pressurized to 25 to 50 psi. In addition, the three cables are independent of each other. They are not placed together in a pipe. Each cable consists of a fluid-filled conductor insulated with high-quality kraft paper and protected by a lead-bronze or aluminum sheath and a plastic jacket. The fluid reduces the chance of electrical discharge and line failure. The sheath helps pressurize the conductors fluid and the plastic jacket keeps the water out. This type of construction reduces the risk of a total failure, but the construction costs are much higher than the single pipe used to construct the HPFF or HPGF systems.

1.3.4 Solid Cable, Cross-Linked Polyethylene

The cross-linked polyethylene (XLPE) underground transmission line is often called solid dielectric cable. The solid dielectric material replaces the pressurized liquid or gas of the pipe type cables. XLPE cable has become the national standard for underground electric transmission lines less than 200 kV. There is less maintenance with the solid cable, but impending insulation failures are much more difficult to monitor and detect. The diameter of the XLPE cables increase with voltage.

Figure 2 XLPE Cable for different voltages

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Each transmission line requires three separate cables, similar to the three conductors required for above ground transmission lines. They are not housed together in a pipe, but are set in concrete ducts or buried side-by-side. Each cable consists of a copper or aluminum conductor and a semiconducting shield at its core. Cross-linked polyethylene insulation surrounds the core. The outer covering of the cable consists of a metallic sheath and a plastic jacket (Figure 3).

Figure 3 XPLE Cable Cross-section For 345 kV XLPE construction, two sets of three cables (six cables) are necessary for a number of reasons, primarily so that the capacity of the underground system matches the capacity of the overhead line. This design aids in limiting the scope of any cable failure and shortens restoration time in an emergency situation. Most underground transmission requires increased down time for the repair of operating problems or maintenance issues compared to overhead lines. The double sets of cables allows for the rerouting of the power through the backup cable set, reducing the down time but increases the construction footprint of the line.

1.4 Ancillary Facilities

Different types of cables require different ancillary facilities. Some of these facilities are constructed underground, while others are aboveground and may have a significant footprint. When assessing the impacts of underground transmission line construction and operation, the impacts of the ancillary facilities must be considered, as well.

1.4.1 Vaults
Vaults are large concrete boxes buried at regular intervals along the underground construction route. The primary function of the vault is for splicing the cables during construction and for permanent access, maintenance, and repair of the cables. The number of vaults required for an underground transmission line is dictated by the maximum length of cable that can be transported on a reel, the cables allowable pulling tension, elevation changes along the route, and the sidewall pressure as the cable goes around bends. XLPE cable requires a splice every 900 to 2000 feet, depending on topography and voltage. Pipe-type cables need a splice at least every 3,500 feet. The photos in Figure 4 show examples of vault construction.
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Vaults are approximately 10 by 30 feet and 10 feet high. They have two chimneys constructed with manholes which workmen use to enter the vaults for cable maintenance. Covers for the manholes are designed to be flush with the finished road surface or ground elevation. Vaults can be either prefabricated or transported to the site in two pieces or constructed onsite. Excavations in the vicinity of the vaults will be deeper and wider. Higher voltage construction may require two vaults constructed adjacent to each other to handle the redundant set of cables.

1.4.2 Transition Structures

For underground cables less than 345 kV, the connection from overhead to underground lines require the construction of a transition structure, also known as a riser. Figures 5 and 6 depict sample transition structure designs. These structures are between 60 and 100 feet tall. They are designed so that the three conductors are effectively separated and meet electric code requirements. The insulated conductor of the overhead line is linked through a solid insulator device to the underground cable. This keeps moisture out of the cable and the overhead line away from the supporting structure. Lightning arrestors are placed close to where the underground cable connects to the overhead line to protect the underground cable from nearby lightning strikes. The insulating material is very sensitive to large voltage changes and cannot be repaired. If damaged, a completely new cable is installed.

1.4.3 Transition Station

High voltage (345 kV or greater) underground transmission lines require transition stations wherever the underground cable connects to overhead transmission. For very lengthy sections of underground transmission, intermediate transition stations might be necessary. The appearance of a 345 kV transition station is similar to that of a small switching station. The size is governed by whether reactors or other additional components are required. They range in size from approximately 1 to 2 acres. Transition stations also require grading, access roads, and storm water management facilities.

1.4.4 Pressurizing Sources

For HPFF systems, a pressurizing plant maintains fluid pressure in the pipe. The number of pressurizing plants depends on the length of the underground lines. It may be located within a substation. It includes a reservoir that holds reserve fluid. An HPGF system does not use a pressurizing plant, but rather a regulator and nitrogen cylinder. These are located in a gas-cabinet that contains high-pressure and low-pressure alarms and a regulator. The XLPE system does not require any pressurization facilities.

1.5 Construction of Underground Transmission

Installation of an underground transmission cable generally involves the following sequence of events: 1) ROW clearing, 2) trenching/blasting, 3) laying and/or welding pipe, 4) duct bank and vault installation, 5) backfilling, 6) cable installation, 7) adding fluids or gas, and 8) site restoration. Many of these activities are conducted simultaneously so as to minimize the interference with street traffic.

1.5.1 Right-Of-Way Construction Zone

Similar to overhead transmission construction, underground construction begins by staking the ROW boundaries and marking sensitive resources. Existing underground utilities are identified and marked prior to the start of construction. If the transmission line is constructed within roadways, lane closures will be required and traffic control signage installed. Construction activities and equipment will disrupt traffic flow. On average, several hundred feet of traffic lane are closed during construction. When materials and equipment are delivered, additional lengths or lanes of traffic may be closed. Construction areas need to be wide and level enough to support the movement of backhoes, dump trucks, concrete trucks, and other necessary construction equipment and materials. Undeveloped portions of the road ROW may require excavation or fill deposited on hillsides so that the surface is levelled and compact enough for support of the construction equipment. Construction areas in road ROWs are typically 12 to 15 feet wide with an additional 5 to 8 feet for trench construction. If the transmission line is to be constructed in unpaved areas, all shrubs and trees are cleared in the travel path and in the area to be trenched. Temporary easements would be necessary during construction and permanent easements for the life of the transmission line.

1.5.2 Trenching and Blasting

Most commonly, a backhoe is used to dig the trench. The excavation starts with the removal of the top soil in unpaved areas or the concrete/asphalt in paved areas. Large trucks haul away excavated subsoil materials to approved off-site location for disposal, or if appropriate, re-use. In accordance with OSHA requirements, trenches of a certain depth may require additional shoring. Trench size will vary depending on the cable type and the lines voltage. Most commonly, trenches are at least 6 to 8 feet deep to keep cables below the frost line. The trench dimensions will be greater in places where vaults are located. Urban road ROWs often contain a wide variety of underground obstacles, such as existing utilities, natural features, topography, major roadways, or underpasses. The dimensions of the trench might need to be deeper and wider to avoid underground obstacles. Every effort should be made to prevent impacts to existing utilities such as making minor adjustment to the alignment of the duct bank, relocating the existing utility, or putting the duct bank below the existing infrastructure. When trenches are excavated deeper than anticipated, the width of the trench must be widened for purposes of stability.
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1.5.3 Jack and Bore

Jack and bore construction is used in areas where open trench construction is obstructed by existing features such as railroads, waterways, or other large facilities or utilities. It can be used for most types of underground cable construction. Entrance and exit pits are excavated to accommodate the boring equipment and materials. Typical boring pits are around 14 by 35 feet, and deep enough to accommodate the boring equipment. An auger is used in the entrance pit to excavate a hole and remove spoils. A jack pushes a reinforced pipe in sections behind the auger head. When the pipe is installed, the conduit is surrounded by bore spacers and the conduit is pushed into the casing pipe. The casing pipe is then backfilled with a material that optimizes thermal radiation. Lastly, the entrance and exit pits are restored to their original condition. Typically construction lay down areas are equal to the length of bore to facilitate the welding of the pipe that is installed into the bore hole. The bore entry site may be as much as 150 feet long to handle the drilling equipment and management of the slurry.

