SURVIVAL KIT in ELECTONICS ENGINEERING

Branch of Physics dealing with the behavior of electrons in vacuums and in gases, with their conduction, with effect in semiconductor and with the utilization of these properties for the design of electronic devices. ELECTRONICS

Brief History Hans Christian Oersted showed that an electric current produces magnetic effects. The element Silicon was discovered. Michael Faraday discovered that magnet in motion can generate electricity The element Germanium was discovered J.A. Fleming introduced the first vacuum tube diode called Fleming Valve. Dr. Lee DeForest introduced the first vacuum tube amplifier called audion tube Shockley, Bardeen and Brattain developed the 1st transistor at Bell Telephone Laboratories. Jack St. Clair Kilby invented the 1st integrated circuit, which is a phase shift oscillator at Texas Instruments. Basic Law of Electronics 1. like charges repel 2. unlike charges attract

1820 1824 1831 1886 1904 1906 1948 1958

VACUUM TUBES
Emission wherein electrons are emitted from the emitter by supplying heat energy. The most widely used type of emission The process in which electromagnetic radiation (light) incident upon a metal surface causes its energy to be transferred to free electron and eject them form the surface. The emission of electrons by a metal surface when it is bombarded by rapidly moving electrons resulting to collision of some electrons within the metal surface that causes them to be projected outward like a billiard ball. The emission of electrons takes place by the application of strong electric field at the surface of metal, usually at room temperature. The amount of additional energy required to emit an electron from the surface of a metal measured in eV. An electron tube containing an almost perfect vacuum that emits electron from a hot metal cathode, precursor of the transistor. SECONDARY EMISSION THERMIONIC EMISSION

PHOTOELECTRIC EMISSION

HIGH-FIELD EMISSION

WORK FUNCTION VACUUM TUBE (THERMO-IONIC VALVE)

Types of Vacuum Tubes 1. Vacuum Tube Diode (Fleming Valve) a. An electron tube with two-electrodes (anode and cathode) b. Used primarily as a rectifier c. Problem is existence of space charge The cloud stream of electrons formed on the space between cathode and plate that introduce repelling effects thus reducing plate current. 2. Triode (Audion Tube) a. a thermionic vacuum tube with three electrodes, anode, cathode and control grid b. used to amplify signals and eliminated space charge that is present in a vacuum tube. 3. Tetrode a. A four electrode electron tube containing an anode, a cathode, control grid and a screen grid.

SPACE CHARGE

4. Pentode a. A thermionic valve which has five electrodes (anode, cathode, control grid, screen and suppressor grid) 5. Beam Power Tube a. An electron-beam tube built so that directed electron beams contribute substantially to its power handling capacity. Vacuum Tube Coefficients 1. Amplification Factor() The ratio of the change in anode voltage of an electron tube to a change in control electrode (grid) voltage that produces the same change in anode current when other voltages and current are held constant. 2. Plate Resistance (rp) The circuit resistance of the internal plate to cathode circuit 3. Transconductance (gm) It is the ratio of a change in anode current with respect to a change in control grid voltage.

The process of adding impurity elements to increase the number of free charges that can be moved by an externally applied voltage.

SEMICONDUCTOR FUNDAMENTALS
An atom is the smallest particle of an element that still retains the characteristics of that element Atomus in Greek meaning invisible Consists of positively charged particles and uncharged particles Basic particles of negative charge. An atom or molecule that has been electrically unbalanced by the loss or gain of one or more electrons. An atom that has lost an electron An atom that has gained an electron Are formed when the electron in the outer shell of an atom gains sufficient energy from the surrounding media and break away from the parent atom. ATOMS

NUCLEUS ELECTRONS OIN POSISTIVE ION NEGATIVE ION FREE ELECTRONS

Broad Categories of Materials 1. Conductor any material that will support a generous flow of charge when a voltage source of limited magnitude is applied across its terminals. 2. Insulator a material that offers a very low level of conductivity under pressure form an applied voltage source. 3. Semiconductor a material that has a conductivity level somewhere between an insulator and a conductor. a. A class of material whose electrical properties lie between the extremes of conductors and insulators. Element Silicon (Si), Germanium (Ge) Compound Glaium Arsenide (GaAs) Semiconductor whose electrical properties are dependent on semiconductor added to the semiconductor crystals. Impurity that gives up electrons Impurity that accepts electrons

INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR

DONOR IMPURITY ACCEPTOR IMPURITY DOPING A semiconductor whose density of hole concentration in the valence band exceeded by the density of electrons in the conductor band.

alternatin g waveform . Two Categories 1.Series Limiter the diode appears as series element 2.Parallel Limiter the diode appears as a shunt element

Pentavalent Impurities (Donor Atom) N-type 1. Phosphorous (P) z = 15 2. Antimony (Sb) z = 51 3. Arsenic (As) z = 33 *Majority carrier is Electrons A form of semiconductor material whose electron density in the conduction band is exceeded by the density of holes in the valence band

N TYPE MATERIAL

Trivalent Impurities (Acceptor Atom) P-type 1. Boron (B) z=5 2. Aluminum (Al) z = 13 3. Gallium z = 31 4. Indium (I) z = 49 *Majority carrier is Hole The tendency of an atom to share electrons with their neighboring atoms to achieve stable condition The merging of a free moving and spatially separated electrons and holes, stopping their movement and current carrying capability. The amount of time between the creations and disappearance of free electrons. A two-terminal semiconductor device that exhibit a nonlinear current voltage characteristics. In the absence of an applied bias voltage, the net flow of charge in any direction for a semiconductor is zero. The current that exists under the Reversed biased condition which is a function of temperature alone. The semiconductor diode condition where the association of p-type and ntype material has been established.

P TYPE MATERIAL

COVALENT BONDING RECOMBINATION LIFETIME SEMICONDUCTOR DIODE UNBIASED DIODE CONDITION REVERSE SATURATION CURRENT (Is) FORWARD BIASED CONDITION PEAK INVERSE VOLTAGE (PIV) REVERSE SATURATION CURRENT (RSC) SURFACE LEAKAGE CURRENT

Diode Parameters The maximum reverse voltage that a diode can with stand without destroying the junction. Current that flows through a RB diode caused by thermally produced minority carriers. Caused by surface impurities and imperfection in the crystal structure.

DIODE CIRCUITS AND APPLICATIONS 1. Clipping Circuit a. Limiter (clipper) i. A diode circuit whose output is a function of the instantaneous input amplitude for a range of values between predetermined limits. ii. A diode network that have the ability to clip off a portion of the input signal without distorting the remaining part of the

Employs two diode and a center tapped transformers enabling current to conduct through the load during both half cycle of input voltage A bridge arrangement of four diodes providing full wave rectification of the full secondary voltage of the power transformer consequently, eliminating a center tapped secondary.

Methods of determining the output waveform of a clipper 1. Determine the output waveform without the effect of the diode by: a. Shorting the diode for series limiter b. Opening the diode for parallel limiter. 2. Determine the clipping line a. For series limiter, clipping line is at the abscissa b. For parallel limiter, clipping line is the output reflection of the voltage source if there is no voltage source present; the clipping line is at the abscissa. 3. Inspect the position of the diode a. For series limiters, if the arrow head of the diode is: i. Pointing to the right the output waveform is above the clipping line. ii. Pointing to the left, the output waveform is below the clipping line. b. For parallel limiters, the procedure is: i. Pointing upward, the output waveform is above the clipping line. ii. Pointing downward, the output waveform is below the clipping line. 4. For double diode clippers, the procedure is: a. Determine the output waveform without the effect of the diodes. b. Draw the clipping lines as dictated by the voltage sources. c. The resulting waveform is between the two clipping lines. A circuit that shifts the DC level of the input signal Is two or more peak detectors or peak rectifiers that produce a dc voltage equal to a multiple of the peak voltage. A rectifier that gives approximately double the output voltage of a conventional half-wave rectifier by charging a capacitor during the normally wasted half-cycle and discharging it in series with the output voltage during the next half-cycle. A type of diode circuit that converts alternating current into a current with a large unidirectional component (DC) A rectifier circuit consisting of a transformer with a single diode in the secondary circuit that conduct current during positive or negative half-cycle of input AC signal at a rate determined by the input frequency. The maximum allowable instantaneous reverse voltage that may be applied across the diode.

Advantages of full wave rectifier 1. it is more efficient since it operates on both half cycle of the sine wave 2. ripple frequency is easier to filter 3. since the current sin the halves of the transformer secondary are opposite, there is no problem with DC core saturation. .

CLAMPER OR DC RESTORER VOLTAGE MULTIPLIER HALF-WAVE VOLTAGE DOUBLER

Advantages of half wave rectifier 1. simplicity 2. low cost 3. requires only one diode and can be used with or without transformer Disadvantages of half wave rectifier 1. it is very efficient since only half of the input is used 2. average output voltage is low 3. ripple frequency is hard to filter

DIODE RECTIFIER

HALF WAVE RECTIFIER

Typical Average Forward Current 10mA to 20mA Typical Forward Voltage 2.2 V to 3 V 2. Photodiode a semiconductor PN junction device whose region of operation is limited to the RB region. The application of light to the junction will result in a transfer of energy from the incident travelling waves (in the form of photons) to the atomic structure resulting in an increase number of minority carrier and in return increase the level of reverse current. 3. Optoisolator a solid state device that provide high electrical isolation by converting the input signal to light emission and reconverting it to an electrical signal. 4. Schottky Diode (Hot Barrier or Surface Barrier) a semiconductor diode formed by contact between a semiconductor layer and metal contact; it has a non-linear rectifying characteristic. 5. Zener Diode a silicon PN junction of reference diode that provides a specified reverse reference voltage when it is operated into its reverse-bias avalanche breakdown region. It exhibits a sharp reverse breakdown at less than 6V. 6. Tunnel Diode - a heavily doped junction diode that has negative resistance in the forward direction over a portion of its operating range, due to quantum mechanical tunneling. 7. Varactor Diode a PN semiconductor diode whose capacitance varies

PEAK INVERSE VOLTAGE (PIV)

FULL WAVE RECTIFIER (CENTER TAPPED) FULL WAVE BRIDGE RECTIFIER

Disadvantages of full wave rectifier 1. it requires a center tapped transformer 2. diodes require higher PIV rating 3. for a given transformer, the peak voltage requirement is lower in the full wave rectifier than in the half-wave. Changes the available electrical energy (usually AC) to the form required by the various within the system (DC). Changes the line voltage to the desired AC voltage with little loss of power Its function is to transform the AC voltage to DC voltage Smoothens the output of the rectifier so that the DC voltage is relatively free of ripple. To provide a DC voltage of minimum ripple content The AC component of the output waveform Holds the DC output voltage constant, regardless of changes in the load or input voltage.

