Vehicles Handbook en 2005

Vehicles Handbook
May 2005
Logistic Department Action contre la Faim
Document revision history:

Revision date 25/15/2004 01/05/2005 Author Logistic Department Logistic Department Summary of changes Initial release Correction various mistakes, new format
Notes: This handbook replaces Module 5 The basic principles of (car) mechanics and maintenance of a fleet of vehicles" of 1996.
Action contre la Faim - Kit Log V 2.0 V 2.0 English/ 04 vehicles
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Table of contents:
1. Introduction...............................................................................................5 2. Principles of mechanics.............................................................................6 2.1. 2x4 and 4x4.........................................................................................6 2.2. The engine...........................................................................................7 2.3. The clutch..........................................................................................11 2.4. The transmission...............................................................................12 2.5. Brakes ..............................................................................................14 2.6. Suspension and shock absorbers.......................................................15 2.7. The cooling system ..........................................................................16 2.8. Electrical equipment..........................................................................20 3. Lubrication...............................................................................................22 3.1. Engine lubrication..............................................................................22 3.2. Oil filter..............................................................................................24 3.3. Other parts lubrications ...................................................................25 4. Pneumatics..............................................................................................26 4.1. Tyres categories................................................................................26 4.2. Tyre structure....................................................................................26 4.3. The tread on the tyre ........................................................................27 4.4. Classification of tyres (data from Michelin).......................................27 4.5. Choosing a tyre..................................................................................28 5. Driving within Action contre la Faim .......................................................30 5.1. General rules.....................................................................................30 5.2. Drivers check-lists.............................................................................30 6. Driving 4x4..............................................................................................32 6.1. When to use 4x4 transmission .........................................................32 6.2. The different types of 4x4.................................................................32 6.3. Selection of the appropriate 4-WD mode..........................................33 6.4. Recommendations for driving 4x4 ....................................................34 7. Human resources.....................................................................................35 7.1. Drivers...............................................................................................35 7.2. Recruitment of drivers.......................................................................35 7.3. Training a new driver.........................................................................36 7.4. Mechanics..........................................................................................36 8. Fleet of vehicles.......................................................................................38 8.1. The role of the Logistics Coordinator.................................................38 8.2. Vehicles characteristics ....................................................................38 8.3. Which 4x4 to choose? .......................................................................39 9. Vehicle fleet management.......................................................................41 9.1. Rental or purchase............................................................................41 9.2. Rental ...............................................................................................41 9.3. Rental tips.........................................................................................42 9.4. Ideal rental from Action contre la Faims point of view.....................42 9.5. Purchasing.........................................................................................43 9.6. Insurance...........................................................................................43 10. Annexes.................................................................................................44 10.1. Vehicle tool box for field missions...................................................44 10.2. List of tools for the workshop..........................................................45 10.3. Toyota Gibraltar Service glossary of 4x4 terms...............................47
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1. Introduction
This handbook is meant to provide the logistician with basic notions of mechanics in order to deal with minor problems on the field. It will not turn a logistician into a mechanic. As with any aspect of work on the field, competence and professialism of the teams is essential, so this handbook provides some advice regarding recruitment, main responsibilities and management of drivers and mechanics. Despite the pollution and noise they produce, vehicles can be very useful, especially 4x4. They are very useful tools for Action contre la Faim to access difficult areas. A 4x4 is not indestructible and because 4x4 often travel over rough terrain, they will need more care than an ordinary vehicle. The Logistic department is responsible for the fleet management. This handbook provides the necessary information and mechanical knowledge for a correct physical management. Fleet management has a direct impact on: Security: an insufficiently maintained vehicle can cause accidents, and in a war zone a poorly maintained vehicle that will not start when needed for evacuation can cause serious problems. Programmes: bad vehicle management can cause delays in the planning and are more expensive to repair than when regularly maintained. Equipment management: Action contre la Faim owns some vehicles and some other are a donor's property. A good management enables the planning of the fleet renewal.
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2. Principles of mechanics
This chapter presents the main parts and accessories of a vehicle and refers mainly to a 4x4 with a diesel engine.
2.1. 2x4 and 4x4

- 4-WD (4-wheel drive): equal traction from the rear and front wheels. - 2 WD (2-wheel drive): traction is coming only from two wheels at the rear or front of the car). Scheme of a 4x4 vehicle 1: 2: 3: 4: 5: 6: 7: Engine Gearbox Transfer box Rear drive shaft Front drive shaft Rear differential Front differential
2.1.1. Torque Torque is the twisting force produced by the engine. The torque from the engine is what moves the vehicle. The various gears in the transmission and differential multiply the torque and split it up between the wheels. More torque can be sent to the wheels in first gear than in fifth gear because first gear has a larger gear-ratio by which to multiply the torque. The interesting thing about torque is that in low-traction situations, the maximum amount of torque that can be created is determined by the amount of traction, not by the engine. 2.1.2. Traction Traction is the maximum amount of force the tire can apply against the ground (or that the ground can apply against the tire they're the same thing). Here are the factors that affect traction: Weight on the tires: the more weight on a tire, the more traction it has. Weight can shift as a car drives. For instance, when a car
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makes a turn, weight shifts to the outside wheels. When it accelerates, weight shifts to the rear wheels. Coefficient of friction: the coefficient of friction is mostly linked to the kind of tires on the vehicle and the type of surface the vehicle is driving on. For instance, a high-performance tire has a very high coefficient of friction when it is driving on a dry, concrete track. That is one of the reasons why such cars can corner at such high speeds. The coefficient of friction for that same tire in mud would be almost zero. By contrast, huge, knobbly, off-road tires would not have as high a coefficient of friction on a dry track, but in the mud, their coefficient of friction is extremely high.
Wheel slip: there are two kinds of contact that tires can make with the road static and dynamic. 1. Static Contact: The tires and the road (or ground) are not slipping relative to each other. The coefficient of friction for static contact is higher than for dynamic contact, so static contact provides better traction. 2. Dynamic Contact: The tire is slipping relative to the road. The coefficient of friction for dynamic contact is lower, the vehicle has less traction -
2.2. The engine

The role of the engine is to convert the fuel energy into torque. The diesel engine is designed for heavy duty. Diesel engines are appropriate for 4-WD vehicles as they can work in rough conditions. Diesel engines require specific tools and knowledge. Petrol engines fail when they are too wet but they are easy to repair. For an identical output power the RPM of petrol engines is much higher than the one of diesel engines. Motorbikes and portable generators are equipped with petrol engines. 4-WD field vehicles are usually diesel, but some Action contre la Faim missions have also petrol vehicles. A mechanic working for Action contre la Faim must be familiar with both diesel and petrol engines.
All engines, and particularly diesel engines, need a warming up time.

This heating time enables the circulation of lubricants in the engine. In a warm environment, heating time can be limited to two minutes, in a cold environment 10 minutes or more. Until the engine reaches 80-90 the driver must avoid pushing it.
Some engines are equipped with an automatic device that turns off the engine if the RPM is too high before a sufficient temperature is reached. 2.2.1. The diesel engine Most diesel engines use a four-stroke cycle: 1. The piston's first, downward stroke draws in air 2. The second, upward stroke compresses it 3. The third, downward stroke, following combustion, delivers power 4. The fourth, upward stroke expels waste gases. At the end of a piston's compression stroke, a fuel injector sprays fuel into the combustion chamber. Air temperature inside the chamber at that point is about 540 C. The fuel ignites, causing a rapid expansion of hot air that forcefully pushes the piston downward. That downward power stroke turns the crankshaft. The compression ratio of a gasoline engine varies from about 6:1 to 10:1. The compression ratio for a diesel engine varies from about 12:1 to 24:1. The diesel's higher compression ratios are necessary to create air temperatures hot enough to ignite fuel on contact. This difference of compression ratio explains that diesel engines are more efficient when using the engine break than petrol engines but also that they require more power to start.
2.2.2. The fuel When refilling the tank, the logistician must check that he/she is using the right fuel: Diesel for a diesel engine and petrol for a petrol engine. This
seems obvious but the name of the fuel and the colour can change from one country to another (petrol, gasoline, gas, fuel, essence, super etc.). Gasoline (essence) dries out without leaving grease on the finger while Diesel leaves grease traces. Petrol is between gasoline and Diesel in terms of density. The use of an inappropriate fuel can damage the engine. In some countries the quality of fuel is very bad so the logistician must negotiate a high quality one and inspect the delivery. Storage of fuel must be waterproof. Small quantities of water can mix with diesel and will spoil the injection pump. Ideally storage is organised in large tanks that will facilitate the decantation (separation of the water and dust from the fuel). Clean drums can also be used. It is always safe to filter the fuel when filling the tank and stop before reaching the bottom of the tank. Similarly, driving on the reserve tank is dangerous as the reserve contains much more dust. Dust in the fuel can block the injection circuit (or carburettor for petrol engine). 2.2.3. The tank The tank is generally at the rear of the vehicle parallel to the chassis for security reasons. It is possible to install a supplementary tank. Most of Action contre la Faim 4X4 have two fuel tanks. The driver must check that: The tank is firmly attached to the vehicle It is properly sealed Pipes and filling funnels are in good condition Normally cleaning a fuel tank is not a regular operation. However if dust or mud entered the tank it must be washed with fuel and dried properly. 2.2.4. Fuel filters 4-WD vehicles have fuel filters and pre-filters usually found at the rear of the tank, connected to the main fuel filter by a pipe. A diesel fuel filter should be drained weekly, more frequently if fuel quality is poor. Drainage: The drain plug below the filter must be unscrewed, the driver will let the fuel flow until clean fuel comes, then the driver tightens the drain. Air bleeding: Air in the fuel filter should be bled. There is commonly a bleeding screw located on top of the filter and a hand pump to pressurise the filter. The driver will un-tighten the screw and will pump until air bubbles stop coming out and only pure fuel is flowing.
The driver will then fasten the pump and bleeding screw back to their original positions. The lifetime of a fuel filter depend on the environment and on the fuel quality. The mechanics and the logistician define the maintenance periodicity, which must never exceed the manufacturer's recommendations. 2.2.5. Injection pump The injection pump is the heart of the engine. It pumps the fuel from the filter to the injectors and then into the cylinders. The injection pump does not need to be included in the regular maintenance but it is good to check connections for leaks or damage. The injection pump is a very sensitive and very expensive assembly, repair and calibration are normally done by a specialised workshop. 2.2.6. Injectors Injectors are situated on top of the engine block, seated on the cylinder head. A fuel injector is a valve supplied with pressurised fuel by the fuelpump, and it can open and close many times per second Maintenance work on injectors must be done by a specialist. Symptoms of bad injectors are: difficulty to start the engine, irregular RPM and permanent black smoke. 2.2.7. Glow plug Diesel engines use fuel combustion while petrol engines use fuel explosion. In a petrol engine, a spark plug ignites an air/fuel mixture under pressure. In a diesel engine pure air is compressed and then fuel is injected. Compression raises the air temperature and the fuel is ignited progressively. Diesel fuel is not as flammable as gasoline, so diesel engines are more difficult to start when cold, especially in winter. To solve this problem, each combustion chamber has a glow plug containing a small coil that heats up when an electric current passes through it. Briefly activating the glow plugs before starting a diesel engine preheats the combustion chamber and makes starting easier. If the engine doesnt start in the morning, the driver must check the heater plug: it can be unscrewed with a normal spanner and is connected in series to the electrical system.
2.2.8. Air filter Diesel and Petrol engine need air for combustion or explosion of the fuel. An engine can use about 10,000 litres of air for every 1 litre of fuel. This air can contain suspended dirt particles that can enter the engine and mix with oil. Contaminated oil then grinds off metal particles that add to the abrasion and can block up rings, valves and oil-ways. An efficient air filter can prevent this occurrence. 4-WD vehicles are generally equipped with two types of air filter: the paper filter screen or the oil bath filter. A dirty air filter affects the performance of the vehicle: slower RPM. The driver must check the air filter weekly, even more often in difficult conditions. An air compressor can blow the dust from paper filters between services. When crossing a creek or river the driver has to verify that the level of water is far below the air intake. Water entering the engine causes severe breakdowns. A raised air intake is fitted on most of Action contre la Faim 4x4.
2.3. The clutch