1.5.4 Conduit Assembly for XLPE Construction

The assembly of conduits and direct-buried method of XLPE construction are illustrated in Figures 11, 12, and 13. Underground XLPE cable systems can be direct-buried or encased in concrete duct banks. For duct bank installation, the trench is first excavated a couple hundred feet. This is because the construction technique provides more mechanical protection, reduces the need for re-excavation in the event of a cable failure, and shorter lengths of trench are opened at any one time for construction and maintenance activities.

Figure 4 Installation of XLPE Underground Cable Directly Buried

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1.5.5 Pipe Installation

HPFF and HPGF pipe-type installation requires the construction of welded steel pipe sections to house the cables. The welding of pipe sections takes place either in or over the trench. Pipe welds are X-rayed, and then protected from corrosion with plastic coatings. When the pipe is completely installed, it is pressure tested with either air or nitrogen gas. It is then vacuum-tested, vault to vault, which also dries the pipe. Figure 14 show the cross-section for an HPFF or HPGF pipe-type underground transmission line.

Figure 5 Installation of HPFF or HPGF Pipe-Type Underground Cable

1.5.6 Cable Installation

Cable pulling and splicing can occur any time after the duct banks and vaults are completed. Prior to installation of the cable, the conduit is tested and cleaned by pulling a mandrel and swab through each of the ducts. A typical setup is to lace the reel of cable at the transition structure or at one of the vaults and the winch truck at the next vault. The cable is then pulled from the transition structure to the nearest vault. Direction of pull between vaults is based on the direction that results in the lowest pulling and sidewall tensions. Cable lengths are spliced within the vaults.

1.5.7 Backfilling
Pipe-type conductors operate at about 167 to 185 F with an emergency operating temperature of 212 to 221 F. XLPE conductors operate at about 176 to 194 F with an emergency operating temperature of about 266 F. Heat must be carried away from the conductors for them to operate efficiently. The air performs this function for overhead lines. The soils in and around the trench
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do this for underground lines. All of the heat generated from direct buried cables must be dissipated through the soil. The selection of backfill type can make a strong difference on the capacity rating. Different soils have different abilities to transfer heat. Saturated soils conduct heat more easily than for instance, sandy soils. For this reason, the design needs to determine the type of soil nearest the line. A soil thermal survey may be necessary before construction to help determine the soils ability to move heat away from the line. In many cases, a special backfill material is used instead of soil in the trench around the cables to ensure sufficient heat transfer to the surrounding soils and groundwater.

1.5.8 Site Restoration

Site restoration for underground construction is similar to overhead transmission line construction restoration. When construction is completed, roadways, landscaped areas, and undeveloped areas are restored to their original condition and topography (Figure 16). Highway lands and shoulders are re-constructed so as to support road traffic. Roadside areas and landscaped private properties are restored with top soils that was previously stripped and stockpiled during construction or with new topsoil. Any infrastructure impacted by the construction project such as driveways, curbs, and private utilities are restored to their previous function, and yards and pastures are vegetated as specified in landowner easements.

1.6 Underground Construction Considerations

Underground construction could be a reasonable alternative to overhead in urban areas where an overhead line cannot be installed with appropriate clearance, at any cost. In suburban areas, aesthetic issues, weather-related outages, some environmental concerns, and the high cost of some ROWs could make an underground option more attractive. Underground transmission construction is most often used in urban areas. However, underground construction may be disruptive to street traffic and individuals because of the extensive excavation necessary. During construction, barricades, warning and illuminated flashing signs, are often required to guide traffic and pedestrians. After each days work, steel plates will cover any open trench. All open concrete vaults will have a highly visible fence around them. When the cable is pulled into the pipe, the contractor should cordon off the work area. There may be time-of-day or work week limitations for construction activities in roadways that are imposed for reasons of noise, dust, and traffic impacts. These construction limitations often increase the cost of the project. The trenching for the construction of underground lines causes greater soil disturbance than overhead lines. Overhead line construction disturbs the soil mostly at the site of each transmission pole. Trenching an underground line through farmlands, forests, wetlands, and other natural areas can cause significant land disturbances. Many engineering factors significantly increase the cost of underground transmission facilities. As the voltage increases, engineering constraints and costs dramatically increase. This is the reason why underground distribution lines (12 - 24 kV) are not uncommon; whereas, there is just over 100 miles of underground transmission currently in the state. There are also no 345 kV underground segments in Wisconsin.

1.7 Construction Impacts in Suburban and Urban Areas

The construction impacts of underground lines are temporary and, for the most part, reversible. They include dirt, dust, noise, and traffic disruption. Increased particles in the air can cause heal the problems for people who live or work nearby. Particularly sensitive persons include the very young, the very old, and those with health problems, such as asthma. If the right-of-way is in a residential area, construction hours and the amount of equipment operating simultaneously may need to be limited to reduce noise levels. In commercial or industrial areas, special measures may be needed to keep access to businesses open or to control traffic during rush hours.

1.8 Costs
The estimated cost for constructing underground transmission lines ranges from 4 to 14 times more expensive than overhead lines of the same voltage and same distance. A typical new 69 kV overhead single-circuit transmission line costs approximately $285,000 per mile as opposed to $1.5 million per mile for a new 69 kV underground line (without the terminals). A new 138 kV overhead line costs approximately $390,000 per mile as opposed to $2 million per mile for underground (without the terminals). These costs are determined by the local environment, the distances between splices and termination points, and the number of ancillary facilities required. Other issues that make underground transmission lines more costly are right-of-way access, start-up complications, construction limitations in urban areas, conflicts with other utilities, trenching construction issues, crossing natural or manmade barriers, and the potential need for forced cooling facilities. Other transmission facilities in or near the line may also require new or upgraded facilities to balance power issues such fault currents and voltage transients, all adding to the cost. While it may be useful to sometimes compare the general cost differences between overhead and underground construction, the actual costs for underground may be quite different. Underground transmission construction can be very site-specific, especially for higher voltage lines. Components of underground transmission are often not interchangeable as they are for overhead. A complete in-depth study and characterization of the subsurface and electrical environment is necessary in order to get an accurate cost estimate for undergrounding a specific section of transmission. This can make the cost of underground transmission extremely variable when calculated on a per-mile basis.