Filters 1. Capacitor Filter 2. RC Filter used to further reduce the amount of ripple across the filter capacitor while reducing the DC voltage Its ability to hold the output under conditions of changing input or changing load

Special Purpose Diodes 1. Light Emitting Diode (LED) a semiconductor PN junction that when forward biased, emits light at a wavelength that is a function of its material and dopants.

with the applied voltage. It is variable-reactance tuning element in oscillator and amplifier circuits, including parametric amplifiers. Advantages of Transistor over Vacuum Tubes 1. smaller and light weight 2. has no heater requirement or heater 3. has rugged construction 4. it is more efficient since less power is absorbed by the device itself 5. it is instantly available for use; requiring no warm-up period 6. lower operating voltages are possible.

POWER SUPPLY TRANSFORMER RECTIFIER FILTER REGULATOR RIPPLE REGULATOR

Transistor Base Configuration 1. Common Base Configuration a. The input signal is applied at the emitter, the output is taken at the collector and the base is the common terminal. b. Very low input impedance In the dc mode the levels of IC and IE due to majority carrier are related by a quantity of alpha. The ratio of a small change in IC to small change in IE. 2. Common Emitter Configuration a. The input is applied at the base, the amplified output is taken from the collector, and the emitter is the common terminal. b. The best combination of current and voltages gain In the DC mode the levels of IC and IB are related by the quantity beta. The ratio of a small change in IC to a small change in IB and is also called common-emitter forward current amplification factor. 3. Common Collector Configuration a. The input applied at the base, the

REGULATION OF A POWER SUPPLY

output taken at the terminal and the collector is the common terminal. b. This is often used for impedance matching Forward current gain in common collector configuration Common Collector MODERATE LOWEST (Less than 1) HIGHEST GAMMA ()

Comparison of Amplifier Configurations Characteristics Common Common Base Emitter Power Gain MODERATE HIGHEST Voltage Gain HIGHEST MODERATE Current Gain Input Impedance Output Impedance Phase Inversion Application LOWEST (Less than 1) LOWEST HIGHEST NONE RF AMP MODERATE

MODERATE HIGHEST MODERATE LOWEST 180 OUT OF PHASE UNIVERASAL ISOLATION

Regions of Transistor Action: 1. Active Region emitter-to-base junction is forward biased and the collector-base-to-base junction is reverse biased. 2. Saturation Region both junctions are forward biased, amplifier 3. Cut Off Region both junctions are forward biased Transistor Biasing An electrical, mechanical or magnetic force applied to a device to establish a desired electrical or mechanical reference level for its operation Is a DC voltage or current that sets the operating point for amplifying the AC signal. BIAS

Reasons for biasing 1. To turn ON the device 2. To place it in operation in the region of its characteristics where the device operates most linearly. Types of Bias Circuits 1. Fixed Bias is taken from a battery or power supply 2. Self Bias (Emitter-Stabilized Bias) the amplifier produces its own DC voltage from an IR drop across a resistor in the return circuit of the common terminal. 3. Voltage Divider Bias the most stable type of biasing 4. Signal Bias the AC signal produces its own bias by rectification in the input circuit of the amplifier.

AMPLIFIERS A circuits designed to increase the amplitude or level of an electronic signal

ALPHA ()

Classification of Amplifiers: I. According to Function a. Voltage amplifier b. Current amplifier c. Power amplifier II. According to Configuration

BETA ()

a. Common base amplifier b. Common collector amplifier c. Common emitter amplifier III. According to class of operation a. Class A amplifier b. Class B amplifier c. Class C amplifier d. Class AB amplifier Comparison of Amplifier Classes Class A Efficiency Conduction Angle Distortion Bias (Base Emitter) 50% 360 LOW LINEAR PORTION Class B 78.5% 180 HIGH CUT-OFF Class C 100% 180 EXTREME BELOW CUT-OFF Class AB Between A and B Between A and B MODERATE ABOVE CUT-OFF

IV. According to Frequency a. DC amplifier b. Audio amplifier c. RF amplifier d. IF amplifier e. Video amplifier V. According to the Signal being amplified a. Small signal amplifiers b. Large signal amplifier VI. According to method of coupling a. Direct coupling b. Capacitive coupling c. Inductive coupling d. Transformer coupling BJT SMAL SIGNAL ANALYSIS H Parameters Short circuit input impedance open circuit reverse voltage gain short circuit forward current gain open circuit output admittance

hi hr hf ho

AMPLIFIER

Compound Configuration 1. Cascaded Connection a series connection with the output on one stage then applied as input to the second stage. The cascade connection provides a multiplication of the gain of each stage for a larger overall gain.

2. Cascode Connection has one transistor on top of (in series with) another. This arrangement is design to provide high input impedance with low voltage gain to ensure that the input Miller capacitance is minimum. 3. Darlington Connection the composite transistor acts a single unit with a current gain that is the product of the current gains of the individual transistor. 4. Feedback Pair is a two-transistor circuit that operates like the Darlington circuit. It uses a PNP transistor driving an NPN. 5. FET (Field Effects Transistor) a unipolar device which operates as a voltage controlled device with either electron current in N-channel FET or a hole current in a P-channel FET. a. A three-terminal unipolar device which depends for its operation on the control of current by an electric field. Difference between BJT and FET 1. its operation depends upon the flow of majority carriers only (unipolar device) 2. simpler to fabricate and occupies less space in integrated form than BJT 3. extremely high input resistance. Can take more input signal voltage. 4. less noise than BJT 5. exhibits no offset voltages at zero drain current. Excellent signal chopper 6. relatively immune to radiation 7. greater thermal stability than BJT 8. less internal noise as an amplifier. Disadvantages 1. Less gain 2. Smaller power ratings 3. switching speed is slower FET Source Drain Gate BJT Emitter Collector Base SOURCE DRAIN GATE

terminal where the charge carriers enter the channel bar to provide current thru channel terminal where the current leaves the channel controls the conductance between the source and the drain

Two Types of FET 1. JFET (Junction Field Effect Transistor) 2. MOSFET (Metal Oxide Semiconductor FET) or IGFET (Insulated Gate FET) a. Depletion Enhancement MOSFET b. Enhancement only MOSFET Linear Indicates that for low values of Vds, current varies directly with voltage following ohms law. Saturation region/ amplifier region JFET operates as a constant current device because Id is relatively independent of Vds. If Vds increased beyond its value corresponding to Va, JFET enters the breakdown region where Id increase to an excessive value. Drain current with gate shorted to source condition OHMIC REGION

PINCH-OFF REGION

BREAKDOWN REGION IDSS

Proper Biasing for a JFET VDS VGS

N-CHANNEL P-CHANNEL

+ -

DC Biasing for a JFET 1. Fixed Bias a separate power source 2. Self Bias 3. Source Bias 4. Voltage Divider Static Characteristics of JFET 1. Drain Characteristics gives relation between ID and VDS for different values of VGS (running variable). 2. Transfer Characteristics gives relation between ID and VGS for different values of VDS. Small Signal JFET Parameters 1. AC Drain Resistance, rd a. The AC resistance between drain and source terminals when JFET is operating in the pinch-off region b. Dynamic drain resistance. 2. Transconductance, gm (U or S) a. Forward Transconductance or forward trans-admittance b. Slope of transfer characteristic c. Similar to gm characteristics of vacuum tubes. 3. Amplification Factor 4. DC Drain Resistance, RDS Neutrally or lightly doped silicon Serves as a platform on which the other electrodes are diffused Channel has free charge carriers Current can be produced in the channel with voltage applied between drain and source but no gate voltage. The gate voltage can deplete or enhance the charge carriers in the channel to a greater or lesser extent to control the drain current. Normally ON device Normally OFF device The channel has very little doping Gate voltage must be applied to enhance the amount of charge carriers in the channel to produce drain current. Either or both gates control the amount of drain current Region void of free carriers and therefore unable to support conduction thru the region.

IGFET or MOSFET DEPLETION ENHANCEMENT

ENHANCEMENT ONLY MOSFET

DUAL GATE IGFET or MOSFET DEPLETION REGION

Proper Biasing of MOSFET VDS N-CHANNEL + P-CHANNEL -

VGS + -

Proper Biasing of Depletion Enhancement VDS VGS N-CHANNEL + +/P-CHANNEL +/-

FEEDBACK AMPLIFIER AND OSCILLATORS 10

The application of a portion of the output signal of a circuit back to the input circuit. One in which a fraction of the amplifier output is fed back to the input circuit.