In an automobile clutch, the flywheel is connected to the engine, and the clutch plate is connected to the transmission. When the drivers foot is off the pedal, the springs push the pressure plate against the clutch disc, which in turn presses against the flywheel. This locks the engine to the transmission input shaft, making them spin at the same speed.
A: From the engine B: To the transmission 1: Flywheel 2: Clutch disc 3: Pressure plate 4: Clutch cover 5: Diaphragm spring 6: Clutch release bearing (also called throw-out bearing)
The amount of force the clutch can hold depends on the friction between the clutch plate and the flywheel, and how much force the spring puts on the pressure plate.
When the clutch pedal is pressed, a cable or hydraulic piston pushes on the release fork, which presses the throw-out bearing against the middle of the diaphragm spring. As the middle of the diaphragm spring is pushed in, a series of pins near the outside of the spring cause the spring to pull the pressure plate away from the clutch disc. This releases the clutch from the spinning engine. There are two common types of clutches: - Hydraulic clutch, which requires refilling with clutch fluid at regular intervals - Manual clutch, which works through cables to transfer movement from the pedal to the fork.
2.4. The transmission

The main parts of any four-wheel-drive transmission are the two differentials (front and rear), a gearbox and a transfer case. In addition, the part-time and full-time 4x4 have locking hubs. 2.4.1. The differentials A 4x4 has two differentials, one located between the front wheels and one between the rear wheels. They send the torque from the drive shaft or transmission to the drive wheels. They also allow the left and right wheels to spin at different speeds when the vehicle goes around a turn The differentials enable speed differences between the inside and outside wheels. In 4 WD mode, the speed difference between the front and rear wheels is handled or not by the transfer case Oil levels in the differentials should be checked every 15,000 km or at intervals recommended by the manufacturer. 2.4.2. The gearbox. The gearbox is the unit between the clutch and the transfer gearbox in a 4x4 and between the clutch and the shaft in a 2x4. It allows selecting the correct power ratio for the required speed or road conditions. It multiplies the energy or power provided by the engine to the drive wheels. Contained within the gearbox is a series of cogs of increasing size surrounded by oil. A mechanic must check the level of oil in the gearbox at regular intervals. When changing gears, a fork inside the gearbox moves the drive gear (the gear receiving torque from the engine) onto the correct size of gear driving the wheels. The gearbox gives the correct torque (turning force) to the vehicle whenever it is needed.
2.4.3. The transfer gearbox This is the device that splits the power between the front and rear axles on a four-wheel-drive car. 4x4 vehicle is a generic term, the characteristics of the transfer case depend on the type of 4x4: - Part-time - Full-time - Permanent - All wheel drive Part-time 4x4 have a manual selection to 2x4 High speed, 4 High speed, and 4x4 Low speed. The transfer case on a part-time four-wheel-drive system locks the frontaxle drive shaft to the rear-axle drive shaft, so the wheels are forced to spin at the same speed. This causes tires slipping when the car goes around a turn. Part-time systems like this should only be used in low-traction situations in which it is relatively easy for the tires to slip. On dry concrete, it is not easy for the tires to slip, so the four-wheel drive should be disengaged in order to avoid jerky turns and extra wear on the tires and shafts. Permanent 4x4 vehicle: These vehicles are designed to function on all types of surfaces, both on and off-road. The explanation is the presence of a central differential between the rear and front shaft. Permanent vehicles have a manual selection between High and Low speed and additionally a central differential locking system. Full-time 4x4 are a combination of Part-time and Permanent: the driver can choose between 4x4 high, 4x4 low and 2x4 high. These vehicles have a central differential that usually locks in 4x4 low. All wheel drive: these vehicles are like a permanent 4x4 except that they dont have low gear range. They are mostly sedan with limited off road abilities. Commons problems with the transfer case: 1. Abnormal noises coming from the transfer when engaging or disengaging the 4-WD 2. Difficulties in locking the differentials These problems could be caused by damaged gears, damage to the transfer mounting, dried mud or insufficient oil in the transfer. In the transfer there are two outlets, one that enables the driver to check oil level and refill, and one that allows draining the oil. Oil level in the transfer should be checked regularly and drained and re-filled every 15,000 km.
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2.4.4. Locking hubs Each wheel in a car is bolted to a hub. Part-time and full-time 4x4 vehicles usually have locking hubs on the front wheels. When four-wheel drive is not engaged, the locking hubs are used to disconnect the front wheels from the front differential, half-shafts (the shafts that connect the differential to the hub) and drive shaft. This allows the differential, half-shafts and drive shaft to stop spinning when the car is in two-wheel drive, saving wear and tear on those parts and improving fueleconomy. Manual locking hubs used to be quite common. To engage four-wheel drive, the driver actually had to get out of the truck and turn a knob on the front wheels until the hubs locked. Newer systems have automatic locking hubs that engage when the driver switches into four-wheel drive. This type of system can usually be engaged while the vehicle is moving. Whether manual or automatic, these systems generally use a sliding collar that locks the front half-shafts to the hub.
2.5. Brakes
On a vehicle, brakes are a system allowing to slow down or to stop when required. The braking system on a 4x4 is much more complex than on a 2x4 and should withstand and resist to any climatic conditions. Brakes use leverage, hydraulic power and friction. The main components are: 2.5.1. The fluid reservoir The reservoir contains a special fluid and should be checked every morning before driving. When driving, if the brakes control red light turns on, it means there is a problem: the braking fluid reservoir is empty or the hand brake is still engaged. If the hand brake is not engaged, it could mean the light switch under the hand brake lever is defective. 2.5.2. The master cylinder The role of this unit located under the reservoir is to pressurise the brake lines with the fluid contained in the reservoir every time the brakes are engaged by pushing the brake pedal. The master cylinder is providing the breaking assistance, to do so the engine has to run. To break with an engine halted will require a much higher pressure on the break pedal.
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2.5.3. Drum brake and disc brake Commonly drum brakes are use on rear wheels and disc brakes on front wheels. - Disc brakes include a brake disc and brake pads, which, when engaged by the brake pedal, clamp on both sides of the disc and slow the wheel down. - Drum brakes consist in two brake shoes which when activated by the brake pedal, push out onto the wheel drum and slow the wheel down. The rear wheels are attached to the drum brake whereas the disc brake is located behind the front wheels with the disc attached to the axle. Brake linings and shoes need regular checking and not only when metal is grinding against metal. Disc brakes should be checked every 15,000 km and drum brakes every 25,000 km. Replace brake shoes or linings when they are below 1.5 mm thickness, or less than specifications. Important: Both pads or shoes (either on the front or back) should be changed at the same time, even if one has worn less than the other, otherwise the vehicle will have a dangerous behaviour when braking.
2.6. Suspension and shock absorbers

2.6.1. Suspension Good tyres are necessary for the safety of the vehicle and a good suspension ensures comfortable driving and efficient handling on the road. There are three types of suspension used for 4x4 vehicles: 1. Leaf springs or wishbone suspension where several layers of metal strips are stacked together and give a suspension platform; used on Toyotas. 2. Coil spring suspension, which is the classic spiralled spring mounted vertically; used on Land Rovers. 3. Hybrid suspension: coil spring in the front of the vehicle and leaf spring in the rear Wishbone or leaf spring: connected to the chassis by the shackle pins with bushes and washers. It is necessary to regularly check the bushes for wear or perish, and check the shackle pins for: 1. Wear 2. Cracks 3. Brakes It is important to check effectiveness of the suspension regularly. Driving too fast on a bad surface is the main reason for damages to the suspension. The driver must wash the suspension every week and ensure it is in good condition.
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The drivers or potential users of vehicles must be vigilant to the load: the maximum weight indicated on the vehicle handbook corresponds to normal road conditions. When driving on bad road conditions the load must be reduced by 50%. 2.6.2. Shock absorbers The function of shock absorbers is to absorb vibrations due to road imperfections. Driving on bad roads can cause shocks to lose their efficiency and they should be checked every week, especially on 4-WD vehicles. On normal vehicles they should be checked every month. When checking the shocks absorbers the driver should also check the cushions and retainers that attach the shocks to the vehicle. Replacement of shock absorbers requires special tools and is time consuming. Recommendation: shock absorbers should be changed pairs by pairs otherwise the vehicle will not be stable. Only shock absorbers designed for the vehicle must be used.
2.7. The cooling system