1.8.1 Underground Operating Considerations

Post-construction issues such as aesthetics, electric and magnetic fields (EMF), and property values are usually less of an issue for underground lines. Underground lines are not visible after construction and have less impact on property values and aesthetics. Apart from cost and construction issues, there are continued maintenance and safety issues associated with the rightof-way. The right-of-way must be kept safe from accidental contact by subsequent construction activities. To protect individual ducts (for SCFF and XLPE lines) against accidental future digins, a concrete duct bank, a concrete slab, or patio blocks are installed above the line, along with a system of warning signs (high-voltage buried cable).
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Additionally, if the cables are not constructed under roads or highways, the ROW must be kept clear of vegetation with long roots such as trees that could interfere with the system.

1.8.2 Cable Repair

Repair costs for an underground line are usually greater than costs for an equivalent overhead line. Leaks can cost $50,000 to $100,000 to locate and repair. A leak detection system for a HPFF cable system can cost from $1,000 to $400,000 to purchase and install depending on the system technology. Moulded joints for splices in XLPE line could cost about $20,000 to repair. Field-made splices could cost up to $60,000 to repair. A fault in a directionally drilled section of the line could require replacement of the entire section. For example, the cost for directional drilling an HPGF cables is $25 per foot per cable. The cables in the directional drilled section twist around each other in the pipe so they all would have to be pulled out for examination. The newer XLPE cables tend to have a life that is one half of an overhead conductor which may require replacing the underground every 35 years or so. Easement agreements may require the utility to compensate property owners for disruption in their property use and for property damage that is caused by repairing underground transmission lines on private property. However, the cost to compensate the landowner is small compared to the total repair costs. Underground transmission lines have higher life cycle costs than overhead transmission lines when combining construction repair and maintenance costs over the life of the line.

1.9 Reliability of Service

In general, lower voltage underground transmission lines are very reliable. However, their repair times are much longer than those for overhead lines.

1.9.1 Repair Rates Pipe-Type Transmission Cables

For pipe-type lines, the trouble rates historically, for about 2,536 miles of line correspond to about: One cable repair needed per year for every 833 miles of cable. One splice repair needed per year for every 2,439 miles of cable. One termination repair needed per year for every 359 miles of cable. These trouble rates indicate that there would be, at most, a 1:300 chance for the most common type of repair to be needed in any one mile of pipe-type underground line over any one year.

1.9.2 Repair Rates - XLPE lines

There is less available documentation regarding XLPE trouble rates and very little information for 345 kV transmission lines. However, the following estimates are generally accepted. One cable repair needed per year for every 1,000 miles of cable. One splice repair needed per year for every 1,428 miles of cable. One termination repair needed per year for every 1,428 miles of cable.
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These trouble rates indicate that there would be, at most, a 1:1,000 chance for the most common type of repair to be needed in any one mile of XLPE underground line over any one year.

1.9.3 Outage Duration

The duration of outages varies widely, depending on the circumstances of the failure, the availability of parts, and the skill level of the available repair personnel. The typical duration of an HPGF outage is 8 to 12 days. The duration of typical XLPE outages is 5 to 9 days. The repair of a fault in a HPFF system is estimated to be from 2 to 9 months, depending on the extent of the damage. The outage rate would increase as the number of splices increases. However, the use of concrete vaults at splice locations can reduce the duration of a splice failure by allowing quick and clean access to the failure. The outage would be longer if the splice were directly buried, as is sometimes done with rural or suburban XLPE lines. To locate a leak in a pipe-type line, the pipe pressure must be reduced below 60 psi and the line de-energized before any probes are put into the pipe. For some leak probes, the line must be out of service for a day before the tests can begin. After repairs, pipe pressure must be returned to normal slowly. This would require an additional day or more before the repaired line could be energized. To locate an electrical fault in an underground line, the affected cable must be identified. To repair a pipe-type line, the fluid on each side of the electrical failure would be frozen at least 25 feet out from the failure point. Then, the pipe would be opened and the line inspected. New splices are sometimes required and sometimes cable may need to be replaced and spliced. Then, the pipe would be thawed and the line would be re-pressurized, tested, and finally put back in service. In contrast, a fault or break in an overhead line can usually be located almost immediately and repaired within hours or, at most, a day or two. One problem that increases emergency response time for underground transmission lines is that most of the suppliers of underground transmission materials are in Europe. While some of the European companies keep Americanbased offices, cable and system supplies may not be immediately available for emergency repairs.

1.9.4 Line Life Expectancies

While the assumed life of underground pipe-type or XLPE cable is about 40 years, there are pipe-type cables that has been in service for more than 60 years. Overhead lines in northern Wisconsin last 60 plus years. There are some overhead lines that have lasted more than 80 years.

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Role of the Public Service Commission

For most large underground or overhead transmission lines, the utility must apply to the Public Service Commission (PSC) for approval prior to building the line. An applicant must receive a Certificate of Public Convenience and Necessity (CPCN) from the Commission for a transmission project that is either: 345 kV or greater; or, Less than 345 kV but greater than or equal to 100 kV, over one mile in length, and requiring new right-of-way (ROW).

All other transmission line projects must receive a Certificate of Authority (CA) from the Commission if the projects cost is above a certain percent of the utilitys annual revenue. The requirements for these certificates are specified in Wis. Stat. 196.49 and 196.491. The Public Service Commission of Wisconsin is an independent state agency that oversees more than 1,100 Wisconsin public utilities that provide natural gas, electricity, heat, steam, water and telecommunication services.

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CHAPTER-2
XLPE CABLE STANDARDS AND CABLE SIZING
XLPE cable systems are designed to meet requirements in international and/or national standards. Some of these are listed below.

2.1 IEC Standards

XLPE cable systems specified according to IEC (International Electrotechnical Commission) are among many other standards accepted. IEC standards are considered to express an international consensus of opinion. Some frequently used standards are: IEC 60228 Conductors of insulated cables. IEC 60287 Electric cables - Calculation of the current rating. IEC 60332 Tests on electric cables under fire conditions. IEC 60502 Power cables with extruded insulation and their accessories for rated voltage from 1 kV (Um=1, 2 kV) up to 30 kV (Um=36 kV). IEC 60840 Power cables with extruded insulation and their accessories for rated voltage above 30 kV (Um=36 kV) up to 150 kV (Um=170 kV). Test methods and requirements. IEC 60853 Calculation of the cyclic and emergency current rating of cables. IEC 61443 Short-circuit temperature limits of electric cables with rated voltages above 30 kV (Um=36 kV). IEC 62067 Power cables with extruded insulation and their accessories for rated voltage above 150 kV (Um=170 kV) up to 500 kV (Um=550 kV). Test methods and requirements.

2.2 ICEA Standards

For North America cables are often specified according to ICEA (Insulated Cable Engineers Association, Inc.).

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S-97-682 Standard for utility shielded power cables rated 5-46 kV. S-108-720 Standard for extruded insulated power cables rated above 46 through 345 kV.