FEEDBACK

Two Parts 1. amplifier 2. feedback circuit Types of Feedback 1. Positive Feedback (Regenerative) a. if the feedback signal is combined in phase with the input signal b. if the feedback voltage or current is so applied to increase the input voltage or current c. application: Oscillator circuits 2. Negative Feedback (Degenerative) a. If the feedback signal is combined 180 degrees out-of-phase with the input signal b. If the feedback voltage or current is so applied to reduce amplifier input c. Application: Amplifier circuits Signal Sources 1. Thevenins Source 2. Nortons Source Two Types of Sampling 1. Voltage Sampling if the feedback network is connected in shunt across the output node. 2. Current Sampling if the feedback network is connected in series with the output loop. Two Types of Mixing 1. Series Mixing the feedback network is connected in series with the input loop so that the feedback signal is in the form of voltage. 2. Shunt Mixing the feedback network is connected in shunt with the input terminal so that what is added to the input is current. Effect of Negative Feedback 1. Stabilize the amplifier 2. Increase the bandwidth of an amplifier 3. Improve the linearity of the amplifier 4. Improve noise performance 5. Improve the characteristics of an amplifier to approach ideal condition (Raise or lower the impedance of an amplifier) Effect of Positive Feedback 1. increased pain that may lead to oscillation Feedback Configuration 1. Voltage Series Feedback 2. Voltage Shunt Feedback 3. Current Series Feedback 4. Current Shunt Feedback

Parameter Zif Zof

Voltage-Series Current-Series Voltage-Shunt Current-Shunt increased increased decreased decreased decreased decreased decreased increased

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Process by which variations in amplitude are repeated continuously at a specific frequency Accomplished by using an amplifier in a circuit where part of the output is fed back to the input. The use of positive feedback which results in a feedback amplifier having a closed loop gain greater than unity If the output signal varies sinusoidally If the output voltage rises quickly to one voltage and later drops quickly to another voltage level. Uses an Op Amp and RC bridge circuit, with the oscillator frequency set by the R and C components. Reactance Element X1 X2 X3 C C L L L C LC LC --

OSCILLATION

SINUSOIDAL OSCILLATOR SQUARE WAVE OR PULSE OSCILLATOR WEIN BRIDGE OSCILLATOR

Oscillator Type Colpitts Hartley Tuned input Tuned output

Inductors L1 and L2 have a mutual coupling, M, which must be taken into account in determining the equivalent inductance for the resonant tank circuit Basically a tuned circuit oscillator using a piezoelectric crystal as a resonant tank circuit The crystal (usually quartz) has a greater stability in holding constant at whatever frequency the crystal is originally cut to operate Exhibits the property that when mechanical stress is applied across opposite faces of crystal, a difference of potential develops across opposite faces of the crystal Piezoelectric effect

HARTLEY OSCILLATOR

CRYSTAL OSCILLATOR

QUARTZ CRYSTAL

2 Resonant Frequencies 1. Series Resonant Circuit a. The reactance of the series RLC Leq are equal (and opposite), the impedance is very low (=R). 2. Parallel Resonant Circuit a. Higher frequency b. The reactance of the series RLC Leq equal the reactance of capacitor, Cm c. Very high impedance

OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER AND INTEGRATED CIRCUITS

A very high gain, high rin directly coupled negative feedback amplifier which can amplify signals having frequencies ranging from 0 Hz to 1 MHz. Originally designated to perform mathematical operations like summation, multiplication, differentiation and integration. OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER

An Ideal Operational Amplifier would have 1. infinite input impedance it would consume no current from the source 2. zero output impedance it would like a perfect voltage source to a load 3. infinite gain any input would be infinitely amplified Typical Uses of Op Amp 1. scale changing 2. analog computer operations 3. instrumentation and control system 4. phase shift and oscillator circuit

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The terminal marked (-) Whatever signal polarity is applied to the inverting will cause the opposite polarity on the output terminal. The terminal marked (+) Whatever polarity is applied to the non-inverting input terminal will cause the same polarity in the output terminal.

INVERTING INPUT

NON-INVERTING INPUT

Op Amp Circuits 1. Constant Gain Inverting Amplifier 2. Non-Inverting Amplifier 3. Unity Follower provides a gain with no polarity reversal 4. Summing Amplifier 5. Integrator feedback component (capacitor), the output is the integral of the input with an inversion and scale multiplies of 1/RC 6. Differentiator the output is proportional to the time derivative of the input. The magnitude of the output is increase linearly with increasing frequency, and the different circuit has high gain at high frequencies. 7. Differential Amplifier the differential amplifier is the marriage of both the inverting and non-inverting amplifiers. The output is the result of the difference between the two inputs. 8. Comparator can be used as a limit, level detector or switch. It can also be used to convert a ramp input to a pulse and the pulse to reset the ramp. Op Amp Specifications 1. Input Offset Voltage The difference in the DC voltages that must be applied to the input terminals to obtain equal quiescent operating voltage (0 output voltage) at the output terminals 2. Input Offset Current The differences in the current at the 2 input terminals 3. Quiescent Operating Voltage The DC voltage at either output terminal with respect to the ground 4. DC Device Dissipation The total power drain of the device with no signal applied and no external load current 5. Common Mode Voltage Gain, Ac The ratio of the signal voltage developed at either of the 2 output terminal to the common signal voltage applied to the 2 input terminals connected in parallel 6. Differential Voltage Gain Single Ended Input The ratio of the change in output voltage either output terminal with respect to the ground to difference in the input voltages. 7. Common Mode Rejection Ratio (CMRR) The ratio of the full differential voltage gain to the common mode voltage gain 8. Single Ended Input Resistance (Rin) The ration of the change in input voltage to the change in input current measured at either terminal with respect to the ground 9. Single Ended Output-Resistance (Ro) the ratio of the change in output voltage to the change in output current measured at either output terminal with respect to the ground 10. Slew Rate Device parameter including how fast the output voltage changes with time 11. Drift The term describing the change in output voltage resulting from change in temperature 12. Roll-Off The reducing of op-amps gain due to increasing operating frequency.

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INTEGRATED CIRCUITS
Lee de Forest invented the Triode Tube W.H. Brattain and I. Bardeen invented the transistor ICs (Microelectronics) A complete electronic circuits in which both the active and passive components are fabricated on an extremely tiny single chip of silicon J.K. Kilby develop the first IC Built by connecting separate components

Silk screen are made of fine stainless steel wire mesh and the links are pastes (of pulverized glass and aluminum) which have conductive, resistive or dielectric properties.

1907 1948 1960 INTEGRATED CIRCUITS 1958 DISCRETE

Advantages of ICs over Discrete Components 1. extremely small physical size 2. very small weight 3. reduced cost (individual transistor) 4. extremely high reliability a. absence of soldered components b. need for fewer interconnection c. small temperature rise due to low power consumption 5. suitable for small signal operation 6. low power consumption 7. easy replacement Disadvantages of ICs over Discrete Components 1. coils or inductors cannot be fabricated 2. ICs function at fairly low voltages 3. handle only limited amount of power 4. quite delicate and cannot withstand rough handling or excessive heat Scale of Integration 1. SSI Small Scale Integration The number of circuits containing in an IC package is less than 30 2. MSI Medium Scale Integration The number of per package is between 30 100 3. LSI Large Scale Integration Circuits density is between 100 100, 000 4. VLSI Very Large Scale Integration In excess of 100, 000 Classifications of ICs by Structure 1. Monolithic Integrated Circuits a. single stone b. single solid structure c. all circuit components (both active and passive) are fabricated inseparably within a single continuous piece of Silicon crystalline material 2. Thick and Thin Film ICs a. Only passive components are formed through thick and thin film techniques on the insulating surface as glass or a ceramic material b. The active elements are added externally as discrete elements to complete a functional circuit. Resistors and conductors are formed by varying the width and thickness of the film and by using materials of different resistivity Capacitor are produced by sandwiching an insulating oxide film between 2 conducting films Printed thin film circuits

THIN FILM ICs

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THICK FIM ICs

3. Hybrid or Multichip ICs a. formed either by interconnecting a number of individual chips or by a combination of film or monolithic IC techniques

Classification of ICs by Function 1. Linear ICs analog ICs because their inputs and outputs can take on a continuous range of values and the outputs are generally proportional to the inputs Applications 1. Op Amps 2. Power 3. Microwave Amps 4. Voltage Comparators 5. Small Signal Amplifier 6. RF and IF Amplifier 7. Multiplexer 8. Voltage Regulators

How Monolithic ICs are made? 1. Wafer Preparation a P-type SI bar is taken and cut into thin slices called wafers this wafers after being lapped and polished to mirror finish serve as the base or substrate for hundreds of ICs 2. Epitaxial Growth An N-type layer (15m thick) is now grown on the P-type substrate by placing the wafer in furnace at 1200C and introducing a gas containing phosphorous

2. Digitals ICs switching circuits monolithic integration because a computer uses a large number of identical circuits Applications 1. logic gates 2. flip flops 3. counter 4. clock attachment of wires to an IC an extremely small part of a silicon wafer on which IC is fabricated Si wafer of 2cm diameter 1000 IC chips To check the proper electrical performance of each IC with the help of probes Introduction of controlled small quantities of a material into the crystal structure for modifying its electrical characteristics. A glass plate with circuit pattern drawn on it Putting a cap over the IC and sealing it Physical placement of materials on a given surface BONDING Removal of surface material form a chip by chemical means CHIP (DIE) Providing ohmic contacts and interconnections by evaporating aluminum over the chip A photo sensitive emulsion which hardens when exposed to ultraviolet light Incising or cutting with a sharp point A thin slice of a semiconductor material either circular or rectangular in shape in which a number of ICs are fabricated simultaneously DIFFUSION DIFFUSION MASK ENCAPSULATION CIRCUIT PROBING 5. calculator chips 6. memory chips 7. microprocessors

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EPITAXY ETCHING METALLIZATION PHOTORESIST SCRIBING WAFER

Digital ICs
Receives input of a linear voltage, comparing it to a reference input voltage to determine which is greater

Digital to Analog Converter Circuits

Vary continuously over some range of values At one of 2 levels representing the binary values of one or zero Uses a network of resistor Accepts inputs of binary values at typically 0V or Vref and provides an output voltage proportional to the binary input values

3. Oxidation A thin layer of SiO2 is grown over the N-type layer by exposing the wafer to an oxygen atmosphere at about 1000C 4. Photolithographic Process Involves selective etching of Sio2 layer with the help of photographic mask, photoresist and etching solution. Helps to select particular areas of the N-layer which are subjected to an isolation diffusion process. 5. Isolation Diffusion The wafer is subject to a P-layer diffusion process by which N-type layer is isolated into islands on which transistor or some other components is fabricated. 6. Base and Emitter Diffusion The P-type base of transistor is diffused into the N-type layer which itself acts as collector. 7. Pre-Ohmic Etch For good metal ohmic contact with diffused layers, N+ regions are diffused into the structure. 8. Metallization Done for making interconnections and providing bonding pads around the circumference of the chip for later connection of wires I. Transistor II. Resistor III. Capacitor 9. Circuit Probing Each IC on the wafer is checked electrically for proper performance by placing probes on the bonding pads Faulty chips are marked and discarded after the wafer has been scribed and broken down into individual chips 10. Scribing and Separating into Chips Wafer is broken down into individual chips containing the integrated circuits Wafers are first scribed with a diamond tipped tool and then separated into single chips 11. Mounting and Packing The individual chip is very small and brittle It is cemented or soldered to a gold plated header through which leads have already been connected 12. Encapsulation A cap is now placed over the circuit and sealing is done in an inert atmosphere

Analog to Digital Conversion

Used to interconnect different types of signals, both linear and digital May be used to drive a load or to obtain a signal as a receiver circuit Used in the generation of pulse signals that are triggered by an input signals Generation of a clock signal that operates at a frequency set by external resistor and capacitor

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Computed Axial Tomography Combines the use of a digital computer together with a rotating x-ray device create detailed cross sectional images of slices of the different organs and body parts such as the lungs, liver, kidneys, pancreas, pelvis, extremities, brain, spins and blood vessels. Automated External Defibrillator A device that administers an electric shock through the chess wall to the heart. A small, light weight device used to assess a persons heart rhythm. A specific type of imaging that uses a low dose x-ray system for examination of the breast. Electrocardiogram A non-invasive test that records the electrical activity of the heart Used to measure the rate and regularity of heartbeats as well as the size and position of the chambers, the presence of any damage to the heart and the effects of drugs of device used to regulate the heart (pacemaker) Ultrasonography The use of sound waves to obtain a medical image or picture of various organs and tissues in the body. A painless, non-invasive and safe procedure which produces very precise image of the soft tissue and also reveals internal motions such as heartbeat and blood flow.