Overheating is a major risk. It will cause serious damages to the cylinder head and to the engine block. The cooling system of the vehicle regulates temperature: 80 C for diesel and 90 C for petrol to prevent overheating. Note: Some engines are air-cooled (Small motorbikes, generators and a few vehicles); in this case there is no radiator, no water pump and no hoses. Engine oil and air circulation lower the engine temperature. Overview: The pump sends the fluid into the engine block, where it makes its way through passages in the engine around the cylinders. Then it returns through the cylinder head of the engine. The thermostat is located where the fluid leaves the engine. The plumbing around the thermostat sends the fluid back to the pump directly if the thermostat is closed. If it is open, the fluid goes through the radiator first and then backs to the pump. There is also a separate circuit for the heating system. This circuit takes fluid from the cylinder head and passes it through a heater core and then back to the pump.
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A - Head Cooling B - Block Cooling C - Thermostat D - Water Pump E - Cooling Fan F - Radiator Cap G - Overflow Tank H - Radiator I - Transmission oil cooler (optional) J - Heater Valve K - Heater Core L - Heater Fan 2.7.1. The radiator A radiator is a type of heat exchanger. It is designed to transfer heat from hot coolant flowing through it to the air blown through it by a fan. Most modern cars use aluminium radiators. These radiators are made by brazing thin aluminium fins to flattened aluminium tubes. The coolant flows from the inlet to the outlet through many tubes mounted in a parallel arrangement. The fins conduct the heat from the tubes and transfer it to the air flowing through the radiator. The driver must check radiator fins properly, especially in Africa, as there are a number of insects that block radiator fins. To clean the radiator the driver can use pressurised air or water but never a cloth nor a wire brush. 2.7.2. The coolant Water is one of the most effective fluids for holding heat, but water freezing temperature is too high to be used in car engines. Most cars use a mixture of water and ethylene glycol, also known as antifreeze. Antifreeze also contains additives to resist corrosion. When adding ethylene glycol to water, the boiling and freezing points improve significantly. The temperature of the coolant can sometimes reach 121 to 135 C without boiling and in winter can resist to - 25C or more. It is absolutely forbidden to put river or lake water in a radiator except in extreme emergencies. Dust from river water may block the cooling system. 2.7.3. The pressure cap The pressure cap is usually a plastic container. It is a reserve for the coolant fluid and it increases the boiling point of the fluid by about 25 C. When fluid in the cooling system heats up, it expands, causing the pressure to build up. The cap is the only place where this pressure can escape, so
the setting of the spring on the cap determines the maximum pressure in the cooling system. The cap is actually a pressure release valve, and on cars it is usually set to 15 Psi. Water boiling point increases when the water is under pressure. When pressure reaches 15 Psi, it pushes the valve open, allowing coolant to escape from the cooling system. There is commonly a mark on the pressure cap showing the maximum and minimum coolant filling levels. Depending on the use of the vehicle the driver should drain the radiator every 15,000 km. IMPORTANT. Never open the cap of the cooling system when the engine is hot. Hot water under pressure would spring out and cause serious burns.
2.7.4. The water pump The water pump is a simple centrifugal pump driven by a belt connected to the crankshaft of the engine. The pump circulates fluid whenever the engine is running. The water pump uses centrifugal force to send fluid to the outside while it spins, causing fluid to be drawn from the centre continuously. The inlet to the pump is located near the centre so that fluid returning from the radiator hits the pump vanes. The pump vanes fling the fluid to the outside of the pump, where it can enter the engine. Fluid leaving the pump flows first through the engine block and cylinder head, then into the radiator and finally backs to the pump. The water pump doesnt need specific maintenance. 2.7.5. The thermostat The thermostat main job is to allow the engine to heat up quickly, and then to keep the engine at a constant temperature. It does this by regulating the amount of water that goes through the radiator. At low temperatures, the outlet to the radiator is completely blocked all the coolant fluid is recirculated back through the engine. The thermostat should open at 80C. There are two types of problems associated with the thermostat: - The thermostat stays open, the engine will not reach optimum running temperature, its not a breakdown but the driver has to carefully warm up the vehicle - The thermostat stays closed, the engine will overheat; its a major problem. A light should switch on in the temperature gauge. The driver must replace or remove the thermostat.
As a preventive measure, in tropical or sub tropical countries most of the logisticians simply remove the thermostat. 2.7.6. The fan 4x4 have mechanical fans moved by a belt. 2x4 have electric fans still turning after the vehicle has stopped. 2x4 have electric fans because the engine is usually mounted transversely, meaning the output of the engine points toward the side of the car. The fans are controlled either with a thermostatic switch or by the engine computer, and they turn on when the coolant temperature reaches a set point. They turn off when the temperature drops below that point. The driver must check the tension and condition of the fan belt on a 4x4. 2.7.7. The radiator hoses Hoses connect the radiator, the thermostat, the water pump, the engine block and the reservoir. The driver must check for potential leaks whenever the level of liquid in the reservoir diminishes. 2.7.8. Temperature gauge or temperature indicator light The temperature gauge indicates the temperature of the fluid in the cooling system. Standard gauge are mechanical while modern ones are digital. A warning light will turn on if the temperature is too high. When the light is on or when the needle is in the red area, the driver must stop immediately: theres a problem with the engine (fan belt cut, not enough fluid, radiator dirty etc.). 2.7.9. The engine block The engine block and cylinder head have many passageways cast or machined in them to allow for fluid flow. These passageways direct the coolant to the most critical areas of the engine. Temperatures in the combustion chamber of the engine can reach 2,500 C for petrol engine, so cooling the area around the cylinders is critical. Areas around exhaust valves are especially crucial, and almost all the space inside the cylinder head around the valves that is not needed for structure is filled with coolant.
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2.8. Electrical equipment

2.8.1. The battery A 12-volt storage battery consists of layers of positive and negative charge lead plates that, together with their insulated separators, make up each of six two-volt cells. The cells are filled with an electricity-conducting liquid (electrolyte) that is usually two-third distilled water and one-third sulphuric acid. Space between the immersed plates provides maximum exposure to the electrolyte. The interaction of the plates and electrolyte produces chemical energy that becomes electricity when a circuit is formed between the negative and positive battery terminals. The driver must check regularly the levels of electrolyte in each of the battery cell. (Never add acid whenever it is low, only distilled water to fill up to the maximum, especially during winter) The driver must check the mounting regularly and make sure the poles are not rusting or dirty. Poles should be greased with Vaseline. If the electrolyte is spilled on the battery or vehicle body, the driver must wash all parts with water carefully and check for cracks. 2.8.2. The ampermeter Some vehicles are equipped with a gauge to indicate if the alternator is delivering power. Its a useful accessory to control whether the battery is charging (the needle should be moving towards the + symbol rather than the - symbol). The driver must check the alternator belt tension frequently. 2.8.3. The alternator The alternating-current generator, or alternator, is the electrical system's chief source of power while the engine is running. The belt that spins the fan drives the alternator shaft. It converts mechanical energy into alternating-current electricity, which is then channelled through diodes that alter it to direct current for the electrical system and for recharging the battery The battery goes weak quickly when the alternator is faulty. The alternator does not require specific maintenance. 2.8.4. The fuses Fuses are meant to protect the wiring. Fuses should be sized and located to protect the wire they are connected to. If a device like the radio suddenly draws enough current to blow the fuse, the radio is probably already faulty. The fuse is there to protect the
electrical wiring of the vehicle, which would be much harder to replace than the radio and to prevent the complete burning of the faulty devise. Most cars have two fuse panels: 1. The one in the engine compartment holds fuses for big devices (like the cooling fans, the anti-lock brake pump and the engine control unit) located in the engine compartment. 2. Another fuse panel usually located in the dashboard, near the driver's knees, holds fuses for devices and switches located in the passenger compartment. The conductor inside the fuse is made of a metal similar to solder. It has a lower melting point than the wire itself. The size of the conductor is calibrated very carefully so that when the rated current is reached, enough heat is generated to melt the conductor and break the circuit. When a fuse is blown, it must be replaced before the circuit will work. A blown fuse must be replaced with a same amperage fuse. An electrician must determine why the fuse blown.
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3. Lubrication
3.1. Engine lubrication
The engine lubrication system supplies oil to all the friction surfaces between the engine moving parts. If the lubrication system did not supply these moving components with oil, friction would quickly destroy these surfaces. A good lubrication will: Lubricate engine parts and prevent wear Reduce friction (increases engine power and efficiency) Protect against rust and corrosion Keep engine parts clean Minimise combustion chamber deposits Cool engine parts Seal combustion chambers Permit easy starting, be non-foaming and contribute to fuel economy The periodicity between services is determined in kilometres or in hours for stationary engines such as generators. The engine oil must suit the engine characteristics: - Diesel / Petrol - Engine complexity: turbo charged engine or not, double camshaft etc. - The environment 3.1.1. How to choose the engine oil viscosity? Viscosity refers to how "thick" or "thin" a liquid is, or how easily it pours. The viscosity of oil must suit the temperature(s) of use of the vehicle and the characteristics of the engine. (Old engines usually requires poor viscosity while newer require high viscosity) The viscosity is mentioned on the container by an indication as follow:
SAE
Society of Automotive Engineers
15 W
Cold temperature viscosity W=Winter (Measured at 18 C)
40
High temperature viscosity* (Measured at 100 C)
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A multigrade oil has two numbers, for example SAE 15W-40, or 20W-50. To simplify, multigrade oils keep their viscosity when temperature changes. A monograde oil only has one number, for example SAE 5W, SAE 30, or SAE 40. Important note: The numbers are used to define the various SAE norms. They refer to a viscosity measurement and not to an ambient temperature. The unit of measurement for reporting cranking viscosity and pumping viscosity is the centipoises (cP) and the centistoke (cSt) reports the kinematic viscosity In a multigrade oil: - The first number/letter combination (15W in the example) indicates how well oil will flow to lubricate critical engine parts at low temperatures, The lower this number the more easily will oil help the engine start in cold weather. - The second number (15W in the example) indicates oils ability to lubricate the engine at high temperature. The higher the number; the thicker the oil stays in warm environment. This scheme illustrates how oils of appropriate viscosity can be selected according to outside temperatures. All temperatures are in degrees centigrade. However, due to different engine characteristics always verify with the vehicle manufacturer manual before purchasing oil.
3.1.2. How to choose the engine oil quality? It should be noted that SAE is not a performance category it only refers to the viscosity of oil. In addition engine oil must respect the minimal manufacturer quality requirement. There are two international quality classifications for lubricants: API and ACEA. American Petroleum Industry: 2-letter code (Category + class) Diesel engine (Commercial): CA, CB, CC, CD, CDII, CE, CF, CF2, CF 4, CG 4, CH 4
Petrol engine (Service):
SA, SB, SC, SD, SE SH, SJ, SL Qualities in grey are obsolete.
Association Constructeurs Europens dAutomobiles , 2-digit code: 1 letter and 1 number (Replaces CCMC norms) A1 Special oil with low viscosity A2 General purpose oil A3 Oil for high performance engine B1 Special oil with low viscosity B2 General purpose B3 Oil for high performance B4 Oil for direct injection engine E1, E2, E3, E4 and E5 Low quality Standard quality Good quality Low quality Standard quality Good quality Good quality
Petrol engine
Light duty diesel engine
Heavy duty diesel engine (Trucks)
Refer to the full API and ACEA documentation.
Mineral Oils Versus Synthetic Oils Synthetic oils offer certain advantages over mineral oils in terms of low temperature performance, and high temperature oxidation stability. Synthetic oils are very expensive and properly formulated mineral oils are more than suitable for most engine applications. Synthetic oil can be considered for very cold temperatures, or for application that may need an outstanding level of oxidation protection but it should be remembered there is a significant cost.
3.2. Oil filter