2.3 Cable Sizing

STANDARDS AND CODES IEC-287 Conductor size calculation method, Thermal Conductivity IEE Wiring Regulations, 16th Edition & ERA Report 69-30, Part 1 & 3 for DeRating Factors IEE Recommendations for the Electrical and Electronic Equipment of Mobile and fixed Offshore installations KOC-E-008(Clause 6.2.1)- Current carrying Capacity, 6.2.2 & 6.2.3 De-rating factors, 6.3-Voltage drop KOC-G-007(Clause- 5.1.5) - Soil temperature at 1.22 m depth: max. 35 C, min. 17C. A design of 40C shall be used for cable system design calculations. KOC-G-007(Clause - 5.10.3)- Soil Resistivity for use in cable designs shall be 2 Km/w KOC-E-023(Clause 5.0) - Electrical Components and Materials shall be designed for continuous operation under ambient temperatures of 50 C in the shade. For buried cables a design temperature of 40 C shall be used.

DATA COLLECTION a) b) c) d) e) Interaction with Mechanical Engineer: for pump/compressor/ Blowers etc. drivers - BHP estimated power requirement Interaction with Instrumentation Engineer: for DCS/ESD/Fire alarm/ detector System/ Public Address System etc. and other Instrumentation loads Interaction with HVAC Engineer: for HVAC loads Interaction with Civil Engineer: for Civil loads if any Assess the Lighting and other utility load requirements

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PREPARE THE LOAD LIST

Estimate the Power Factors, use the efficiency of individual loads, and arrive at the input power requirement in KW. Assess the motor feeders at full load current & starting current. Full Load Current (IFL) = P/((3) *V*Cos*) Amps

P = Rated Load (KW) (Output Power) V =Rated Voltage (KV) Cos = Power Factor Efficiency () = Output power/Input Power

Input power = Output power + Losses

SELECT THE METHOD OF INSTALLATION & TYPE OF CABLE Determine the possible route & route length. Select the type of cable based on method of installation a) b) c) XLPE/SWA/PVC for outside the operating areas XLPE/LC/SWA/PVC for inside the production facility XLPE/SWA/PVC - for inside substation that are intended to be on the trays.

DETAILS OF INSTALLATION & CALCULATION OF DERATING FACTORS Assess the degree of derating factor based on following cable (XLPE) installation methods 1. In Air 2. In ground / Duct

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In Air: i) Select the air temperature is 50 C as derating factor is 0.85 (as per manufacture Catalogue) ii) Group rating factor for multi core cables (600/1000V) with spacing 0.15m is 0.7 (3CKT), 0.57 for 6 CKT In Ground: i) Select the ground temperature is 40 C as the derating factor from manufacturer catalogue is 0.82 ii) The grouping factor for LT Cables spacing of 0.15M, the derating factor is 0.74 (4CKT), 0.68 for 6 CKT iii) The grouping factor for HT Cables spacing of 0.15M, the derating factor is 0.71 (4CKT), 0.64 for 6 CKT iv) Depth of Laying 1) For LT cables (750 mm depth), derating factor is 0.96 2) For HT cables (1000 mm depth), derating factor is 0.93 FINALIZATION OF CABLE SIZE Assessment of Derated current of cable under site installed conditions: Site Installed Current (SIC) ,SIC = Ia x D.F (A) Ia = Allowable load current (Amps) (as per manufacturers catalogue) D.F = Derating factor (%) D.F = (Grouping Factor)* (Direct In Ground) *(Depth of laying) *(Thermal Resistivity of Soil) Calculate the Voltage Drop of the each cable : Voltage Drop (Vd) = 3 * I(RCOS + X SIN ) L I (IFL) = Full load Current (A) R = Resistance (/KM) X = Reactance (/KM) COS = Load Power Factor SIN = Load Reactive Factor
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---- (IEEE 3.11)

= Length of the cable (KM)

Check the voltage drop limits as per manufacturer For feeders to and from area Substations- 1% For lighting circuit is less than 2.5% For HV Motor the voltage drop at motor terminals shall not exceed 3% at full load and 15% during starting For LV motors voltage drop at motor terminal shall not exceed 5% and 15% during starting.

Short Circuit Rating of Cable: Check the characteristic of protective device provided at source end for protection of the cable. i) Derated current of cable is more than current protecting element. ii) Short circuit withstand capacity of the cable is more than that of the actual fault current, considering fault clearance time Where, A = Conductor area in sqmm. t = Short circuit time in Sec. Check final load list: Check the actual Power Factors, use the efficiency of individual loads, and verify the input power requirement in KW/ current. Check the method of installation & type of cable based on the information in cable catalogue. Check the details of Installation & Assessment of de-rating factors are based on information in cable catalogue. Finalization of cable size : The following points are calculated base on information obtained Check the derated current of cable under site installed condition Check the Voltage drop :Voltage drop calculated based on the formula (IEEE 3.11) Coordination with protective device Check the short circuit current & time, and ensure that selected cables are fully protected.

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CHAPTER-3

MODEL DEVELOPMENT
3.1 Overview of MiPower Package

MiPower package aids the power system engineer during operational or planning stages of a power system. This package is extensively useful for power utilities, industries, research and educational institutions. The package is designed to work with all operating systems. The package offers the following features: User-friendly GUI to generate power system single line diagrams and reports. A centralised database to store power system elements information. Automatic single line diagram generation for a given network topology. Plotting of linear/semi-log/log curves with multiple X/Y variables. Batch mode facility to create a centralized database for very large networks. The package is interfaced with many power system application modules. Print/Plot support for single line diagrams and reports. Porting of single line diagram to/from AutoCAD.

The package comes with an interface to the following power system applications Power Flow Analysis Fault Analysis Optimal Power Flow Contingency Analysis. Over Current Relay co-ordination Stability Analysis Transient Stability Analysis Dynamic Stability Analysis Voltage Instability Analysis Network Reduction Sub-Synchronous Resonance

Electro-Magnetic Transient Analysis Harmonic Analysis Long Term Load Forecast Line Parameter Calculation Cable Parameter Calculation

Power flow analysis program computes the voltage magnitudes, phase angles and power flows (MW/kW, MVA/kVA, MVAr/kVAr) for a network under steady state operating conditions.

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Stability programs are used to study dynamics of power systems under disturbance conditions to determine whether synchronous generators and motors remain in synchronism. System disturbances may be caused by the sudden loss of a generator or transmission line, by sudden load increase or decrease and by short circuits and switching operations. The stability program combines power flow equations and machine dynamic equations to compute the angular swings of machines during disturbances. The program also computes the critical clearing times for network faults and allows the engineer to investigate the effects of various machine parameters, network modifications, disturbance types and control schemes.

3.2

System Model

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3.3

Results from simulation of preliminary model

Load Flow Analysis is one of the most common computational procedures used in power system analysis. The load flow problem can be defined as: Given the load power consumption at all buses of a known electric power system configuration and the power generation at each generator, find the power flow in each line and transformer of the interconnecting network and the voltage magnitude and phase angle at each bus. Analysing the solution of this problem for numerous conditions helps to ensure that the power system is designed to satisfy its performance criteria while incurring the most favourable investment and operation costs. Planning, design and operation of power systems require such calculations to Analyse steady-state performance of the power system under various operating conditions. Study the effects of change in equipment configuration.