COMPARATOR CIRCUIT

ANALOG SIGNALS DIGITAL SIGNALS LADDER NETWORK

INTERFACING CIRCUIT TIMER CIRCUIT Made of a circuit is usually housed in an 8-pin DIP package with pin numbers as specified in the figure

Applications 1. Astable Multivibrator or Clock Circuit 2. Monostable Multivibrator or One Shot Multivibrator

BIOMEDICAL ELECTRONICS Electroencephalograph Recording of electrical signals from the brain A medical instrument that records electric currents generated by the brains Graph recording Electro electrical signals Encephalo brain Computed Tomography Imaging

Pacemaker A small battery operated device that helps the heart beat in a regular rhythm. Replace a defective natural pacemaker or blocked pathway

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i. permanent (internal) ii. temporary (external) A test in which ultrasound is used to examine the heart Heart in motion image Provide single dimension images that allow accurate measurement of the heart chambers Capable of displaying a cross-sectional slices of the beating heart, including the chambers, values and major blood vessels that exit from that left and right ventricle. Nerve and muscle test A test that assesses the health of the muscle and the nerves controlling the muscle ECHOCARDIAGRAM M MODE

2D ECHO

ELECTROMYOGRAPHY Magnetic Resonance Imaging A method of creating images of the inside of opaque organs in living organisms as well as detecting the amount of bound water in geological structures. Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Imaging Universally dropped due to negative annotations Uses large magnets and radio frequency waves to create moving images

555 TIMER

EEG

CT SCAN or CAT SCAN CAT

INDUSTRIAL ELECTRONICS
Includes all semiconductor devices which inherent on-off behavior, as opposed to allowing gradual change in conduction Non-linear Regenerative switching devices and they cannot operate in a linear manner Gate triggering circuit Small thyristors which do not switch the main load current Useful in the gate triggering circuit of a larger load power switching thyristors A 3-terminal device used to control large currents to a load Rectifier 3 PN junction acts like a switch ON closed switch OFF open switch

AED MAMMOGRAPHY ULTRASOUND

ECG or EKG

NATURAL PACEMAKER

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Advantages of SCR over rheostat and transformers 1. small and relatively inexpensive 2. needs no maintenance 3. wants very little power Applications 1. lightning 2. motor speed control 3. electric wilding 4. electric heating CONDUCTION ANGLE (CA) The no. of degrees of an AC cycle during which the SCR is turned ON. The no. of degrees of an AC cycle that elapses before the SCR is turned ON. Amount of gate current needed to fire a particular SCR. FIRING DELAY ANGLE (FDA)

To further delay the firing of the SCR C values = 0.01 to 1uF Time constant = 1 to 30 msec. Disadvantages 1. temperature dependence 2. inconsistent firing behavior between SCRs of the same type break over in only one direction IGT

Unilateral Breakdown Devices 1. Schochley Device 4 layer diode 2. SUS Silicon Unilateral Switch 3. Triac Triode AC - can conduct current in either direction when it is turned on - A 3-terminal device used to control the average current flow to a load.

MRI

NMRI

Advantage of 4 layer diode over SCR 1. relatively independent of temperature 2. break over voltage can be held consistent from one unit to another Advantages of Triac over Mechanical Switches 1. no contact bounce 2. no arcing across partially opened contacts 3. operates much faster 4. move precise control of element Other important electrical characteristics of Triac 1. ITrms the maximum allowable main terminal rms current 1, 3, 6, 10, 15 and 25 Amps. 2. VDROM breakdown voltage

THYRISTOR

BREAK OVER DEVICES

SCR (SILICON CONTROLLED RECTIFIER)

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The highest main terminal peal voltage the triac can block in either direction 100, 200, 400 and 600 Volts 3. VTM the ON state voltage across the main terminals Ideal VTM = 0 VTM = 1 to 2 Volts Bilateral Breakover Devices 1. Diac (Diode AC) Bilateral trigger diode Symmetrical trigger diode 2. Silicon Bilateral Switch Popular in low voltage trigger control circuits Has lower breakover voltages than diacs Advantages of Diacs 1. relatively temperature stable 2. have fairly close tolerance on breakover voltage Advantages of SBSs over Diacs 1. more vigorous switching characteristics 2. more temperature stable 3. more symmetrical +VBO and VBO difference 0.3 V 4. less batch spread than a diac < 0.1 V diacs 4 V Other PNPN Devices 1. SCS Silicon Controlled Switch 2. GTO - Gate Turn Off Switch 3. LASCR Light Activated SCR Advantages of SCS over SCR 1. reduced turn off time 2. increased control and triggering sensitivity more predictable firing situation Disadvantages of SCS 1. limited to low power, current and voltage ratings Application of SCS 1. counters, registers and timing circuits 2. pulse generators 3. voltage sensors 4. oscillators Advantages of GTO 1. can be turned ON or OFF by applying the proper pulse to the cathode gate. 2. improved switching characteristics

Applications of GTO 1. counters 2. pulse generators 3. Multivibrator 4. voltage regulators Applications of LASCR 1. optical light controls 2. relays 3. phase control 4. motor control 5. computer application Unijunction Transistor

20

A break over type switching devices

UJT

Applications of UJT 1. timers 2. oscillators 3. waveform generators 4. gate control circuits for SCRs and triacs 5. relaxation oscillator Programmable Unijunction Transistor Has effectively the same operating characteristics with as standard UJT and is used in similar application. PUT

Analogy between PUT and UJT Cathode base 1 Anode emitter Gate base 2

ROBOTICS
Reprogrammable Multi-functional Designed to move materials, parts tools or other specialized devices by means of variable programmed motions and to perform a variety of other tasks Forced labor Worker Slavery Czeck playwriter Coined in1920 in R.U.R. (Rossums Universal Robots) Robot Institute of America Branch of the Society of Manufacturing Engineers (SME) Accepted by the 11th International Symposium of Industrial Robotics in 1981

Robot Assembly 1. Arm Provides necessary motion to move the tool or part into proper position for an operation. Manipulator 2. Drive Muscle Engine that drives the links (the sections between the joints their desired position). Powered by air (pneumatic), water pressure (hydraulic), or electricity 3. Controller Connected to a computer, which keeps the pieces of the arm working together. The brain of the robot 4. End-Effector The tool that performs the actual work Hand connected to the robots arm actual work 5. Sensor Send information, in the form of electronic signals to the controller

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Gives the robot controller information about its surroundings and lets it know the exact position of the arm, or the state of the world around it. Sight, sound, touch, taste and smell. 6. Power Supply Provides the necessary power for moving the robot arm through its range of motion. The power source for hydraulic or pneumatic arms is generally much larger than their electrical equivalents. Axes of motion of robotic arms. Available to a fixed-base fully articulated arm. Motion of the entire arm about the fixed base. Movement above the waist Elbow movement SHOULDER or VERTICAL MOTION ELBOW EXTENSION Different types of wrist motion 1. pitch up and down 2. yaw side to side 3. roll rotation of the wrist about the axis of the forearm Classification of Robots 1. movement 2. control used 3. program used Classification According to Control 1. Fixed and Variable Sequence Robots Also known as pick and place robot. Can be programmed for a specific sequence of operations 2. Playback Robot Memorizes and records the path and sequence of motions and can repeat them continuously without any further action or guidance form the operator 3. Numerically Controlled Robots Programmed and operated much like a numerically controlled machine. Servo-control by digital data and its sequence can be changed with relative ease. 4. Intelligent (sensory) Robots Robots capable of performing some of the functions and tasks carried bout by human beings. Equipped with a variety of sensors with visual and tactile (touching) capabilities Classification According to Movement 1. Rectilinear It can move its end effector in only 3 directions: up and down, left and right along a track and front to back, Box shaped work envelop Smaller range of motion Easiest to program because of rectangular coordinates system they use.

DEGREES OF FREEDOM WAIST MOTION or ARM SWEEP

2. Cylindrical Has a greater range of motion than the

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rectilinear robots because the arm can swing around its base in a circular or polar motion Work envelope is cylindrical with a core at the center that cannot be reached. 3. Spherical Has a polar articulation at eh waist and the shoulder, but uses rectilinear motion for reach Work envelop is roughly spherical, minus a pie-shaped wedge 4. Fully-Articulated Uses a polar articulation for all degrees of freedom The most flexible scheme of articulation. Most difficult to program Most popular arm in industry because of its extended ranges of motion Work envelop is usually pie-shaped crescent in the horizontal plane and an irregular spheroid in the vertical plane Classification According to Program Used 1. Positive-Stop Program Robots Produces only two-position motion about any individual robot axis. 2. Point-to-Point Programs Robots Ability to move a robot axis to any position within its range, rather than only the two limits positions. Range movements of 0 128 degrees on its shoulder Point-to-point program 8-bit resolution Position of shoulder at 0.0, 0.5, 1.0, 1.5, 2.0 degrees and so on up to 127.5 degrees 3. Continuous-Path Programs Like a point-to-point program, but with the destination positions very close together Able to move the tool device to a destination position very quickly through, and to move it via a virtually invariable path Robot Drives 1. Electric Drive System - Known for their quiet operation and the relatively small size of their power supplies. Used mainly in small training robots Backbone of industrial electrically powered robots. 2. Hydraulic Drive Systems used to handle heavy loads in todays industrial applications such robot designs utilized the mechanical advantage that can be gained with fluid power. 3. Pneumatic Drive Systems less popular than hydraulic systems but they may be found is several applications. - Has degree of compressibility, a certain amount of sag is expected. - Less capable of handling heavy weights. - Used mainly in point-to-point operation with medium loads Needs to be sufficient so that all the parts of the working area can be reaches. Must be large enough so that the task can be accomplished within an acceptable time. Measure of tolerance within which the end effector can be turned to a prerecorded point. Is the smallest step move that can be made at a given position. Different from repeatability.