The oil filter is meant to remove dust, dirt, sludge, and water before it reaches the engine parts. An outside metal shell houses the folded paperfiltering element.
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When changing the filter, the metal shell and filter element are changed as a unit. After a long period of use, the oil filter element may become clogged with particles filtered from the oil. If oil no longer flows easily through the element, it no longer gets to engine parts. To prevent this problem, a bypass valve is located inside the filter assembly. When the filter element becomes clogged, the pressure inside the canister increases and pushes open the bypass valve. The oil then goes around the filter element, instead of through it, and directly into the engine, but it is not clean.
3.3. Other parts lubrications

A vehicle will need at least to other types of lubricants: Grease: for chassis, U joint, shaft Transmission oil(s) for gearbox, transfer box and differential Refer to the vehicle handbook for oil characteristics. To use non-appropriate oil in automatic transmission or limited slip differential will damage the parts.
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4. Pneumatics
Appropriate tires will provide good traction. In some countries where Action contre la Faim is operating its advantageous for4x4 to have two complete sets of tires: one for winter or rainy season and one for the good season. The use of tubeless tyres is forbidden with 4x4 vehicles. The logistician must purchase inner tubes if a new vehicle is equipped with tubeless wheels. The logistician must be particularly vigilant about: Under inflation: can cause tires to wear more on the outside than the inside. It also reduces fuel efficiency, and increases build up of heat in tires. It is important to check tire pressure with a gauge at least once a month and before long trips. Over inflation causes tires to wear off more in the centre of the tread. Tire pressure should never exceed the maximum listed on the tire side. Car manufacturers often suggest a lower pressure than the maximum because it will give a softer ride, however running tires at the pressure mentioned on the tyre will improve mileage.
4.1. Tyres categories

There are three categories of tyres for 4x4 vehicles: 1. 2. 3. Tyres for normal roads, similar to 2x4 tyres. Special tyres: mud, sand, snow or generic off road Mixed tyres (for general use and with correct abilities for off-road)
Special tyres have an important impact on traction, but they quickly deteriorate on normal roads.
4.2. Tyre structure

All 4x4 tyres have one of the following structures: Diagonal structure (cross ply, where metal reinforcement in tyres is shaped in a criss-cross diagonal structure), can resist temperatures of up to 40C. These tyres are less expensive but the tyre is prone to deforming easily. Radial structure (invented by Michelin) and have thicker metal wires contained in the tyre, and can resist up to 90C. This is the best type of tyre for cornering and general use but it is easily damaged and is a handicap for cross country, but it is also one of the best tyres for braking, it keeps good traction and grip.
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4.3. The tread on the tyre

The deeper the tread on the tyre the better it is for cross-country use, i.e. mud, snow and sand etc. Deep tread tyres are noisy and quickly deteriorate on tarmac roads. The driver must be involved in the choice of the tyres.
4.4. Classification of tyres (data from Michelin)
How to read a sidewall: 1 (205) - Width of the tyre in mm 2 (55) - Aspect ratio (this sidewalls height is roughly 55% of the tire width). 3 (R) - For radial construction 4 (16) - Diameter of the rim in inches on which the tyre fits 5 (88) - Numerical code associated with the maximal load a tyre can carry 6 (V) - Speed rating (this tire could sustain speeds up to 149 MPH) 7 (XGT V) Manufacturers name for thread design and architecture Note: Some size designations may be preceded by a P, signifying Passengers Loa cod 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 Weig In Kg per tire 265 272 280 290 300 307 315 Load code Weig In Kg per tire 387 400 412 425 437 450 462 Load code Weig In Kg per tire 560 580 600 615 630 650 670 Load code Weig In Kg per tire 825 850 875 900 925 950 975 Load code Weig In Kg per tire 1180 1215 1250 1285 1320 1360 1400
75 76 77 78 79 80 81
88 89 90 91 92 93 94
101 102 103 104 105 106 107
114 115 116 117 118 119 120
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69 70 71 72 73 74
325 335 345 355 365 375 Speed rating Q R S T H
82 83 84 85 86 87 Km/h 160 170 180 190 210
475 487 500 515 530 545
95 96 97 98 99 100 Speed rating V W Y ZR(Y) ZR
690 710 730 750 775 800
108 109 110 111 112 113 Km/h 240 270 300 >300 >240
1000 1030 1060 1090 1120 1150
121 122 123 124 125 126
1450 1500 1550 1600 1650 1700
4.5. Choosing a tyre

The logistician should always purchase Reliable tyres (Michelin or other good manufacturer) Tyres designed for the rim Tyres adapted to the road conditions The following must be considered when replacing tyres: 1. Tyre size markings across an axle must be identical. (Standard series tyres are equivalent to 80 Series, e.g. 165R13 and 165/80R13 tyres are compatible). 2. Tyre constructions across an axle must be the same, i.e. cross-ply or radial. 3. It is recommended that the load index of replacement tyres is either equal to or greater than the load index of the manufacturer approved tyres for the vehicle. 4. It is recommended that the speed rating of replacement tyres is either equal to or greater than the speed rating of the manufacturer approved tyres for the vehicle. The mixing of tyres with different speed ratings is not recommended. 5. M&S tyres (Mud and Snow - Winter) should ideally be fitted in complete sets. They should not be mixed with other tyre types across an axle. 6. It is not recommended that a new tyre (even of the same type) be fitted across an axle with a tyre that is well worn. 7. In general, when fitting two new tyres, they should be fitted to the rear irrespective of whether the vehicle is front or rear wheel drive. 8. There may be special dimensional requirements governing the mixing/replacement of tyres on: - All-wheel drive (4-WD) vehicles to avoid damage to the transmission. - Vehicles with anti-lock braking to ensure that the ABS system remains functional. Consult the vehicle manufacturer/drivers handbook for recommendations.
Directional tires have a "one-way" tread pattern optimised for the direction the tires rotate on the car.
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5. Driving within Action contre la Faim

5.1. General rules
Action contre la Faim requests that all employees or expatriates driving a vehicle: 1. Have a valid driving licence and accomplished national formalities if needed 2. Have received a training on basic check (and specification for 4x4) 3. Know and respect the local traffic customs and regulation 4. Are not under the influence of alcoholic beverages or psychotrops
As a reminder, only professional drivers are entitles to drive during working hours. Expatriates are authorised to drive only under specific conditions.
5.2. Drivers check-lists

Usually the job description refers to the daily and periodical check. These checks are as follows: Every morning before starting the vehicle, check and correct if needed: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. Engine oil level. Coolant fluid level Brake and clutch fluid levels Battery tightening Cleanliness of the radiator Condition of the five wheels, i.e. pressure and wear. Absence of oil leakage or traces on the soil Cleanliness of windscreen, side and rear-view mirrors Presence of all materials in the car, i.e. tool box, jack, spare tyre etc.
After these checks, the driver should start the vehicle and check that temperature rises normally. 10. While the engine is warming up, the driver checks the dashboard display 11. Fuel level versus mission duration
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Every evening duties 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Wash the car if needed Refill fuel tanks if needed / policy defined by the Logistic Coordinator. Fill in logbook Report day incidents Make radio contact when on the field
Every week or after a long distance trip, check: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. Battery water level and condition of terminals Radiator fixation and hose pipes fixation and condition Fuel filter drained of all debris Oil level in the power steering Cleanliness and condition of air filter Lights and electrical system functioning Windscreen washer reservoir Windscreen wipers cleanliness and condition Chassis condition Condition of cushions and bushes Shock absorbers and suspension struts Greasing of spider kit inside the universal joint Mounting of exhaust pipe Tightening of all bolts and nuts Inventory of all kits supposed to be on board, i.e. tool kit etc.
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6. Driving 4x4
6.1. When to use 4x4 transmission
In snow: Pushing a car through snow takes a lot of force, and the amount available is limited by the available traction. Most two-wheel-drive cars can't move when snow on the road is more than a few centimetres thick, because in snow, each tire has only a small amount of traction. A fourwheel-drive car can use traction of all four tires. Off-road: In off-road conditions, it is fairly common for at least one set of tires to be in a low-traction situation, such as when crossing a stream or mud puddle. With four-wheel drive, the other set of tires still have traction, so they can pull (or push) the vehicle out. Climbing slippery hills: This requires a lot of traction. A four-wheel-drive car can use the four tires traction to pull the car up the hill.
6.2. The different types of 4x4