Given the power consumption at all buses of a known electric power system configuration and the power production at each generator, load flow analysis program, PowerLFA calculates the power flow in each line and transformer of the interconnecting network and the voltage magnitude and angle at each bus. Load flow programs are divided into two types - static (off-line) and dynamic (real time).Most load flow studies for system analysis are based on static network models. Real time load flows that incorporate data inputs from the actual networks are typically used by utilities in Supervisory Control And Data Acquisition (SCADA) systems. Such systems are used primarily as operating tools for optimisation of generation, var control, dispatch, losses and tie-line control. Since load flow problem pertains to balanced, steady state operation of power systems, a single phase, positive sequence model of the power system is used.

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CHAPTER-4
INPUT DATA FOR BUS, TRANSFORMER, TRANSMISSION LINE AND LOAD 4.1 Bus Data
BUS NO. 1 2 4 7 8 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 21 22 23 25 30 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 43 52 74 78 BUS KV 33 33 33 0.415 0.415 0.415 0.415 0.415 0.415 0.415 0.415 0.415 0.415 0.415 0.415 0.415 0.415 0.415 0.415 0.415 0.415 0.415 0.415 0.415 0.415 0.415 0.415 0.415 0.415 VMIN-PU 0.95 0.95 0.95 0.95 0.95 0.95 0.95 0.95 0.95 0.95 0.95 0.95 0.95 0.95 0.95 0.95 0.95 0.95 0.95 0.95 0.95 0.95 0.95 0.95 0.95 0.95 0.95 0.95 0.95 VMAX-PU 1.05 1.05 1.05 1.05 1.05 1.05 1.05 1.05 1.05 1.05 1.05 1.05 1.05 1.05 1.05 1.05 1.05 1.05 1.05 1.05 1.05 1.05 1.05 1.05 1.05 1.05 1.05 1.05 1.05

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4.2 Transformer Data

FROM NAME* Bus4 Bus4 Bus2 Bus96 TO NAME* Bus7 Bus8 Bus96 Bus13 IMPE R(P.U) MINTAP 0.00104 0.95 0.00104 0.95 0.00104 0.95 0.00208 0.95 DANCE X(P.U.) MAXTAP 0.02081 1.05 0.02081 1.05 0.02081 1.05 0.04161 1.05 NOMINAL TAP TAPSTEP 1 0.0125 1 0.0125 1 0.0125 1 0.0125 RATING MVA SHIFT-DE 3 0 3 0 3 0 1.5 0

4.3 Transmission Line Data

FROM NAME* Bus1 Bus2 Bus13 Bus13 Bus13 Bus13 Bus13 Bus13 Bus13 Bus13 Bus13 Bus8 Bus8 Bus8 Bus8 Bus37 Bus37 Bus8 Bus8 Bus8 Bus8 Bus8 Bus8 TO NAME* Bus2 Bus4 Bus14 Bus15 Bus16 Bus17 Bus18 Bus19 Bus22 Bus23 Bus25 Bus34 Bus35 Bus36 Bus37 Bus38 Bus39 Bus40 Bus41 Bus43 Bus74 Bus74 Bus78 INE L PARAME TER RATING R(P.U) X(P.U.) B/2(P.U.) MVA 0.00012 0.00007 0 5 0.00012 0.00007 0 9 0.20032 0.11619 0 0 0.1829 0.10608 0 0 0.20903 0.1498 0 0 0.33096 0.19196 0 0 0.31296 0.03821 0 0 0.20903 0.09093 0 0 0.32516 0.14144 0 0 0.05806 0.02021 0 0 0.10161 0.03536 0 0 0.06968 0.04993 0 1 0.06968 0.04993 0 0 0.06968 0.04993 0 2 0.07258 0.02526 0 0 0.30193 0.02526 0 0 0.10887 0.03789 0 0 0.33677 0.14649 0 0 0.13064 0.07577 0 0 0.00376 0.00449 0 1 1.16127 0.50515 0 0 0.58064 0.25258 0 0 0.20903 0.09093 0 0 KMS kV 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.1 0.2 0.3 0 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.3 0.1 0 1 1 0.2

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4.4 Generator Data

FROM NAME* Bus1 Bus90 Bus91 Bus105 REAL POWER(MW) 80 2.97 0.4 0.96 Q-MIN MVAR 0 0 0 0 Q-MAX MVAR 60 0.423 0.3 0.72 V-SPEC P.U. 1 1 1 1 CAP. CURV 0 0 0 0 MVA RATING 100 3 0.5 1.2 3 0 0 0 STAT

4.5 Load Data

FROM NAME* Bus38 Bus40 Bus41 Bus25 Bus23 Bus18 Bus17 Bus16 Bus15 Bus14 Bus78 REAL MW 0.085 0.057 0.014 0.099 0.2 0.045 0.065 0.121 0.064 0.144 0.198 REACTIVE MVAR 0.012 0.008 0.002 0.014 0.029 0.006 0.009 0.017 0.009 0.02 0.028

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CHAPTER-5
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 5.1 Transformer flows and Transformer losses
FROM NAME Bus4 Bus4 Bus2 Bus96 TO NAME Bus7 Bus8 Bus96 Bus13 FORWARD MVA ANG-DEG 3.150 15.656 3.136 12.940 1.808 15.619 1.787 13.554 LOSS MW MVAR 0.0104 0.2071 0.0103 0.2052 0.0034 0.0681 0.0068 0.1361 % LOADING 105.2@ 104.7@ 60.3$ 120.6@

NUMBE OF TRANSFORMERS LOADED BEYOND NUMBER OF TRANSFORMERS LOADED BETWEEN NUMBER OF TRANSFORMERS LOADED BETWEEN NUMBER OF TRANSFORMERS LOADED BETWEEN NUMBER OF TRANSFORMERS LOADED BETWEEN NUMBER OF TRANSFORMERS LOADED BETWEEN NUMBER OF TRANSFORMERS LOADED BETWEEN

125% 100% 75% 50% 25% 1% 0%

AND AND AND AND AND AND

125% 100% 75% 50% 25% 1%

0 3 0 1 0 0 0

5.2
NODE NO. 1 2 4 7 8 13 14 15 16

Bus Voltages and Powers

FROM NAME Bus1 Bus2 Bus4 Bus7 Bus8 Bus13 Bus14 Bus15 Bus16 VMAG P.U. 1 0.9995 0.9987 0.9798 0.9829 0.9696 0.9362 0.9562 0.9398 ANGLE DEGREE 0 -0.01 -0.02 -3.67 -3.69 -6.36 -7.15 -6.67 -7.27 MVA GEN 8.101 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 ANGDEG GEN 14.592 -90 -90 -90 -90 -90 -90 -90 -90 MVA LOAD 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.145 0.065 0.122 ANG-DEG LOAD -90 -90 -90 -90 -90 -90 8.108 8.11 8.11 MVAR COMP 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

25

NUMBER OF BUSES EXCEEDING MINIMUM VOLTAGE LIMIT (@ mark) : 19 NUMBER OF BUSES EXCEEDING MAXIMUM VOLTAGE LIMIT (# mark) : 0