Accuracy may be improved by additional sensory feedback

STEPPER MOTOR DC MOTOR

WORKING VOLUME SPEED AND ACCELERATE REPEATABILITY

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RESOLUTION ACCURACY Costs and benefit consideration Safety of robot is an important consideration ECONOMICS ROBOTS SAFETY

Actuator Type Electric

Advantages Lower initial cost a fluid system Much lower operating cost than a hydraulic system Clean no oil leaks to wipe up Accurate servo-type positioning and velocity can be achieved Great force capability can handle heavy loads Great loads Great holding strength when stopped hydraulic cylinder will not allow a heavy load to sag. Accurate servo-type positioning and velocity control can be achieved. Intrinsically safe in flammable environments such as painting. Lower initial cost than a hydraulic system. Lower operating costs than a hydraulic system. Clean no oil leaks to wipe up Quick response

Disadvantages Not such great force capability as a hydraulic system Very little holding strength when stopped will allow a heavy load to sag; mechanical breaks are required. High initial cost High operating cost Messy tends to leak oil

Hydraulic

Pneumatic

Programming of accurate positioning and velocity control are impossible; use mechanical stops Weak force capability Not so much holding strength when stopped as hydraulic system allows a heavy load to sag

COMPUTER
An electronic data processing machine capable of performing mathematical and logical operations accurately and processing large volumes of data at high speeds. COMPUTER

Characteristics 1. electronic 2. internal 3. stored data 4. program execution modulation General Capabilities 1. performs operations at extremely fast speeds and almost perfect reliability and accuracy 2. ability to store and retrieve information 3. ability to perform mathematical and logical operations 4. ability to handle large volumes of repetitive tasks accurately over long periods of time 5. can communication with its operations and with other machines 6. performs decisions based on a program 7. capable of remote processing 8. capable of processing one job at a time or several job almost simultaneously.

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1. main memory 2. secondary memory LIMITATIONS 1. functions only when it is provided with input information 2. can detect but cannot correct an in accurate entry 3. subject to occasional breakdown Classification of Computer 1. According to age and component generators a. 1st generation computers (1951-1958) - Vacuum tubes (UNIVAC I) b. 2nd generation computers (1959-1965) - transistors c. 3rd generation computers (1965-1970) - ICs - Improved reliability and faster speed d. 4th generation computers - MSI and LSI - Apple II, TRS-80 e. Current generation computers - VLSI, optical devices, parallel processing, etc. - Multi-user, multitasking 2. According to size a. mainframe - large scale - medium scale - small scale b. Minicomputers c. Microcomputers 3. According to application a. Scientific - small volumes - performs complex calculations using sophisticated formulas b. business - large volumes of data - simple calculations 4. According to Design a. General purpose - Performs variety of operations - Versatile enough to process diversified tasks b. Special purpose - Performs specific operations - Ex. Automatic Tire Alignment Main Parts of a Computer System 1. Software - programs that make a computer works - set of instructions for the computer to follow 2. Hardware - physical components that make up a computer Interface or group of devices where people talk to the computer Consists of electronic circuits that interpret and execute program instructions as well as communication with the Input/Output and storage devices. 2 parts of CPU 1. Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) 2. Control Unit Devices that give out information coming from the computer Devices where computer interacts with the user Storage where programs are placed inside the computer system 2 Types OUTPUT DEVICES MEMORY

INPUT UNIT CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT (CPU)

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 Input Devices The keys on the computer keyboard are arranged in much the same way as those on the typewriter Device that is moved by hand over a flat surface Has a ball on its underside. Device that uses a laser beam to read special letters, numbers or symbol

The most input part of the computer Manage all transaction of data between CPU and the peripherals Houses the CPU and its second level cache, the chipset, the BIOS, main memory, I/O chips, parts for keyboard, serial I/O, parallel I/O disks and plug in cards

Output Devices An indispensable output device similar to a television VDU (Video Display Unit) VRT (Video Display Terminal) CRT (Cathode Ray Tube) Produces printed reports as instructed by a computer program. Produces information on paper output Combine a magnetic roller with powdered ink called toner to transfer high quality characters of image onto a page. Have small nozzle that actually spray fast drying ink onto the page to form characters of image. Use print head to strike an inked ribbon against paper like a typewriter creating characters out of a series of dots. Device that uses al light source to read text and images directly to the computer. Looks and behaves like a photocopier. Looks and acts like fax machine The page or item is fed into the machine scanned, then split out on the other end. Low cost alternative Manual device you move over a flat surface just as you do your PCs mouse

KEYBOARD MOUSE BAR CODE READER MONITOR

PRINTER

LASER PRINTER INKJET PRINTER DOT MATIRX PRINTER SCANNER FLATBED SCANNER SHEETFED

Memory Type of permanent memory Non-volatile Stores some of the operating system software of the computer. The only software built-in into the computer system Provides the interface between the computer hardware system and the operating system Provides control to all devices that require interaction or services of the microprocessor. Where the various parameters needed by the BIOS to perform its tasks are permanently saved in a little piece of CMOS Enable a ser of instructions so the CPU can communicate with other parts of the motherboard Memory where data and programs are stored Working storage of the computer system Read/write memory Data are written to and read from it temporary of volatile memory The main board

HAND SCANNER

READ ONLY MEMORY (ROM) BASIC INPUT OUTPUT SYSTEM (BIOS)

COMPLEMENTARY METAL OXIDE SEMICONDUTOR (CMOS) CHIPSET

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8 RANDOM ACCESS MEMORY (RAM) 1011 9 1100 MOTHERBOARD

1000 1001

Error Detection Codes An extra bit included with a message to make total no. of 1s either odd or even. A no. in the reflected code changes by only one bit as its provides from one no. to the next.

Plug into an expansion slot in PC. Has a set of connectors that are exposed on the back of the PC Microphone and speakers May include a volume control. A metal box found at the portion of the system unit case Used to convert high voltage AC to a lower DC voltage to power up the computers electronic components. +5 volts supplies all electronic circuits on motherboard, adaptor cards, and peripherals such as disk devices, keyboard, mouse, etc. +12 volts used to power motors of disk device systems such as hard disk, CD-ROM and floppy disk devices. Let communicate over standard telephone lines with other computer users. Transfer data, exchange electronic files and ever carry typed, conversation real time. Hardware founds plug into an expansion slot in PCs system unit Connected to the PC by plugging a cable into a port on the system unit.

Binary code of a group of elements consisting of the 10 decimal digits, the 26 letters of the alphabet and a certain no. of special symbols such as dollar sign. SOUND CARDS

POWER SUPPLY

Number System Said to be of base 10 because it uses 10 digits and the coefficients are multiplies by power of 10. Two possible values 0 and 1. A number expressed in base r can be converted to its decimal equivalent by multiplying each coefficient with the corresponding power of r and adding. Multiplication is by r and the coefficient found form the integers may range in value from 0 to r-1. Used in digital computers for simplifying the subtraction operations and for logical manipulations. Binary digit. It is possible to arrange n bits in 2nd distinct ways. To represent a group of 2n elements in a binary code requires a minimum of n bits. Binary Coded Decimal A straight assignment of the binary equivalent. BCD 0000 0001 0010 0011 0100 0101 0110 0111 Excess 3 0011 0100 1010 0110 0111 1000 1011 1010

MODEMS INTERNAL MODEM EXTERNAL MODEM

DECIMAL SYSTEM BINARY SYSTEM NUMBER BASE CONVERSION CONVERSION OF A DECIMAL FRACTION TO BASE r COMPLEMENTS BIT

Decimal digit 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

BCD

27

X 0 1

Z 1 0

ERROR DETECTION CODES REFLECTED CODE GRAY CODE ALPHANUMERIC CODES American Standard Code for Information Interchange Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code Circuit whose input and output signals are 2-state, low or high voltages Deals with variables that take on 2 discrete values and with operations that assume logical meaning Consists of binary variables and logical operation. 1 stands for the more + of 2 voltage levels 1 stands for the more of the 2 voltage levels a logic circuit with one or more input signal but only one output signal

Electronic digital circuits Logic circuits Block of hardware that produces a logic 1 or logic 0 output signal if input logic requirements are satisfied digital circuits Switching circuits

Other Logic Operations Compliment of the OR function and its name is an abbreviation of NotOR. All inputs be low to get a high output. NOR F = (X+Y) X Y 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 F 1 0 0 0

ASCII EBCDIC CIRCUIT LOGIC BINARY LOGIC

Basic Logical Operations Represented by a dot or by the absence of an operator A logic circuit where output is high only when all inputs are high A table that shows all input and output possibilities for a logic circuit X 0 0 1 1 OR X 0 0 1 1 Y 0 1 0 1 Z 0 1 1 1 Y 0 1 0 1 Z 0 0 0 1

POSITIVE LOGIC NEGATIVE LOGIC GATE AND (INTERSECTION) GATE

AND

Represented by a plus signal A logic circuit with 2 or more inputs and only one output 1 or more high inputs produce a high output.

TRUTH TABLE

OR (UNION) GATE

Represented by a prime (sometimes by a bar) A gate with 1 input and 1 output (complement)

NOT

28

NOT (INVERSION) GATE

Produces the transfer function but does not produce any particular logic operation since the binary value of the output is equal to the binary value of the input. F 0 1

LOGIC GATES

BUFFER X 0 1

A set of elements, a set of operators and a no. of unproved axioms of postulates.

NOR FUNCTION

Most Common Postulates in Algebra 1. closure 2. associate law 3. commutative law 4. identity element 5. inverse 6. distributive History of Boolean algebra George Boole introduced a systematic treatment of logic and develops for this purpose an algebraic system. C.E. Shannon introduced a 2-valued Boolean Algebra called Switching Algebra, in which he demonstrated that the properties of bistable electrical circuits can be represented by this algebra. Every algebraic expression deducible from the postulates of Boolean Algebra remains valid if the operators and identity elements are interchanged.