Characteristi cs High 2x4 Low 2x4 Central differential High 4x4 Low 4x4 Main restriction Part time 4x4 YES NO NO YES YES
4x4 to be engaged only on SLICK pavement If the vehicle has manual hubs on the front wheels, they need to be locked first to use 4x4.
Full time 4x4 YES NO YES YES YES

Selection of the driver between 2x4 and 4x4. Can also be automatic. Central differential usually locked in 4x4 low. If the vehicle has manual hubs on the front wheels, they need to be locked first to use 4x4.
Permanent 4x4 NO NO YES YES YES
All Wheel Drive NO NO YES YES NO

No low range
Note
Central differential usually locked in 4x4 low
Theses vehicles are for bad road conditions but not for off-road.
Example
Jeep Wrangler
Land Cruiser 78/79
Defender Lada Niva
Audi Quattro
These 4 categories are not international norms. Manufacturers may develop hybrid systems. This table highlights the importance for the driver has to know precisely the characteristics of the vehicle as an improper use can severely deteriorate the vehicle.
6.3. Selection of the appropriate 4-WD mode

On non-permanent 4x4 the driver must frequently lock the front hubs when engaging 4x4. To use 4x4 transmission with free font hubs is equivalent to 2x4. On tarmac road hubs must be freed. The driver must select the appropriate mode: Mode 2-WD high speed Propulsion from rear wheels, for normal tarmac roads 4-WD high speed Use on low adherence soils: wet roads, snow, mud or cross country without obstacles 4-WD low speed Use on low adherence soils with difficult obstacles Toyota 2H Mercedes S Niva Not relevant LandRover Not relevant
4H
SA
High
4L
GA
Low
DIFFERENTIAL LOCK On 4x4 part-time: These vehicles dont have a central differential. The use of 4L and 4H is therefore restricted to situations of poor adherence. Using the 4-wheel drive transmission will severly damage the vehicle when traction is good. When the vehicle is fitted with a differential lock (central, front or rear) the driver can use it (them) only on extremely low adherence soils, no turn is possible. On 4x4 full-time: 4x4 low usuall automaticly locks the central differential On permanent 4x4 vehicles: Manual selection of the central differential lock On 4x4 vehicles with a rear or front differential lock (optional): Manual selection To change mode manually (some full-time vehicles have automatic 4 WD): Engage 4 Low: vehicle must be stopped.
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From 2H to 4H: best to stop; some vehicles tolerate very low speed. From 4L to 4H: vehicle must be stopped.
Differentials: the driver must select the command when the vehicle is stopped, then he moves the vehicle slowly to lock or unlock differentials. Frequently to unlock is difficult, in this case the driver can use the reverse gear on few meter.
6.4. Recommendations for driving 4x4 The driver of a 4x4 shouldnt exceed 90 km/h
The 4x4 used by Action contre la Faim on missions are not tourism vehicles. They are professional, heavy duty 4x4 with different specifications. The driver must adapt his/her driving to the vehicles characteristics. Compared to 2x4, the 4x4 vehicles centre of gravity is very high. The vehicle is unstable, especially in curves or when driving on wet roads. The higher the vehicle is, the more difficult to handle. Action contre la Faim uses Toyota HiLux. These vehicles are light pick-up with good off-road capacity but they are unstable in curves and in side slopes due to a high centre of gravity. In addition, 4x4 are heavy vehicles: their braking distance is longer than 2x4's. When driving an empty pick-up the driver must be aware of the lack of traction and adherence of the rear axle. Additional weight must be added on the rear axle for long trips (minimum 100 kg) Steering is usually less responsive when on 4-WD mode; the driver must be ready for obstacles before reaching them. When reaching an obstacle the driver must leave the vehicle and assess the situation. Trying to get across any obstacle with a high-speed manoeuvre will damage the vehicle. The driver must use the 4x4 abilities of the vehicle.
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7. Human resources
7.1. Drivers
Action contre la Faim recruits professional drivers to drive vehicles. Expatriates and other employees are normally not authorised to drive vehicles. The reasons for this policy are multiple: A vehicle will wear more when used by different drivers A specific driver will take better care of a vehicle if it is his/her allocated machine Driving cross-country or on sand is exhausting Drivers know the road conditions Drivers know the national regulation and traditions Drivers know how to react in case of accident For long missions, Action contre la Faim recommends two persons in a vehicle. The passenger can assist the driver for navigation, and for radio contacts. In case of accident or breakdown one can stay with the vehicle to keep radio contact, while the other goes looking for help. The logistician must allocate one vehicle to one driver. The driver will be responsible for his/her vehicle. The wear of a vehicle will be less if driven by one driver only. It is also a way to evaluate the performance of a driver: a good driver will have reasonable fuel consumption, a vehicle in good condition and regular maintenance services.
7.2. Recruitment of drivers

The recruitment of good drivers is essential for the mission. The Administrator defines modalities and documentation of the recruitment procedure and the logistician selects the best candidate. Some examples of job descriptions are available in the Human Resources part of the Kit Log V 2.0. The common tasks of a driver are: 1. Driving 2. Radio monitoring 3. Maintenance and regular checking of allocated vehicle 4. Filling in the Log Book and other administrative documents 5. Small support to the logistic team: loading, mail distribution, purchases
The recruitment normally goes through three stages 1. Selection on resume, based on experience, age, references 2. Selection by interview and physical test (a driver must have a good sight, natural or corrected) 3. Driving and mechanical tests. Example of a mechanical test: 1. Ask the driver to perform the daily checking 2. Name and function of different parts (fuel pump, alternator, distributor etc.) 3. Specificities of a 4x4 vehicle 4. Minor breakdown to detect (fuel valve unplugged, break fluid sensor unplugged etc.) 5. Time to change a wheel Example of a driving test: Driving in the city, respect of pedestrian, regulation Driving off-road: 4x4, 2x4, L4, and H4 according to the vehicle Mud, sand, drainage crossing The logistician in charge of the test must have enough knowledge and driving skills to judge the candidate Once the candidate is selected the logistician must introduce him to the Administrator for a briefing on Action contre la Faim staff regulations and for signing the employment contract.
7.3. Training a new driver

The training of a 4x4 vehicle driver must include: 1. Specification of the vehicle and basic mechanics 2. Pre departure checks, use of controls on the dashboard, Action contre la Faim documents 3. 4x4 driving theory and practice: use of 4L, 4H, locks and driving exercises 4. Documents and equipment required: emergency kits, tools, logbook, passes, maps etc 5. Use of HF radio 6. Security procedures to follow (check points, convoy mines etc.) 7. Ethic and behaviour on the road
7.4. Mechanics
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When the fleet of vehicle is important Action contre la Faim hires mechanics. Action contre la Faim often undertakes all maintenance and reparation work internally. Only bodywork, painting and reparations needing specialised tools are outsourced. However its possible to work with external workshop if service quality is acceptable and if the workshop has enough equipment. In addition to mechanics and possible assistants, the logistician must forecast: 1. A workshop with an inspection pit 2. A workshop table 3. A secure storage space for tools and spare parts 4. Good tools and materials, see annex 5. Generator if the office power supply is not sufficiant The mechanic main responsibilities are: 1. Carrying on maintenance and reparations of vehicles 2. Planning maintenance of vehicles 3. Managing the workshop and assistants 4. Purchasing spare parts and managing cash advances 5. Following Action contre la Faim procedures. The mechanic is responsible for inventory and following up of materials and spare parts in the workshop. He can have additional responsibilities such as training of drivers, organisation of movement planning of the base, car cost reporting, fuel stock management etc. The exact definition of the position depends on the capacity of the individual and on the workload. On a small base one person may have several functions while in a capital Action contre la Faim may hire several employees: - Logistician - Fleet manager - Vehicles mechanic - Assistant mechanic for generator, compressor, motorbikes etc.
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8. Fleet of vehicles
8.1. The role of the Logistics Coordinator
The Logistics Coordinator is the ultimate responsible for the organisation of the mission fleet. He/she has to define the specification of vehicles, their number, defines rental contracts modalities and sometimes purchases vehicles. This work is done in collaboration with the mission Administrator to define a global forecast of the fleet according to needs and funding. Action contre la Faim typical fleets on the missions are composed of: 2x4, 4x4 and light trucks Heavy trucks Motorbikes Boats (less frequently) The role of the logistician is to organise the right maintenance and the right use of his/her fleet of vehicles. A preventive maintenance and careful inspection should prevent breakdowns. Preventive maintenance reduces reparations cost and extends the vehicle lifetime. The logistician must follow the manufacturer maintenance protocol; he/she can go above these requirements when road conditions are extreme. The maintenance periodicity is usually set in kilometres, but in countries with bad road conditions time spent on the road is more relevant: the logistician can decide a monthly periodicity. Refer to vehicles procedures for administrative tools and procedures for fleet management.
8.2. Vehicles characteristics

The Logistic Coordinator defines vehicles specifications according to the projects needs and to the environment. 1. 2. 3. 4. Load and passenger capacity Type of fuel, availability of this fuel in the operating area. General road condition for the vehicle 2x4 or 4x4 If 4x4, what are the crossing capacities required: good conditions, difficult conditions or extreme Left hand drive or right hand drive
Frequent options or characteristics: Extra fuel tank

Raised air intake (river crossing) Bush bar and winch (mechanical or electrical) Roof rack Type of tyres Differential locks
8.3. Which 4x4 to choose?