NUMBER OF GENERATORS EXCEEDING MINIMUM Q LIMIT (< mark) : 0 NUMBER OF GENERATORS EXCEEDING MAXIMUM Q LIMIT (> mark) : 0

5.3

Line flows and Line losses

TO NAME Bus2 Bus4 Bus14 Bus15 Bus16 Bus17 Bus18 Bus19 Bus22 Bus23 Bus25 Bus34 Bus35 Bus36 Bus37 Bus38 Bus39 Bus40 Bus41 Bus43 Bus74 Bus74 Bus78 Bus83 Bus84 Bus21 Bus30 Bus4 Bus4 FORWARD MVA ANG-DEG 4.05 14.592 6.289 14.286 0.15 8.902 0.066 8.428 0.126 9.021 0.067 8.693 0.046 8.094 0.161 8.705 0.104 8.708 0.205 8.259 0.101 8.239 0.527 9.387 0.392 9.031 0.752 9.876 0.301 8.537 0.089 8.014 0.205 8.391 0.058 8.444 0.014 8.145 0 -90 0 173.25 0 173.25 0.21 8.863 0.493 10.94 0.128 8.475 0.107 9.166 3.091 12.01 0 -18.264 0 -18.264
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FROM NAME Bus1 Bus2 Bus13 Bus13 Bus13 Bus13 Bus13 Bus13 Bus13 Bus13 Bus13 Bus8 Bus8 Bus8 Bus8 Bus37 Bus37 Bus8 Bus8 Bus8 Bus8 Bus8 Bus8 Bus13 Bus13 Bus13 Bus7 Bus90 Bus91

LOSS MW MVAR 0.0019 0.0011 0.0046 0.0026 0.0048 0.0028 0.0008 0.0005 0.0035 0.0025 0.0016 0.0009 0.0007 0.0001 0.0058 0.0025 0.0037 0.0016 0.0026 0.0009 0.0011 0.0004 0.02 0.0144 0.0111 0.0079 0.0408 0.0292 0.0068 0.0024 0.0026 0.0002 0.005 0.0017 0.0012 0.0005 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.0095 0.0042 0.0841 0.0366 0.0028 0.0012 0.0068 0.003 0.0052 0.005 0 0.0016 0 0.0016

% LOADING 81.0# 70.1$ 78.3# 34.4^ 59.2$ 35.0^ 65.6$ 98.4# 63.5$ 97.9# 69.1$ 49.7^ 91.0# 44.3^ 94.7# 85.9# 99.2# 35.2^ 7.4& 0.0* 0.0* 0.0* 99.1# 94.3# 78.2# 65.4$ 90.1# 0.3* 0.3*

! NUMBER OF LINES LOADED BEYOND 125% : 0 @ NUMBER OF LINES LOADED BETWEEN 100% AND 125% : 0 # NUMBER OF LINES LOADED BETWEEN 75% AND 100% : 18 $ NUMBER OF LINES LOADED BETWEEN 50% AND 75% : 6 ^ NUMBER OF LINES LOADED BETWEEN 25% AND 50% : 5 & NUMBER OF LINES LOADED BETWEEN 1% AND 25% : 1 * NUMBER OF LINES LOADED BETWEEN 0% AND 1% : 6 After running the load flow two transformer are overloaded i.e 33/0.4kV , 3 MVA HT PANELS and 33/11kV, 3 MVA LT PANEL 1 shown in transformer flows and transformer losses output above. Due to this overloading , line losses and bus power flow are increased.

Improvement
Now instead of changing or installing new set of cable lines, we increased the capacity of cable by making it double circuit. When increasing the transformer capacities following results are obtained:-

5.4

Result with increased line capacity

Transformer Data
FROM NAME* Bus4 Bus4 Bus2 Bus96 TO NAME* Bus7 Bus8 Bus96 Bus13 IMPE R(P.U) MINTAP 0.00089 0.95 0.00089 0.95 0.00104 0.95 0.00156 0.95 DANCE X(P.U.) MAXTAP 0.01783 1.05 0.01783 1.05 0.02081 1.05 0.03121 1.05 NOMINAL TAP TAPSTEP 1 0.0125 1 0.0125 1 0.0125 1 0.0125 RATING MVA SHIFT-DE 3.5 0 3.5 0 3 0 2 0

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Output:
Transformer flows and Transformer Losses
FROM NAME Bus4 Bus4 Bus2 Bus96 TO NAME Bus7 Bus8 Bus96 Bus13 FORWARD ANGMVA DEG 3.141 15.105 3.126 12.398 1.794 14.499 1.775 12.439 LOSS MW 0.0088 0.0087 0.0034 0.0050 MVAR 0.1765 0.1748 0.0670 0.1006 % LOADING 89.9# 89.4# 59.8$ 89.8#

! NUMBER OF TRANSFORMERS LOADED BEYOND 125% : 0 @ NUMBER OF TRANSFORMERS LOADED BETWEEN 100% AND 125% : 0 # NUMBER OF TRANSFORMERS LOADED BETWEEN 75% AND 100% : 3 $ NUMBER OF TRANSFORMERS LOADED BETWEEN 50% AND 75% : 1 ^ NUMBER OF TRANSFORMERS LOADED BETWEEN 25% AND 50% : 0 & NUMBER OF TRANSFORMERS LOADED BETWEEN 1% AND 25% : 0 * NUMBER OF TRANSFORMERS LOADED BETWEEN 0% AND 1% : 0

Bus Voltages and Powers

FROM NAME Bus1 Bus2 Bus4 Bus7 Bus8 Bus13 Bus14 Bus15 V-MAG P.U. 1 0.9995 0.9987 0.9828 0.9854 0.9757 0.9425 0.9624 ANGLE DEGREE 0 -0.01 -0.02 -3.14 -3.16 -5.26 -6.04 -5.57 MVA GEN 8.068 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 ANG-DEG MVA GEN LOAD 13.917 -90 -90 -90 -90 -90 -90 -90 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.145 0.065 ANG-DEG LOAD -90 -90 -90 -90 -90 -90 8.108 8.11 MVAR COMP 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

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NUMBER OF BUSES EXCEEDING MINIMUM VOLTAGE LIMIT (@ mark) : 17 NUMBER OF BUSES EXCEEDING MAXIMUM VOLTAGE LIMIT (# mark) : NUMBER OF GENERATORS EXCEEDING MINIMUM Q LIMIT (< mark) : NUMBER OF GENERATORS EXCEEDING MAXIMUM Q LIMIT (> mark) : 0 0 0