Complement of AND Abbreviation of Not-AND F = (XY) X Y 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 F 1 1 1 0

NAND

Similar to OR but excludes the combination of both X and Y equal to 1. F = XY + XY F=X+Y X Y 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 1

XOR F 0 1 1 0

A function that is 1 when the 2 binary variables are equal i.e., when both are 0 or both are 1. F = XY + XY F=X.Y X Y 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 1

NAND FUNCTION

X-NOR F 1 0 0 1 EXCLUSIVE OR (XOR or EOR)

29

A primary building block from which more complex functions are obtained. Specifies the no. of standard loads that the output of the gate can drive without impairment of its normal operation. The current flowing in the input of a gate in the same IC family. Power consumed by the gate which must be available from the power supply. The average transition delay time for the signal to propagate form input to output when the signals change in value. The limit of a noise voltage which may be present without impairing the proper operation of the circuit. Consists of logic gates whose outputs at any time are determined directly from the present combination of inputs without regard to previous inputs. 2 binary inputs and 2 binary outputs A combinational circuit that forms the arithmetic sum of 3 input bits. Consists of 3 inputs and 2 outputs. A combination logic circuit that recognizes the presence of a specific binary no. or word. A digital function that produces a reverse operation from that of a decoder. An electronic switch that permits any one of a number of inputs to be chosen and routed to the output. Has 2 or more inputs and a single output. A combinational logic circuits that receives

EQUIVALENCE or EXCLUSIVE-NOR or EXCLUSIVE OR-NOT

BUFFER

BOOLEAN ALGEBRA (SYMBOLIC OGIC)

1854 1938

DUALITY PRINCIPLE

Symbol is of the form mj where j denotes the decimal equivalent of the binary no. of the mintern designated. The complement of a function expressed as the sum of minterns equals the sum of minterns missing from the original function. A Boolean expression containing AND terms called product terms of one or more literals each. A Boolean expression containing OR terms called sum terms May be regarded as a pictorial form of a truth table of as an extension of the Venn Diagram.

30

information on a single line and transmits this information on one of 2n possible output lines. Employ memory elements (binary cells) in addition to logic gates. Their outputs are a function of the inputs and the state of the memory elements. A system whose behavior can be defines from the knowledge of its signals at discrete instant of time. A 2 state circuit that can remain in either state indefinitely. An external trigger can change the output. Also called a Bistable Multivibrator. To eliminate the possibility of race condition. Ideal memory element when it comes to circuits that count. Change of the output to the opposite state in a JK Flip Flop. SYNCHRONOUS SEQUANTIAL CIRCUIT FLIP FLOP D FLIP FLOP (D-LATCH) JK FLIP FLOP TOGGLE Changing the output state of a flip flop on the rising and falling edge of a clock pulse. The minimum amount of time the input signals must be held constant after the clock edge has struck. The minimum amount of time the inputs to a flip flop must be present before the clock edge arrives. Time it takes for the output of a gate or flip flop to change after the inputs has changed. A type or of triggering in which the output of a F/F responds to the level (high or low) of the clock signals. The simplest type of F/F, consisting of 2 cross coupled NAND and NOR latches. Type of triggering using 2 cascaded latches. An undesirable condition which may exist in a system when 2 of more inputs change simultaneously. A group of memory elements that work together as a unit primary purpose is to store a word. A register that temporarily stores a word during data processing.

MINTERM OF STANDARD PRODUCT CONVERSION BETWEEN CANONICAL FORMS SUM OF PRODUCT (SOP) PRODUCT OF SUMS (POS) KARNAUGH MAP BASIC CIRCUIT FAN-OUT STANDARD LOAD POWER DISSIPATION

PROPAGATION DELAY MOISE MARGIN COMBINATIONAL LOGIC CIRCUITS HALF ADDER FULL ADDER DECODER ENCODER MULTIPLEXER (DATA SELECTOR CIRCUIT) DEMULTIPLEXER SEQUENTIAL CIRCUITS

31

A register that can shift the stored bits one position to the left of right. Has control inputs that determine what it does on the next clock pulse. Means storing a word in the shift register by entering 1 bit per clock pulse. Loading all bits of word in parallel during one clock pulse. A register capable of counting the member of clock pulses that have arrived at its clock input. Counts clock pulses only when commanded to do so. A counter in which the clock drives each F/F to eliminate the ripple delay. A counter producing words with 1 high bit which shifts one position per clock pulse. The no of stable states a counter has. Divide by 10 circuits Decade counter. Counts down. F/F outputs are connected to steering networks The counter starts at a number greater than 0 A non-inverting buffer that can be closed or opened by a control signal A tri-state switch A counter that allows you to preset a number from which the count begins. A group with wires used as a common word path by several registers. Where the programs and data stored before calculations begins.

SHIFT REGISTER CONTROLLED SHIFT REGISTER SERIAL LOADING PARALLEL LOADING (BROADSIDE LOADING) COUNTER CONTROLLED COUNTER SYNCHRONOUS COUNTERS RING COUNTER MODULUS OF A COUNTER MOD 10 COUNTER DOWN COUNTER UP DOWN COUNTER PRESETTABLE COUNTER 3-STATE SWITCH PRESSENTABLE COUNTER (PROG. COUNTER) BUS MEMORY ADDRESS The time it takes to read the contents of a memory location after it has been addressed. A type of memory in which data stored in the memory is lost when the power is turned off. A type of memory in which the stored data is not lost when the power if turned off Programmable ROM Allows the user to store the data. Programming is permanent. Erasable PROM A device that is ultravioleterasable and electrically reprogrammable.

A way of specifying the location of data in memory similar to a house address. EDGE TRIGGERING HOLD TIME

SET-UP TIME PROPAGATION DELAY TIME

LEVEL CLOCKING LATCH 7 MASTER SLAVE TRIGGERING RACE CONDITION REGISTER BUFFER

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Electrically Erasable PROM Non volatile like EPROM but does not require ultraviolet light to be erased. Read Write Memory Core Ram Non volatile. Uses bipolar or MOS F/Fs Data is retained indefinitely as long as power is applied to the F/Fs

EPROM EEPROM RAM

STATIC RAM Uses MOSFETs and capacitors that store data. Highly volatile because not only must the power be kept on, but the capacitor charge also be refreshed every few msec. Must be able to process data. Brain of the computer Shingle chip capable of processing data and controlling all the components, whether input of output. Keep all other parts working together in the right time and sequence. Contains the microprocessor data processing logic. Prominent part of microprocessor wherein the data is being stored. Programs which can assist users of particular type of computer to make the best use of their machine. A way detailed list of steps which must be followed to accomplish a certain task. A diagrammatic representation of a sequence of events. A section of program which will repeat over and over again. A program in which each step is followed by the next without any alternate routes or paths. Allows us to write one program that can do different things at different times. A section of a program which causes different actions to be taken on conditions. A portion of the program which is called upon to perform a specific task. SUBROUTINE Only language the computer actually understands Consists of 1s and 0s. A low-level language which uses mnemonics in place of binary patterns. Abbreviations for machine language instructions. MNEMONICS Uses advanced commands. Formula translation Language that handles high level mathematics very well and is designated for scientists and engineers. Common Business Oriented Language MACHINE LANGUAGE ASSEMBLY LANGUAGE BRANCHING BRANCH CONTROL UNIT ARITHMETIC LOGIC UNIT REGISTER SOFTWARE DYNAMIC RAM

PROCESSOR

PROGRAM FLOWCHART LOOP STRAIGHT-LINE PROGRAM

ACCESS TIME VOLATILE NON-VOLATILE PROM

33

Tailored to the needs of business Designed to be easy for non-professional programmers to learn and use. Named after the French Mathematician, Blaire Pascal. Designed to encourage the programmer to adhere to what are considered correct programming practices. Between high and low level languages When we write in assembly language we use abbreviations called mnemonics for certain operations of functions. More like English than machine language.

COBOL BASIC PASCAL

C AND FORTH ASSEMBLY LANGUAGE SOURCE CODE

You must look up the codes yourself. MANUAL ASSEMBLY Simple assembler. A program which gives the programmer access to the microprocessors stack, accumulator, registers and so forth. A program which translates assembly language mnemonics into binary patterns (machine language) A program which translates binary patterns into assembly language mnemonics. A complex program which converts computer instructions written in a source language into machine code. A tool which helps you stay organized as you write programs Simply a form ion which you can write program. Simple As Possible Stores a program and data before calculations begin Next step in the evolution toward modern computers because it includes jump instruction. 8-bit microcomputer that is upward compatible with the 8080 microprocessor. MONITOR

ASSEMBLER DISASSEMBLER COMPILER WORKSHEET SAP SAP 1 SAP 2 SAP 3

FILTERS
Built using passive components, resistor and capacitor. Uses amplifier for voltage gain and signal isolation or buffering. A filter that provides a constant output form DC up to a cut-off frequency, and then passes no signal. A filter that passes signals only above a cut-off frequency. Filter circuit that passes signals above and below the cut-off frequency. PASSIVE FILTER ACTIVE FILTER LOW PASS FILTER HIGH PASS FILTER BAND PASS FILTER

HIGH LEVEL LANGUAGE FORTRAN

INSTUMENTATION

34

Measurements of quantities in Electrical Engineering or Electrical Engineering quantities such as voltage, current, etc. Device that can give quantitative description on a given parameters. Electromechanical device with moving pointers, spring and moving coils or moving vanes. Utilize electronic circuits in place of electromechanical and provide a numerical readout. Auto range Minimum power consumption. Bearing friction Frequency variations Possible loss of magnetism. Parallax error-reading from the sides. Interpolation error-estimating between graduation Interpretation error-reading on the wrong side of the scale and falling to consider the multiplying factor. Consists of a movable coil situated within the magnetic field of a permanent magnet. Consists of moving coil, spring and permanent magnet. Consists of a moving coil, called: armature that is free to move within a magnetic field set-up by two stationary field coils. ELECTRODYNAMETER 2 soft iron vanes, movable and stationary. Resistance of the ideal ammeter is zero. Needle deflection is directly proportional to current. Arises form the fact that meter face is not accurately marked. Error caused by the internal resistance of the ammeter. Resistor connected in parallel with meter to increase the measuring capability of the ammeter. R(ab) dictates the circuit what must be obtained in measuring circuit. R,L,C (DC), and Z (AC) Variable control use to losing the bridge to a balanced equation is connected to branches. Galvanometers for DC and Oscilloscope for AC Basic meter movement consisting of a fixed coil divided into two equal halves and a moving coil between the field coils. Consists of a fixed coil of many turns and tow iron-vanes placed in the fixed coil. Variable capacitor Used to measure high voltage but little current. Used to measure RF AC signal. Consists of a heater and a dArsonval meter movement. Consists of a permanent magnet and a moving coil. To measure alternating current with the dArsonval meter, first rectify the AC by use of a diode rectifier to produce unidirectional current flow. DETECTION CIRCUIT ELECTRODYNAMOMETER MOVEMENT ERON-VANE METER MOVEMENT ELECTROSTATIC METER MOVEMENT THERMOCOUPLE METER DARSONVAL METER MOVEMENT DARSONVAL METER, HALFWAVE RECTIFICATION CALIBRATION ERROR AMMETER LOADING EFFECT DC AMMETER SHUNT RESISTANCE, Rsh COMPARING CIRCUIT MEASURING CIRCUIT IRON VANE MOVEMENTS IDEAL AMMETER INSTRUMENTATION INSTRUMENT ANALOG METER DIGITAL METER