Every vehicle has its specific strengths and weaknesses and a specific maintenance protocol. Following are some general considerations regarding the 4x4 vehicles mostly used by Action contre la Faim Vehicles Land Rovers Defender Positive Good engine Excellent off road capacities Negative Body problems after 3 years High maintenance cost Spare parts are difficult to find in Central Africa and central Asia Not as good as a Defender in extreme off road conditions To consider as a light vehicle with off road abilities but not for extreme use Mediocre passenger capacity Develops quickly major breakdowns
Toyota HZJ 75/78/79 Toyota Hilux
Strongly build Good off road abilities Spare parts are easily available Low fuel consumption
Lada Niva
The cheapest 4x4 Good off road abilities
Action contre la Faim recommends the purchase of Toyota Land Cruiser HZJ 78 or 79
Toyota Land Cruiser HZJ 78

Toyota Land Cruiser HZJ 79

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Hardtop Picture from Toyota Gibraltar Service
Pick-up Picture from Toyota Gibraltar Service
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9. Vehicle fleet management

9.1. Rental or purchase
Normally, Action contre la Faim considers that: Rented vehicles answer to a particular or temporary need. Example: vehicles for a food aid distribution, 4x4 dumping truck Vehicles owned by Action contre la Faim answer to structural needs. However some other essential considerations will determine a general policy on the mission: - Security situation: risk of looting = low input policy, no purchases - Criminal context, insurance effectiveness - Legislation and customs: owning a vehicle is an administrative nightmare in some countries where Action contre la Faim is operating - Funding opportunities
9.2. Rental
Before signing a rental contract, the logistician must always verify: - The general mechanical condition of the vehicle - The administrative documentation, ownership of the vehicle - The history of the vehicle, signs of a former belonging to an NGO/IO (radio mountings, remaining sticker glue) risk of a stolen or looted vehicle A contract must be signed with the owner or authorised representative only. The contract will mention: Standard information: name of parties, duration, rental cost per month, and end of contract + Exact identification of the vehicle: (plate and chassis number) + General condition of the vehicle + Responsibilities in case of theft, looting + Responsibility for maintenance, reparation + Responsibility for the driver (salary), authorised additional drivers + Deduction for days of immobilisation The Kit Log V 2.0 provides an example of a rental contract but there is no standard form as it depends on the rules and legislation of the country. The Logistic Coordinator must define a standard contract for the mission; the advice of a lawyer is always useful as civil obligations may already exist in the legislation.
9.3. Rental tips

9.3.1. Maintenance and reparation An axiom could be: The less Action contre la Faim is involved in the maintenance and reparation of a rented vehicle, the better. Involving Action contre la Faim in maintenance and reparation work requires complicated contracts and a strict follow-up. The risk is that if a major breakdown occurs the owner holds Action contre la Faim responsible due to poor maintenance. 9.3.2. Driver Ideally the driver must be employed by the owner of the vehicle and approved by Action contre la Faim. When a driver is hired by Action contre la Faim and is driving a rented vehicle, the vehicle's owner can hold Action contre la Faim responsible of misuse of the vehicle to request change of expensive parts or complete reparation in case of accident. The driver must respect Action contre la Faim internal regulations and job description. In case of difficulties Action contre la Faim can terminate the rental contract or request a change of driver. If it appears that the owner of the vehicle doesnt pay the driver decently, Action contre la Faim must terminate immediately the contract. Another solution is to hire drivers who own their vehicles. It is usually possible in countries where rental cost is low compared to labour cost. In addition the logistician must be aware that the recruitment of a driver for a rented vehicle is problematic when Action contre la Faim ends the rental contract. There will be an excess of drivers compare to the fleet, therefore the driver will be dismissed. According to national labour legislation and internal employment agreement, severance indemnities may exist.
9.4. Ideal rental from Action contre la Faims point of view

What should be included in the rental cost? Use and immobilisation of vehicle Maintenance and reparation charges Salary and charges relating to driver Wear of the vehicle
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When feasible, in cities for example, even fuel should be included as a flat rate in the contract. What Action contre la Faim may lose in cash will be saved in terms of management.
9.5. Purchasing
Most 4x4 are purchased through Action contre la Faim headquarters. This policy guarantees good prices, high quality services and a standardisation of the fleet. On the other hand, 2x4, trucks and second hand vehicles are frequently bought at the mission level. When ordering or purchasing a vehicle the Logistic Coordinator must define the characteristics. (Paragraph 8.2). The Logistics Coordinator must also verify: - Availability of spare parts in the country or neighbouring country - Availability of this model in the country: mechanical knowledge - Importation fees, registration, taxes.
9.6. Insurance
When to subscribe insurances for the vehicles on a mission?
Is insurance effective?
YES NO
The Logistics Coordinator will look for an insurance policy for all vehicles,
Is insurance YES NO
The Logistics Coordinator will look will look for the cheapest coverage
No insurance for ACF vehicles in this country
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10. Annexes
10.1. Vehicle tool box for field missions
Based on Facom "Overland" kit 2030.M. www.facom.net Qty
9 10 1 9
Designation English
Open-end wrenches 6x7 - 8x9 - 10x11 - 12x13 - 14x15 - 16x17 - 18x19 20x21 - 22x24 mm Jeu de cls combines 10-19 mm (cls mixtes) Blade handle Reversible blades : Torx 10x15 20x25 - 30x40, Slotted head 4x6.5, Pozidriv 1x2, Phillips 1x2, Hexagonal 4-5-6 Sheathed multigrip pliers Sheathed straight half-round nose pliers Sheathed diagonal cutters Lock-grip pliers Adjustable wrench 10" Hammer 30 mm Precision chisel Drift punch 4 mm 3/8" "palm control" ratchet 3/8" socket accessories: 2 extensions, universal joint, sliding tee 3/8" rack socket-set 8 to 19 and 21 Box wrench for spark-plugs Feeler gauge 19 blades Monkey wrench for drain plugs Filter wrench Air pump (hand or foot) Wire brush Hacksaw and spare blade Box of glue Box of fuses Headlight bulbs Can of brake fluid Litres of engine oil Litres of gearbox and differential oil Grease gun Roll of metallic wire kg heavy grease m of strong rope Tin of power steering fluid m of tubing for refilling fuel tank. Second spare wheel
Designation French
Cls fourches de 6x7 - 8x9 - 10x11 12x13 - 14x15 - 16x17 - 18x19 - 20x21 - 22x24 mm Combined wrenches 10-19 mm Poigne porte-lame Lames rversibles : Torx 10x15 20x25 - 30x40, Plat 4x6,5, PZ 1x2, PH 1X2, 6 pans 4-5-6 Pince multiprise gaine Pince gaine becs demi-ronds droits Pince coupante diagonale gaine Pince tau Cl molette 10" Marteau de 30 mm Burin de prcision Chasse-goupille de 4 mm Cliquet paume de main 3/8" Accessoires pour douilles 3/8" : 2 rallonges, cardan, poigne coulissante Douilles mtriques 3/8" sur rack de 8 19 et 21 Cl en tube pour bougies Jauge d'paisseur 19 lames Levier d'effort Cl filtre Pompe air (manuelle ou pied) Brosse mtallique Scie mtaux et lame de rechange Bote de colle Bote de fusibles Ampoules de phare Bote de liquide freins Litres d'huile moteur Litres d'huile pour bote et diffrentiel Pistolet graisse Rouleau de fil mtallique kg de graisse paisse m de corde resistante Bote de liquide pour servo-direction m de tube pour remplissage rservoir. Deuxime roue de secours
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 4 13 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 4 3.5 1 1 1 25 1 15 1
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10.2. List of tools for the workshop

Based on Facom general mechanic tools selection CM.120A. www.facom.net Note that this list has to be considered as the minimal equipment for a maintenance workshop. Other tools are required for advanced operations on vehicles. Qt Designation English y
14 Combination wrenches 7 to 24 mm 12 1 54 13 3 2 3 3 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 10 5 1 1 1 2 2 2
Designation French
Cls mixtes de 7 24 mm Cls fourches (ouvertes) de 6 32 Open-end wrenches 6 to 32 mm mm Adjustable wrench 10" Cl molette 10" " and " sockets and accessories 5.5 to Douilles et " et accessoires 5.5 32 mm 32 mm Set of hexagonal keys 1.5 to 14 mm "Allen" Cls mles coudes de 1,5 14 mm Screwdrivers slotted heads 3.5x75 - 4x100 - Tournevis plat: 3,5x75 - 4x100 5.5x100 5,5x100 Screwdrivers for slotted heads 6.5x150 Tournevis plat de 6,5x150 - 8x200 mm 8x200 mm Tournevis pour empreinte Phillips PH 0Screwdrivers for Phillips heads no. 0 - 1 - 2 1-2 Tournevis pour empreinte Pozidriv PZ 0Screwdrivers for Pozidriv heads no. 0 - 1 - 2 1-2 1000V insulated screwdriver for slotted Tournevis plat isol 1000 V - 4 mm heads 4 mm 1000V insulated screwdriver for Phillips Tournevis isol 1000 V - PH1 heads N 1 Set of shock screwdrivers Jeu de tournevis frapper Sheathed combination pliers Pince universelle gaine Pince coupante diagonale "corde Sheathed "piano wire" diagonal cutters piano" Sheathed multigrip pliers Pince multiprise gaine Sheathed straight half-round nose pliers Pince gaine becs demi-ronds droits Sheathed flat-nose pliers Pince gaine becs plats Large-capacity lock-grip pliers Pince-tau becs longs Inside-circlip pliers Pince pour circlips intrieurs Outside-circlip pliers Pince pour circlips extrieurs Tape measure 2m Mtre ruban 2 m Hacksaw frame Monture de scie mtaux Bimetal saw blades Lames de scie "bimtal" File set Limes Square punch Pointe carre Pop riveter Pince riveter Plastic-tip mallet Massette embouts plastique Hammers, 1 and 1.5 kg Marteaux, 1 et 1.5 kg Mallets (metal), big and small Maillets (mtal), gros et petit Chisels (flat and point) Burins (plat et pointu)
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2 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 3 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 1
Sheathed nail sets 2 - 4 mm Sheathed drift punches 2 - 4 mm Precision centre punch 4 mm Electricians knife with wire stripper Torque wrench Distributor wrench Filter wrench Wheel wrench Pipe grip pliers big and small Tyre levers Tyre pressure gauge Multi-meter Acidity meter Funnels big and small Block and tackle Grease gun Callipers Feeler gauge Metal brush Set of paint brushes Welding set (acetylene or electric) Grinding machine 230 mm Drilling set, electric or manual Compressor Vice Jacks: 2 ton and 5 ton Battery charger
Chasse-clous gains : 2 - 4 mm Chasse-goupilles gains : 2 - 4 mm Pointeau de prcision 4 mm Couteau d'lectricien avec dnudeur Cl dynamomtrique Cl de dmontage du distributeur Cl de dmontage du filtre Cl de dmontage de roue Pinces serre-tube, une grosse et une petite Dmonte-pneu Vrificateur de pression des pneus Multi-mtre Acidimtre Entonnoirs (grand et petit) Palan Pistolet graisse Compas Jeu de cales Brosse mtallique Jeu de pinceaux Ncessaire soudure (actylne ou lectrique) Meuleuse d'angle 230 mm Perceuse et mches, manuelle ou lectrique Compresseur Etau Crics (2 tonnes et 5 tonnes) Chargeur de batterie
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Copyright 1996 - 2004 Toyota Gibraltar Stockholdings Ltd. www.toyota-gib.com