Line flows and Line losses

FROM NAME Bus1 Bus2 Bus13 Bus13 Bus13 Bus13 Bus13 Bus13 Bus13 Bus13 Bus13 Bus8 Bus8 Bus8 Bus8 Bus37 Bus37 Bus8 Bus8 Bus8 Bus8 Bus8 Bus8 Bus13 Bus13 Bus13 Bus7 Bus90 Bus91 Bus30 Bus30 Bus30 TO NODE 2 4 14 15 16 17 18 19 22 23 25 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 43 74 74 78 83 84 21 30 4 4 100 101 102 TO NAME Bus2 Bus4 Bus14 Bus15 Bus16 Bus17 Bus18 Bus19 Bus22 Bus23 Bus25 Bus34 Bus35 Bus36 Bus37 Bus38 Bus39 Bus40 Bus41 Bus43 Bus74 Bus74 Bus78 Bus83 Bus84 Bus21 Bus30 Bus4 Bus4 Bus100 Bus101 Bus102 FORWARD MVA ANG-DEG 4.034 13.917 6.27 13.74 0.15 8.892 0.066 8.424 0.126 9.009 0.067 8.686 0.046 8.095 0.161 8.698 0.104 8.7 0.205 8.257 0.101 8.237 0.527 9.38 0.392 9.026 0.752 9.866 0.301 8.535 0.089 8.015 0.205 8.39 0.058 8.443 0.014 8.145 0 -90 0 -145.614 0 -145.614 0.21 8.859 0.491 10.895 0.128 8.471 0.107 9.152 3.092 11.988 0 -85.207 0 -85.207 1.108 10.725 0.913 13.33 1.065 11.95 LOSS MW MVAR 0.0019 0.0011 0.0046 0.0026 0.0047 0.0027 0.0008 0.0005 0.0035 0.0025 0.0016 0.0009 0.0007 0.0001 0.0057 0.0025 0.0037 0.0016 0.0026 0.0009 0.0011 0.0004 0.0199 0.0143 0.011 0.0079 0.0405 0.0291 0.0068 0.0024 0.0026 0.0002 0.0049 0.0017 0.0012 0.0005 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.0095 0.0041 0.0825 0.0359 0.0028 0.0012 0.0067 0.0029 0.0052 0.0049 0 0.0016 0 0.0016 0.089 0.0638 0.2868 0.1248 0.2462 0.1071 % LOADING 80.7# 69.9$ 77.8# 34.2^ 58.8$ 34.8^ 65.1$ 97.7# 63.0$ 97.3# 68.7$ 49.6^ 90.7# 44.2^ 94.4# 85.6# 98.9# 35.1^ 7.4& 0.0* 0.0* 0.0* 98.8# 93.4# 77.6# 65.0$ 89.9# 0.3* 0.3* 98.2# 95.9# 94.4#

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! NUMBER OF LINES LOADED BEYOND 125% : 0 @ NUMBER OF LINES LOADED BETWEEN 100% AND 125% : 0 # NUMBER OF LINES LOADED BETWEEN 75% AND 100% : 18 $ NUMBER OF LINES LOADED BETWEEN 50% AND 75% : 6 ^ NUMBER OF LINES LOADED BETWEEN 25% AND 50% : 5 & NUMBER OF LINES LOADED BETWEEN 1% AND 25% : 1 * NUMBER OF LINES LOADED BETWEEN 0% AND 1% : 6

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CHAPTER-6
PRESENT WORTH ANALYSIS

In the power system analysis viability of any project depends on both technical and commercial feasibility. While tools like load flow analysis decides the technical feasibility, present worth analysis can be used to decide the economic viability of the project. Given the data, present worth analysis is done to determine the feasibility, net cash inflow and Benefit to investment ratio. On selecting this option the following dialog box appears,

The data required for performing the present worth are as follows General Interest rate in percentage overhead and maintenance charges in percentage Project life in years Capital investment in Rupees Peak Load power saving in MW,

Investment Savings

Loss factor

Unit energy charges in Rupees Load Enter loss load factor otherwise use Cal button to obtain the loss load factor

31

Click on Compute to check the feasibility. The project feasibility block displays the net present worth, benefit to investment ratio and the feasibility.

6.1Procedure
Cash outflow Annual Expenses = Investment* (O&M charges/100); Present worth of annual expenses = Annual expenses * Annuity factor
Annuity factor (1 i ) n 1 i (1 i ) n

Where n = number of project life in years

i = interest rate

Present worth of cash out flow = Investment + Present worth of annual expenses;

6.2Cash Inflow (savings)

Peak Load Power saving Load factor Loss load factor = Losses in MW in Base Losses in MW in improved case = Average power/ Maximum demand = A*Load factor+(1-A)*(Load factor)^2 where A=constant

For sub transmission system A= 0.3 distribution A=0.2 Energy Saved annually Cost of Energy saving = Peak load power saving in MW*1000*8760*Loss Load factor= Energy Saved * Unit of Energy

Present worth of net cash inflow = Cost of Energy saving * annuity factor Net Present Worth savings = Present worth of net cash inflow - Present worth of cash out flowNet Benefit Benefit to Investment ratio = ( Net Present worth + Investment ) = ( Net Benefit / Investment )

If the net present worth is positive, the project is feasible. Click on Save and Open to save the present worth analysis feasibility report.
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The report consists of

6.3Data
Interest Charges in percentage, O and M Charges in percentage, Project Life in Years, Capital Investment in rupees, Peak Load Power Saving in MW, Loss Load Factor, Unit Charge Rupees/kwh

6.4Output
Annual expenses in rupees Present worth of annual expenses in rupees Present worth of cash outflow in rupees Annual saving in energy in kWh Cost of energy saving in rupees Present worth of cash Inflow in rupees Net Present Worth in rupees Benefit to Investment Ratio Whether the project is feasible or not

6.5Sample Case study

Present worth analysis feasibility report FEASIBILITY STUDY USING PRESENT WORTH CALCULATION Interest Charges : 12.0 % O and M Charges : 3.0 % Project Life : 10 Years Capital Investment : 900000 Rs Peak Load Power Saving : 0.050 MW Loss Load Factor : 0.432 Unit Charge : 2.00 Rs/kwh Annual Expenses : 135000 Rs
33

Present Worth of Annual Expenses : 762780 Rs Present Worth of Cash Outflow : 1662780 Rs Cost of energy saving : 378432 Rs Present Worth of Cash Inflow : 2138225 Rs Net Present Worth : 475445 Rs Benefit to Investment Ratio : 1.528 Project is Feasible

6.6

Feasibility study using Present Worth Calculation

Date and Time : Sat May 11 14:34:03 2013 FEASIBILITY STUDY USING PRESENT WORTH CALCULATION Interest Charges : 12.0 %

O and M Charges : 3.0 % Project Life : 10 Years Capital Investment : 800000 Rs Peak Load Power Saving : 0.029 MW Loss Load Factor : 0.325 Unit Charge : 2.00 Rs/kwh Annual Expenses : 24000 Rs

Present Worth of Annual Expenses : 135605 Rs Present Worth of Cash Outflow : 935605 Rs Annual Saving in Energy : 83559 kwh Cost of energy saving : 167119 Rs Present Worth of Cash Inflow : 944259 Rs Net Present Worth : 8654 Rs Net Benefit : 808654 Rs Benefit to Investment Ratio : 1.011 Project is Feasible

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CHAPTER-7
OVERVOLTAGE TRANSIENT BEHAVIOUR OF SYSTEM UNDER STUDY
Although it may seem like more, there are actually only four basic causes of field failures (surface or underground) in trailing cables and drag cables. They are: Mechanical damage Current overload Excessive tension Poor temporary splices Individually, or in combination, these can result in significant downtime. Awareness of symptoms, or other signs of problems, can aid cable users in determining what the problem might be and how to correct it. After one of the above events occurs the cable is either immediately rendered unusable or a series of subsequent problems begins which make it appear that the cable is at fault. Information regarding these events has been compiled and documented with photographs of typical failures. An explanation of what to look for and how to handle each situation is found below in Conditions, Possible Causes, and Corrective Action.