LIMITATION OF ANALOG METER, ERROR LIMITATION OF ANALOG METER, USER ERROR

DARSONVAL METER

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To improve the sensitivity of a rectifier type of voltmeter, full-wave rectification is used. Making a comparison measurements are widely used to measure resistance, inductances, capacitances and impedance. Consists of two parallel resistance branches containing two series elements, usually resistors. Modified version of the Wheatstone bridge containing additional set of radio arms to compensate for lead and contact resistors of 1 ohm or loss. Known and simplest of loop tests used principally to locate ground faults in short sections of communications and power cables. Ground faults and short circuits in high resistance loops such as long communications lines. Used to measure inductance and capacitance accurately. Used to measure the impedance of a capacitive circuit. Also called as Capacitance Comparison Bridge or the series RC bridge. Also called as parallel capacitance comparison. Used to determine an unknown inductance with capacitance standards. Measure either the equivalent-series components or the equivalent parallel components of impedance. Measure insulating properties, for phase angles of nearly 90 degrees. Used on laboratories to measure the impedance of both capacitive and inductive circuits at higher frequencies.

The base unit or resistance DARSONVAL METER, FULL WAVE RECTIFICATION DC BRIDGE WHEATSTONE BRIDGE KELVIN BRIDGE MURRAY LOOP VARLEY LOP AC BRIDGE AC WHEATSTONE BRIDGE SMILAR ANGLE BRIDGE OPPOSITE-ANGLE BRIDGE MAXWELL BRIDGE WEIN BRIDGE SCHERING BRIDGE

BASIC ELECTRICITY
An invisible force that can produce heat, light motion and many other physical effects that can be seen in battery, static charge, lightning, electronics. Negatively charges particle Positively charge particle Have no electric charge Static electricity at rest, without any potion. Mks unit of quantity Charge in motion, a continuous flow of free electrons. CURRENT The base unit of current Source of electrons, the force that causes the motion of electrons A potential energy difference that exist across two points which tend to cause a flow of electrons Unit of emf and voltage, specifies the energy available when a given charge is transported from the low to high potential. A property of electric circuit, material and substance that converts electrical energy to heat energy. AMPERE ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE VOLTAGE VOLT RESISTANCE ELECTRONS PROTONS NEUTRONS CHARGE COULOMB

ELECTRICITY

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OHMS The opposite or reciprocal of resistance, it measures how fast electrons could easily pass through a material The unit of conductance The resistance of a conducting material is directly proportional to its length ( R L ) and inversely proportional to its cross sectional area (R L/A ). A convenient use of area used with circular wires because the use of square inches or square feet results in complicated calculations and inconveniently small numbers for ordinary size of wires. Effect of temperature on resistance To increase the resistance of pure metals. The increase is large and fairly regular for normal ranges of temperature. To increase the resistance of alloys though in their case, the increase is relatively small and irregular. To decrease the resistance of electrolytes, insulators (such as paper rubber, glass, mica etc.) and partial conductors such as carbon. Change in resistance per degree change in temperature.

The term given to an insulated wire.

CONDUCTANCE SIEMENS RESISTANCE LAW CIRCULAR MIL

The ratio of potential difference (V) between any two points on a conductor to the current ( I ) flowing between them is constant provide the temperature of the conductor does not change. Device having known specific values of resistance and used for the control of current or the production of heat. The resistor in an incandescent lamp. Used as heating elements in toasters, flat irons and other heating resistance heating elements. They are very accurate and its ohmic and wattage (above 2 W) is painted on its covering. 1/8 W to 2W in rating, and its ohmic rating can be determine by its color code. Use a thin film of metal or a metal particle mixture to achieve various resistances. Made by depositing a carbon film on a small ceramic cylinder. Connected n a circuit to vary the current Connected in a circuit to vary the voltage. A potentiometer equipped with plastic thumbwheel or a slot for a screwdriver for occasional adjustment. A temperature sensitive resistors A voltage sensitive resistors. A light sensitive resistors. Materials through which electron can freely travel silver (Ag 47) , copper (Cu 29) gold (Au 79). Consist of a group of wires twisted to form a metallic string.

TEMPERATURE COEFFICIENTS OF RESISTANCE OHMS LAW

RESISTORS FINE TUNGSTEN WIRE NICKEL-CHROMIUM ALLOY WIRE WOUND CARBON COMPOSITION METAL FILM CARBON FILM RHEOSTAT POTENTIOMETER TRIMMER THERMISTOR VARISTORS PHOTORESISTORS CONDUCTORS CORD

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INSULATORS

The flux per cross sectional area. Magneto motive force per unit length.

Serves as physical shield against heat or moisture, and they are rated from 250 to 15,000 volts. The current in amperes, a conductor can carry continuously under the condition of use without exceeding its temperature rating. Materials whose electrical characteristics fall between that of conductors and insulators silicon ( Si 14 ) germanium ( Ge 32) metallic compounds cadmium sulfide ( CdS) and cadmium selenide ( CdSe). Rate of producing work or consuming energy. The S.I. unit of electric power. Power rating of electric motor The accomplishment of motion against the action of a force which tends to oppose the motion The S.I. unit of electric energy and work. Ratio of useful energy to total input energy which is always a decimal or a number less than 1. A natural phenomenon in which some material (ferromagnetic) can be attached by a magnet but not other material ( non-magnetic) A substance that attracts pieces of iron (and its compound) steel, nickel, cobalt. A field force like electricity and earths gravitational force which acts without physical contacts. A region in which magnetic materials is acted upon by a magnetic force. Represents the line which seems to emanate from north and terminates to South Pole. The areas where the effect of magnetic field is concentrated. Characteristics of magnetic lines of force. They possess a positive direction They always form a complete loop They tend to become as short as possible They repel one another Like poles repel one another They arrange to set up their maximum number The total number of magnetic lines of force in a magnetic field. The S.I. unit is the Weber (Wb) Establishment the magnetic flux in magnetic circuit the counterpart of EMF an electric circuit. The limiter of the magnetic circuit to the establishment of a magnetic flux A measure of the ability of a magnetic circuit to permit the setting up of flux A figure indicating the ability of a material to permit the setting up of flux. Ratio of absolute permeability of a material to permeability of vacuum.

Magnetic materials whereby a change in a magnetization LAGS the application of a magnetizing force. CONDUCTOR INSULATOR AMPACITY SEMICONDUCTORS

POWER WATTS HORSEPOWER WORK JOULE EFFICIENCY MAGNETISM MAGNET MAGNETIC FORCE MAGNETIC FIELD MAGNETIC LINES OF FORCE POLES

MAGNETIC FLUX

MAGNETOMOTIVE FORCE RELUCTANCE PERMEANCE

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PERMEABILITY RELATIVE PERMEABILITY FLUX DENSITY MAGNETIC FIELD INTENSITY HYSTERESES The ability of material once magnetized to maintain a magnetized state without the presence of a magnetizing force. Such as aluminum, chromium, manganese, and air where intense magnetic fields have only a very mild barely detectable attractive effect. Such as bismuth, antimony, copper, silver and a few others where intense magnetic fields have a scarcely perceptible repellant effect. Do allow magnetism to pass through them, but they never become magnetized to any noticeable degree.

In any electrical network, the algebraic sum of the current meeting at a point (or junction) is zero. The algebraic sum of the products of the currents and the resistances in each of the conductors in any closed loop path in a network PLUS the algebraic sum of the emfs in that path is zero. A sophisticated application of KVL with mesh currents.

DIRECT CURRENT CIRCUITS

A closed conducting path through which an electric current flows or is intended to flow. The various elements of an electric circuit, like resistance, inductance and capacitance which may be lumped or distributed. Is one whose parameters are constant, i.e., they do not change with voltage or current Is that circuit whose parameters change with voltage or current Is one whose properties or a characteristic is the same is either direction. Is that circuit whose properties or characteristics change with the direction of its operation. Connection of various electric elements in any manner. With no source of emf. Contains one or more than one sources of emf. A junction in a circuit where two or more circuit elements and/or branches are connected together. Part of a network which lies between two junctions. A closed path in a circuit in which no element or node is encountered more than once. A loop that contains no other loop within it. For simple circuit where the networks is left in its original form while determining its different voltages and currents. For simple as well as complicated networks, where the original network is converted into a much simpler equivalent circuit for rapid calculation of different quantities. More comprehensive than ohms law and is used in solving electrical networks which may not readily solved by the latter.

An assumed current, which are preferably flow in a clockwise around the meshes. RETENTIVITY PARAMAGNETIC DIAMAGNETIC NON MAGNETIC

CIRCUIT

PARAMETERS LINEAR CIRCUIT NON-LINEAR CIRCUIT BILATERAL CIRCUIT UNILATERAL CIRCUIT ELECTRIC NETWORK PASSIVE NETWORK ACTIVE NETWORK NODE BRANCH

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LOOP MESH DIRECT METHOD NETWORK REDUCTION METHOD KIRCHOFFS LAW KIRCHOFFS CURRENT LAW

resistance of the source. Produced an emf when two dissimilar metals are immersed in an acid or salt solution, known as electrolyte. Can not be used again after it has discharged all its electrical energy. Almost obsolete; used in larger bell, indicator circuits, and for railway signaling. It can be recharge after supplying it with the electrical energy Consist of positive and negative lead electrodes and an electrolyte of dilute sulphuric acid all placed in an acid resistant container. Measures the capacity of cell. Used to measure the specific gravity of a cell. The maximum of force available in a cell to produce current flow Some resistance to current flows through the cell (less than 1 ohms in a good cell) The voltage measured in the terminal of a cell and is less than the cell emf.