This general term is used to describe a vehicle with four-wheel drive. The first figure is the number of wheels, the second one is the number of powered wheels. This term refers to a two-wheel drive vehicle with four wheels. When viewed from the side, this is the angle between the ground and a line running from the tyre to the front bumper or other low-hanging component. This angle gives an indication of how steep a ramp a vehicle can negotiate without damage. It gives a good indication of a vehicles ability to climb over rocks and logs without hitting and potentially damaging the front part of the vehicles body or chassis. In side view, this is the angle between the ground and a line running from the rear tyre to the rear bumper or other low-hanging body work. Similar to the approach angle, the departure angle indicates a vehicles ability to drive off a ramp or obstacle without damaging the rear. This braking system senses any significant difference in wheel speed, from one wheel to another, when a vehicle is braking hard. When any of the wheels begins to lock up (completely stop rotating), ABS automatically reduces the braking forces to that wheel or wheels in order to keep all wheels rolling to prevent break-induced skidding. ABS can control all four wheels (cars and most 4x4s have this system) or any two wheels. The system can group wheels together in "channels" of operation (i.e. a three-channel ABS system on a four-wheeled vehicle) or have one channel for each wheel (four-channel ABS). This suspension element is a long torsion bar (essentially a rod that can twist) mounted across the vehicle from one wheel to the wheel on the opposite side. By transferring movement and force from one side of the vehicle to the other, an anti-
10.3. Toyota Gibraltar Service glossary of 4x4 terms
4x4
4x4
4x2
4x2
Angle of Approach
Angle d'attaque
Ce terme gnrique dsigne un vhicule quatre roues motrices. Le premier chiffre indique le nombre de roues motrices, le second, le nombre total de roues. Ce terme dsigne un vhicule deux roues motrices. Vu de ct, c'est l'angle form par le sol et une ligne allant du pneu au pare-chocs avant, ou tout autre lment bas. L'angle indique la pente qu'un vhicule peut ngocier sans dommages. C'est une bonne indication de la capacit d'un vhicule franchir des terrains pierreux ou des obstacles sans risquer de cogner et donc endommager l'avant du bas de caisse. Vu de ct, c'est l'angle form par le sol et une ligne allant du pneu arrire au pare-chocs arrire ou tout autre lment bas. L'angle de sortie indique la capacit d'un vhicule descendre une pente ou franchir un obstacle sans endommager l'arrire du bas de caisse. Ce systme peroit toute diffrence significative dans la vitesse des roues, d'une roue l'autre, lorsqu'un vhicule freine trs fortement. Lorsque l'une des roues commence se bloquer (ne tourne plus du tout), l'ABS module automatiquement la puissance du freinage afin que la roue ou les roues restent toutes en mouvement afin d'empcher le patinage. L'ABS peut contrler les quatre roues (les voitures et la plupart des 4x4 sont quips de ce systme) ou l'une des paires de roues. Il peut aussi grouper les roues par les voies de rpartition (par ex. un systme ABS trois voies sur un vhicule quatre roues motrices) ou avoir une voie par roue (ABS quatre voies). Cet lment de la suspension est une longue barre de torsion (en gros une tige supportant la torsion) installe entre deux roues opposes. En transfrant le mouvement et la force d'un ct l'autre du vhicule, une barre antiroulis peut limiter les Page 47 / 57 01/05/2005
Angle of departure
Angle de sortie
Anti-Lock Braking System (ABS)
Systme Antibloque ur de Scurit (ABS)
Anti-Roll Bar
Barre antiroulis
roll bar can restrict body lean (or roll) during cornering. Vehicles may have anti-roll bars in the front, rear or both. These terms describe a variety of suspension components that "locate" the wheels or axles and restrict their movements for optimum handling and traction. The complex relationship among suspension components as they move is called the suspension geometry. This term indicates the ability of one axle to move relative to the other left wheel up, right wheel down. It is the measure of the ease with which wheels stay in contact with the ground (and retain traction) on a very bumpy uneven track. A ball joint is a flexible joint consisting of a ball in a socket. It is most often used in suspensions because it accommodates a wide range of motion in two directions. A beam axle is a rigid axle supporting non-driven wheels. As brakes heat up with hard or repeated use, their effectiveness usually diminishes. In braking, lockup describes the point at which a tyre starts to skid in an emergency stopping situation. A tyres maximum braking force is developed when it is on the verge of lock-up, so a cars shortest stopping distances are produced when its front and rear tyres are held just short of lockup. Anti-lock brakes (ABS) prevent wheel lockup, giving the advantage of simultaneous steering and braking ability (a locked wheel cannot be steered). A suspension bushing is a type of bearing for suspension components. Typically made of rubber or a synthetic material, a bush can be "tuned" to affect ride quality and handling, and minimise the transmission of vibrations to the passenger cabin. A method of braking with the foot brake to stimulate the action of ABS
Arms, Links, Rods, Wishbones
Bras, Tiges, Tringles, Fourchette s
Axle Articulatio n
Dbattem ent
Ball Joint
Joint rotule
Beam Axle Brake Fade
Essieu rigide Perte d'efficacit des freins
Brake Lockup
Blocage des freins
Bush
Coussinet
Cadence Braking
Freinage par -
oscillations (ou roulis) dans les virages. La barre antiroulis peut quiper les vhicules l'avant ou l'arrire, ou les deux. Ces termes dcrivent plusieurs lments de la suspension qui "fixent" les roues ou les arbres et limitent leurs mouvements pour une tenue de route et une traction optimales. La relation complexe qu'entretiennent les lments de la suspension lorsqu'ils sont en mouvement s'appelle la gomtrie de la suspension. Ce terme dcrit la capacit d'un essieu supporter les mouvement des roues roue gauche haute, roue droite basse. C'est la mesure de la facilit pour les roues de rester en contact avec le sol (et donc d'tre active dans la traction) sur un terrain ingal. Un joint rotule est un joint souple constitu d'une pice sphrique dans un logement creux. Il est gnralement utilis pour les suspensions car il permet une grande varit de mouvements dans deux directions. C'est un essieu reliant deux roues non-motrices Les freins s'chauffent lorsqu'il sont souvent ou fortement sollicits et leur efficacit s'en trouve amoindrie. Le blocage dsigne le moment o le pneu commence patiner lors d'un freinage d'urgence. La force de freinage maximum d'un pneu s'exerce juste avant le blocage de la roue, la distance de freinage minimale d'une voiture est donc obtenue en maintenant les roues avant et arrires au point prcdant le blocage. Le systme antibloqueur de scurit (ABS) empche le blocage des roues, ce qui permet donc de freiner au maximum tout en conservant le contrle de la direction (une roue bloque ne peut pas tourner). Un coussinet de suspension est une sorte de joint entre composants de la suspension. Gnralement en caoutchouc ou en matriau synthtique, un coussinet participe la qualit de la tenue de route et au confort de conduite, et limite la transmission des vibrations l'habitacle. Mthode de freinage par laquelle le pied active la pdale de frein par Page 48 / 57 01/05/2005
coups
brakes. (See Anti-Lock Braking System above). When viewed from the front of the vehicle, camber is the angle of the tyre/wheel compared with true vertical. When the tops of the front wheels are tilted inward, a vehicles camber is negative; when tilted outward, camber is positive. Camber influences lateral control.
Camber
Carrossag e
Castor (or caster)
Angle de chasse
The angle between a vertical line and the car's steering axis when viewed from the side, measured in degrees and minutes. Just as an office chair or shopping trolley uses castors to roll forward more easily, a high degree of castor in a vehicle makes the wheels "self-centre" more readily. Describes a vehicles structural elements or frame. Today's vehicles with monocoque or "unibody" construction, the chassis comprises everything but the bolted-on body panels of the car. 4x4 usually have a truechassis carrying the mechanic and the body of the car. Used in a suspension system, a coil spring consists of a bar of resilient metal (usually a steel alloy) wound into a spiral form. It can be compressed repeatedly or extended without permanent deformation. Its function is to support the weight of the vehicle and to absorb shocks. A "CV" joint is a type of universal joint, usually used between the front half-shafts and front spindles/wheels in a front-wheel drive or four-wheel drive vehicle. CV joints are engineered to transmit power more smoothly (compared with universal joints) as they move through two planes. They are also less prone to driveline vibrations. This component of a chassis (or subframe), placed transversely, connects to and strengthens longitudinal chassis members. A differential transmits power from the transmission or transfer gearbox to the wheels, and allows the wheels to turn at different speeds (so the
Chassis
Chssis
Coil Spring
Ressort hlicodal