7.1

Mechanical Damage

Condition: Outer jacket is usually torn or crushed open and has rough edges or abrasion marks leading up to the opening. This is the obvious case. In other cases, the jacket may have little or no marks on the outside, but the conductor insulation inside is ruptured either partially or totally. If this is not a total electrical failure, it will lead to leakage current, nuisance tripping, and downtime. Figure 1 shows mechanical damage that was hidden beneath a small mark on the outer jacket. Mechanical damage to inner components also occurs when the cable is bent in a radius far smaller than the manufacturers recommendations. When dragging cables, be sure to work all kinks, knots, and loops out of the run. Otherwise, the loop will become taut around the cable and end up one times the cable diameter (Figure 2) instead of the normal twelve to sixteen times the cable diameter. As a result of exceeding manufacturers bend radius recommendations, damage to all conductors and insulation is imminent. Small diameter ropes can cut the jacket and/or squeeze the core until insulation damage occurs. Possible Causes: Sharp rocks, roof falls, sharp edges on shuttle car reeling devices, run-over, small bend radiuses all contribute to cable failures of this nature. Corrective Action: Cable handlers, machine helpers, and other operations personnel all need to be made aware of the sometimes delicate nature of soft copper stranding and the rubber materials inside the cable. Developing an appreciation for the product capabilities and limitations will go a long way toward reducing mechanical damage. Training on proper bending radius will also be helpful. Large diameter ropes or slings can reduce handling damage.
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7.2

Current Overload

Condition: Cable insulation carries a 90 Celsius rating. Jacketing compounds have no temperature rating. Jackets are compounded for the highest mechanical strength, since that is its primary function. If power conductors are run at 90C in free air and no greater than the rated amperage, the cable will perform for its anticipated life. Problems arise when the cable is: 1) wound up on a reel without the proper derating factor applied, 2) stacked in a pile, 3) direct buried without increase of conductor size, or 4) run at maximum amperes and voltage drop. In these cases, the power conductor can reach temperatures up to 200C (392 Fahrenheit). This melts the tin coating and darkens the conductors colour. The jacket vitrifies and cracks open. Possible Causes: When no longer in free air, the cable cannot dissipate the heat from the power conductors into the atmosphere. Heat builds up inside the cable; the conductors surpass their temperature rating, and the jacket heat-ages at a rapid rate. Corrective Action: Always perform amperage calculations prior to ordering cable for new or rebuilt equipment. Be sure to derate for multiple layers of cable on the shuttle car reel. When upgrading the horsepower of mining equipment, a larger conductor size becomes necessary. On particularly long runs of cable, calculate voltage drop prior to ordering cable. High current at low voltage can also overheat a cable.

7.3

Excessive Tension

Condition: Excessive tension many times manifests itself rapidly, as shown in Figure 5. Other times it is hidden. When cables are operated somewhat above manufacturers limits, the flexible stranded power conductors start a fatigue process of high wear at intimate points of contact. This is particularly true where the center bunchs outer wires intersect the six-bunch layers inner individual wires. Under normal tension and wear, a little dust is the by-product. Under higher tension, notching occurs, as shown in Figure 6. Individual wires literally abrade in two against each other. Once several wires fatigue-break, the ends continue to flex against surrounding wires and an exponential growth rate of broken wires results. Possible Causes: Shuttle car reel tensioning is the single biggest cause. When the cable does not want to rise up off of wet mine floors, operators increase tension on the reel. For drag cables, expediency precipitates long lengths being dragged. Corrective Action: Keep the shuttle car reel set so that 15 to 20 feet of cable is suspended between the shuttle car and the mine floor during reeling and de-reeling. Keep the tie-point back in a crosscut and not in the main haulage way. This spreads the tension of the dynamic reel reverse over 15 to 20 feet of cable instead of 3 to 4 feet. When dragging cable, a rule-of-thumb is to not exceed 200 feet when pulling by one rope or sling. Add extra slings and pull the cable up in loops of 200 feet.

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7.4

Poor Temporary Splices

Condition: Splices have to be rebuilt regularly due to one of the following: ground check wire breaks, power conductor breaks by connector, splice pulls in two, jacket wearing rapidly, etc. Possible Causes: Crimp sleeve too small or applied with improper compression. Bunches are sometimes cut out to facilitate connector application. If the conductors are not staggered within the splice, the splice becomes bulky. The splice jacket wears against the guiders on the shuttle car or against the mine floor when dragging a trailing cable. Corrective Action: Round cables must have the helix or twist of all conductors built back into the splice. Do not straighten the conductors out after jacket removal. Rebuild the splice using the factory helix. This alone will decrease fatigue failure at the connector on all round Type SHDGC, Type G-GC, and Type W more than anything else will. Do not cut off any wires to make a connector fit. Get a larger connector. The connector sleeve must be compressed so the wires deform slightly, but are not crushed. If urgency dictates corner-cutting, flag the splice for rebuild during the next scheduled maintenance time. Flat cables must have the connectors staggered to reduce the bulkiness. Tensioning from power conductor to power conductor must be as equal as possible on all cable splices. This allows all power conductors to participate in the tensile load. Leave the grounding and ground check conductors approximately inch slack so they do not carry any tensile load. Single conductor splices, do not provide equal tensioning of the conductors and should only be used on a very temporary basis. The non-staggered power conductor connections, too much length on the ground check splice, and unequal tension of the power conductors. A short-lived splice on a round Type W cable due to the helix not being rebuilt.

37

CHAPTER-8
CONCLUSION
Form results of Cable Overloading analysis it is concluded that: a) Cable overloading occurs due to line loading i.e loading in line by the load is above its limits so care should be taken care during planning. b) Insulation breakdown or oil breakdown also results in cable overloading so insulation should be checked time to time to reduce chances of overloading and outages. c) Load shedding, operation , rated capacity operation of transformer is must needed for efficient operation of lines. d) In this paper, the capacity of overloaded cable is increased by using double circuit line.

8.1

Reasons for Cable Overloading

The appropriate size and number of cable depends directly on the number and size of conductors intended and the allowable fill area. Also, since cable offer flexibility for modification and expansion, engineers and designers should plan cable systems to be sized and designed to anticipate both current and future needs. Overfilling and improperly securing wires in cable can lead to a number of serious hazards. Weight is one issue; all cable and their associated supports are rated for a specific maximum weight, based partly on the allowable fill area and the spacing of the cable supports. Overloading cable can lead to a breakdown of the tray, its connecting points, and/or supports, causing hazards to persons underneath the cable and even leading to possible electric shock and arc flash/ blast events from component failure when the cables are suddenly no longer supported. Additionally, cables in can be damaged by improperly securing and installing other cables and wires in the same cable. The NEC requirements for cable tray fill also consider the heat build up in conductors while current flows. When cable trays are overloaded, excessive heat build up in and around live conductors can cause the insulation to break down, leading to potential shock hazards or fires. Fires can occur either in the cable (which may provide a fire path) or in combustible materials near the cable. Furthermore, the improper use of flexible cord could lead to the spread of toxic fumes if a fire were to occur.

38

References

[1] Technical Document on Power System Studies, MiPower Software, PRDC Bangalore. [2] Present worth analysis by MiPower Software, PRDC Bangalore.

39