KIRCHOFFS VOLTAGE LAW MESH ANALYSIS MESH CURRENTS A systematic application of KCL at a node and after simplifying the resulting KCL equation, the node voltage ca be calculated. A node with three or more circuit elements joined together. The node from which unknown voltages are measured. The current through or voltage across an element in a linear bilateral network is equal to the algebraic sum of the current or voltages produced independently in each source. Any resistance R in a branch of network in which current I flowing can be replaced, for the purpose of calculations by a voltage equal to IR, or If the resistance of any branch of the network of a network is changed from R to (R + R) where the current flowing originally is 1, the change of current at any other place in the network may be calculated by assuming than assuming than an emf of -1 (R) has been injected into the modified branch while other sources have their emfs suppressed and are represented by their internal resistance only. In any linear-bilateral network if a source of emf, E in any branch produces a current I in any branch., then the same emf, E acting in the second branch would produce the same current I in the first branch. A voltage source and series resistance combination is equivalent to a current source and parallel resistance combination if their respective open circuit voltages and currents are equal, Any 2 terminal of a linear, active bilateral network of fixed resistances and voltages sources may be replaced by a single voltage source and a series internal resistance Any 2 terminal active network containing voltage sources and resistances when viewed from its output terminals, is equivalent to a constant-current source and a parallel internal resistance A special case of the application of Thevenins theorem or Nortons theorem used for finding the Common Voltage across any network which may contains a number of parallel voltages sources. For loads connected directly to a DC voltage supply, maximum power will be delivered to the load when the resistance equal to the internal

NODAL ANALYSIS PRINCIPAL NODE REFERENCE NODE SUPERPOSITION THEOREM

COMPENSATION THEOREM

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 RECIPROCITY THEOREM

The value of voltage or current at the positive or negative maximum with respect to zero time axis. The voltage or current from the positive peak to the negative peak or vice versa. For sinusoidal half period The equivalent of DC as far as heating at resistance is concerned. The ratio of the effective value to the average value. The ratio of maximum value to the effective value. An angular measurement that specifies the position of a sine wave relative to a relative to a reference. A rotating arrow used to represent the time varying quantities in terms of their magnitude and angular measurements. Total circuit limiter to flow of AC, in ohms. The product of rms value voltage and current The power actually consumed by an AC circuit. The power taken by a reactance ( inductive or capacitive) The cosine of angle between voltage and current in AC circuit. Current remain in phase with the voltage Current leads voltage by an angle electrical degree. Current lags voltage by an angle electrical degree.

SOURCE CONVERSION THEOREM

THEVENINS THEOREM NORTONS THEOREM

MILLSMAN THEOREM

MAXIMUM POWER TRANSFER CELL

PRIMARY CELL DRY CELL SECONDARY CELL LEAD ACID CELL AMPERE HOUR HYDROMETER EMF OF CELLS INTERMNAL RESISTANCE POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE Provide high PD by connecting the positive terminal of one cell to the negative terminal of the other. Heavier currents can drawn

ALTERNATING CURRENT CIRCUITS

A complete set of positive and negative alternation of sinusoidal waveform Number of cycles completed in one second. The amount of time required for one cycle to be completed. The value at any point in time on a sine wave, at different points.

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ZERO PF There is a phase difference of 90 electrical degrees between current and voltage, so no useful work done. Maybe two, three, four six. Nine-phase but the most common for power and lighting applications is the three phase. Resistance offered by inductor or capacitor to alternating current in AC circuit. Resistance of inductive device to AC. Resistance of capacitive device to AC. POLYPHASE CIRCUIT REACTANCE INDUCTIVE REACTANCE CAPACITIVE REACTANCE ADMITTANCE Is the ability of the inductance and capacitance to pass AC, in Siemens The ability of the inductor to permit current to flow. The ability of the capacitor to permit current to flow.

The reciprocal of impedance, in Siemens CELLS IN SERIES

CELLS IN PARALLEL

CYCLE FREQUENCY PERIOD SINE WAVE INSTANTANEOUS VALUE PEAK OR MAXIMUM VALUE PEAK TO PEAK VALUE AVERAGE VALUE EFFECTIVE OR ROOT MEAN SQUARE VALUE FORM FACTOR CREST FACTOR PHASE PHASOR IMPEDANCE APPARENT POWER AVERAGE POWER REACTIVE POWER FACTOR UNITY PF LEADING PF LAGGING PF

RESONANCE AND FILTERS

Is the condition existing in a circuit, containing R, L, and C, where the applied voltage V is in phase with the resulting current I; Is the ability of a circuit to respond more readily to signals of a particular frequency to which it is tuned than to signals of other frequencies. Is a range of frequencies between two points on its selective curve? The bandwidth is taken between the points where the current, voltage, or impedance is 70.7% of maximum, depending on whether it is a series or paralleltuned circuits. A figure of merit for RLC circuit: that is refers to the goodness of a reactive component. The higher the Q-factor, the narrower the BW and more selective is the circuit.

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Q-factor in the order of 100-300 are useful in communication engineering The disadvantage of high Q-factor in series circuit, it can lead to dangerous high voltage across the insulation and may result in electrical breakdown.

ELECTRICAL MACHINES
A rotating machine used for continuous conversion of mechanical energy to electrical energy and vice versa. Provides mechanical energy to generators. A rotor device whose blades rotate its wheel by the water-jet pressure or superheated steam. Continuously converts mechanical energy into direct current electrical energy There are no physical connections between the magnets and the conductors. Output depends on, magnetic field strength, speed at which it is driven and number of conductors. The extended forefinger, thumb and the center-finger of the left hand, which are mutually perpendicular with each other, will point in the direction of cutting motion of the conductor ad in the direction of the induced current, respectively. Made up of poles, armature core, air gap, and the field yoke. Provides the flux that will pass through the air gap and the armature core. Have greater cross section than the pole core. Acts as a return path for the flux and mechanical support for the frame. The space between the pole faces and the armature surface. Are located on the armature surfaces to receive the insulated copper armature winding.

DC MACHINE PRIMEMOVER TURBINES DC GENERATORS INDUCTION

LEFT HAND RULE FOR GENERATOR ACTION MAGNETIC CIRCUIT POLES POLE SHOES FIELD YOKE AIR GAP TEETH AND SLOTS The most important part of the dynamo. Converts AC to DC or DC to AC. It is where the armature coil ends are soldered. These are spools of conductors carrying DC that provide flux needed for dynamo excitation. Consists of a set of brush holders that are bolted to a yoke and carbon brushes. Made of carbon or graphite, and are fitted in brush holders and a shift spring presses it against the commutator face.

SUSCEPTANCE INDUCTIVE SUSCEPTANCE CAPACITIVE SUSCEPTANCE\

RESONANCE SELECTIVITY BANDWIDTH FREQUENCY

QUALITY FACTOR

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Its shunt field is connected to an outside source ( a battery or another DC generators). Its initial excitation is achieved by utilizing the residual magnetism of the field poles, and then generated emf is red to the field poles for excitation. Effect of magnetic field set up by the armature current (or the induced current) on the main field flux of a generator. Connected in series with the armature to neutralize armature reaction. Connected in series with the armature to neutralize armature reaction. Parallel with the series field, it can be brought up the no load voltage up to almost any desired values to meet individual demands. A measure of how steady the output voltage is when the load changes. Continuously converts electrical energy into direct mechanical energy. Is a measure of the twisting capability of a motor and is proportional to the magnetic field strength and the armature current. Assuming the developed torque is sufficient to cause rotation, a counter emf (or back emf) will be generated in the armature speed and the air gap flux. Maintain its speed constant for any load. Allows speed variation through wide limits. Reduces its speed as required turning force increases. Speed characteristics; variable Torque characteristics: high starting Applications: cranes, elevators, hoists, electric railway, cars, trucks and locomotives. Speed characteristics; essentially constant and adjustable. Torque characteristics: good starting Applications: fans, blowers, centrifugal pumps, conveyors, wood working and metal-working machine, elevators. Speed characteristics; maybe constant and adjustable or variable speed Torque characteristics: medium starting Applications: plunger, pumps, punch presses, power shears milling machine. An electrical machine that transfers electrical energy from one circuit to another. Carries the magnetic lines and usually, made up of steel or silicon steel.

SEPARATELY EXCITED SELF EXCITED

ARMATURE REACTION COMPENSATING WINDING INTERPOLE WINDING DIVERTER RESISTANCE %PERCENT VOLTAGE REGULATION DC MOTORS TORQUE COUNTER-EMF

CONSTANT SPEED MOTOR ADJUSTABLE SPEED MOTOR VARIABLE SPEED MOTOR SERIES MOTOR

SHUNT MOTOR

COMPOUND MOTOR

TRANSFORMERS LAMINATED CORE PRIMARY WINDINGS Where the load is connected and may be composed of several windings where several loads of different voltages can be connected.

Where the voltage source is connected. ARMATURE WINDING COMMUTATOR FIELD COILS BRUSH ASSEMBLY CARBON BRUSHES

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Have a single continuous winding: part of which is common to both primary and secondary winding. An electrical machine which converts mechanical energy into electrical energy. In the form of alternating current and when as motor it run is called a synchronous motor. Two main parts of alternator. One in which the magnetic field in the rotor is induced by current flowing in the stator windings. The rotor winding is practically self-contained an its connected either mechanically or electrically with the outside power supply or control circuit. This is a three phase motor that has another three phase winding instead of a squirrel cage rotor, the terminals of which are connected to three slip rings. An AC motor that can run only on a definite speed called synchronous speed regardless of the load applied to it. Carries DC excited winding. Often a three phase winding connected to an AC loads and its field over excited. It has stator windings, the main and the auxiliary windings. It includes machines whose stator coils are energized by electronically switched currents.

AUTOTRANSFORMER AC GENERATOR OR ALTERNATOR STATOR, ROTOR INDUCTION MOTORS SQUIRREL-CAGE

WOUND ROTOR TYPE

SYNCHRONOUS MOTORS FIELD (ROTOR) STRUCTURE ARMATURE (STATOR) STRUCTURE SPLIT PHASE MOTORS SPECIAL MACHINES

SECONDARY WINDINGS

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