pressions successives pour stimuler l'action de l'ABS. (voir Systme Antibloqueur de scurit plus bas). Vhicule vu de l'avant, le carrossage est l'angle dfini par le plan mdian de la roue et le plan vertical passant par le point de contact roue/sol. Lorsque le point suprieur des roues avant se projette au sol l'intrieur du point de contact, le carrossage est ngatif ; s'il se projette au sol l'extrieur de ce point, il est positif. Le carrossage a un impact sur la tenue de route latrale. Degr d'inclinaison du pivot de fuse vers l'avant ou l'arrire. Fuse : extrmit de l'essieu qui entre dans un moyeu de roue. Comme sur une chaise de bureau ou un chariot de supermarch l'angle de chasse facilite le dplacement, de mme il participe la stabilit du vhicule car la force applique sur le pneu tend faire revenir la roue dans sa position d'quilibre. Ce terme dsigne la structure d'un vhicule ou l'lment supportant la caisse. Sur les voitures modernes carroserie autoporteurse le chassis comprend tout sauf les panneaux de carrosserie boulonns du vhicule. Les 4x4 ont habituellement un vrai chassis supportant la mcanique et la carrosserie de la voiture. lment du systme de suspension, le ressort hlicodal, ou ressort boudin, est une barre de mtal rsistant (un alliage d'acier) en forme de spirale. Il supporte les compressions-relchements rpts sans dformation permanente. Sa fonction est de supporter le poids du vhicule et damortir les chocs. C'est une sorte de joint de cardan, prsent entre les demi-arbres avant et les roues avant sur les tractions avant ou les quatre roues motrices. Les joints homocintiques sont conus pour une transmission plus souple qu'avec un joint de cardan car il se meut sur deux plans. Il est moins sujet aux vibrations. lment transversal d'un chssis (ou berceau) reliant et consolidant les longerons du chssis. Le diffrentiel transmet la puissance de la transmission ou botier de renvoi aux roues, et leur permet de tourner des vitesses diffrentes Page 49 / 57 01/05/2005
ConstantVelocity Joint
Joint homocint ique
Cross member Differentia l
Traverse Diffrentie l
vehicle can turn corners without drive train wind-up a situation in which the wheels on the outside of a curve turn faster and travel a greater distance than the inside wheels). While most differentials are mechanical gear-driven devices, sometimes a multi-plate clutch pack (MPT) can act in place of a differential. The main disadvantage of an "open" differential is that it will send power to the wheel (or axle) with the least traction. A differential lock literally locks out the differential action and forces power to be split equally between each wheel (or each axle) for maximum traction. In a rearwheel-drive vehicle, for instance, locking the rear differential locks the left and right rear wheels together so that both receive equal power. In a full-time or permanent 4x4 vehicle, locking the centre differential locks the front and rear driveshafts together sending equal power to the front and rear axles. While locking a differential helps increase traction, it makes steering more difficult on high-traction surfaces because it tends to force the vehicle to travel in a straight line. This type of braking system consists of a disc or rotor that rotates at the same speed as the wheel to which it is attached, straddled by a calliper. The calliper contains brake pads, operated by small pistons, that squeeze against the surface of the disc to slow it down or stop it. Disc brakes operate more efficiently at high temperatures and wet conditions than drum brakes. Double overhead camshaft engines use two camshafts located in each cylinder head. One camshaft operates the intake valves, the other actuates the exhaust valves. The driveshaft transmits power from the transmission or transfer case to the differential. A four-wheel drive vehicle has at least two driveshafts one running to the front differential and one to the rear. Also known as propeller shafts, or prop shafts. This term, also called a power train, describes all of a vehicles components that produce power and
Differentia l Lock
Blocage du diffrentiel
(ainsi dans un virage, les roues extrieures la courbe tournent plus vite et parcourent une plus grande distance que les roues l'intrieur de la courbe). La plupart des diffrentiels sont des systmes mcaniques pignons; parfois un embrayage plateaux multiples (EPM) peut jouer le rle de diffrentiel. Le principal dsavantage d'un diffrentiel libre est qu'il transmet de la puissance la roue (ou l'essieu) ayant la traction la plus faible. Il est possible de limiter ou de bloquer compltement l'action du diffrentiel et de rpartir la puissance galit entre chaque roue (ou chaque essieu) pour une traction maximum. Sur une vhicule propulsion, par exemple, bloquer le diffrentiel arrire unit les deux roues arrire qui reoivent alors la mme puissance. Sur 4x4 permanent, le blocage du diffrentiel central agit sur les deux arbres, avant et arrire, transmettant alors la mme puissance aux essieux avant et arrire. Le blocage du diffrentiel permet d'accrotre la traction, mais il rend le braquage plus difficile sur les surfaces forte adhrence car il tend contraindre le vhicule rester en ligne droite. Ce systme de freins est constitu d'un disque ou rotor, solidaire de la roue laquelle il est fix, chevauch par un trier portant les garnitures de friction et actionn par de petits pistons, pour pincer la surface du disque afin de le ralentir ou l'arrter. Les freins disque sont plus efficaces par temps chaud ou humide que les freins tambour. Les moteurs double arbre cames en tte ont deux arbres cames situs au-dessus des cylindres sous la culasse. L'un actionne les soupapes d'admission, l'autre les soupapes d'chappement. Il transmet la puissance de la transmission ou botier de renvoi au diffrentiel. Un vhicule quatre roues motrices au moins deux arbres de transmission l'un pour le diffrentiel avant et l'autre pour le diffrentiel arrire. Le moteur, la transmission, le botier de renvoi, les arbres de transmission, les diffrentiels, les Page 50 / 57 01/05/2005
Disc Brakes
Freins disques
DOHC
Double arbre cames en tte
Driveshaft (propeller shaft) Drive train
Arbre de transmissi on Chane cinmatiq ue Groupe
motopropu lseur
Drum Brakes
Freins tambour
Engine Braking
Frein moteur
Full-Time 4x4
4x4 Fulltime
transmit power to the wheels the engine, transmission, transfer case, driveshafts, differentials, axle shafts and wheel hubs. A drum brake uses a drum-shaped (cylindrical) housing, usually made of cast iron, that is attached to the wheel and rotates with it. Inside the drum are curved brake shoes that are forced into contact with the inner drum to provide braking. Drum brakes are simple and generally effective, but less efficient than disc brakes under heavy use or when wet. This term describes the driving technique of slowing a vehicle by taking the foot off the throttle, particularly in a lower gear (such as first gear-Low Range). Engine braking uses the compression of the engine and the low gearing of the transmission/transfer gearbox to slow the vehicle. This drive system offers both a 4x2 and 4x4 mode. 4x4 can be engaged on dry roads for normal on-road driving because this system uses some type of centre differential. A typical full-time 4x4 system offers 4x2 and 4x4 "Auto" and 4x4 Low. Virtually all full-time 4x4 systems also have a two-speed transfer gearbox. This is a numerical ratio of a series of gears in relation to each other based on the number of turns of the input shaft, compared with turns of the output shaft. Gear ratios are determined by the number of teeth on each gear. For instance, a gear with 36 teeth meshed with a gear 12 teeth gives a 36/12 or 3/1 ratio. This is usually expressed as 3.00:1. With the vehicle stationary, ground clearance is the measurement from the lowest-hanging point under the vehicle (usually a differential or the exhaust system) to the ground. A high ground clearance allows a vehicle to more easily drive off-road or through heavy snow without damaging under-body components. Gross Vehicle Weight is the combination of curb weight plus payload (including driver and fuel). It is the maximum rated (by the manufacturer) amount the vehicle can weight and safely operate.
essieux et les moyeux. Le frein tambour est constitu d'un tambour (enveloppe cylindrique), gnralement en fonte, solidaire de la roue. Dans le tambour se trouvent des garnitures de frein en arc qui, appliques contre l'intrieur du tambour, engendrent le couple de freinage. C'est un systme simple et efficace, mais moins efficace que les freins disque lors d'une forte sollicitation ou par temps humide. Ce terme dsigne une technique de ralentissement du vhicule par libration de la pdale d'acclrateur, de prfrence sur un rapport court (par ex. en premire). Le frein moteur utilise la compression du moteur et la faible vitesse de la transmission/botier de renvoi pour ralentir le vhicule. Ce systme permet les mode 2x4 et 4x4. Le 4x4 peut tre engag sur route sche pour un parcours normal car il utilise un diffrentiel central. En gnral, le systme 4x4 fulltimepermet 2x4, 4x4 "Auto" et 4x4 rapports courts. La quasi totalit des 4x4 full-time est galement quipe d'une botier de transfert deux vitesses. C'est un rapport numrique entre les sries de pignons calcul partir du nombre de tours de l'arbre primaire par rapport l'arbre secondaire. Les rapports de dmultiplication sont dtermins par le nombre de dents sur chaque roue dente. Ainsi, une roue 36 dents en prise avec une roue 12 dents donne un rapport 36/12 ou 3/1. On note gnralement 3 00:1. Vhicule l'arrt, la garde au sol mesure la distance entre le sol et le point le plus bas sous le vhicule (gnralement un diffrentiel ou la tubulure d'chappement). Plus la garde au sol est grande, plus le vhicule circulera facilement en tout terrain ou sur route enneige sans endommager les lments sous la caisse. Le PTAC est l'addition du poids en ordre de marche et du poids utile (chauffeur et carburant compris). C'est le poids maximum (dtermin par le constructeur) du vhicule autorisant son fonctionnement en Page 51 / 57 01/05/2005
Gear Ratio
Rapport de dmultiplic ation
Ground Clearance
Garde au sol
GVW
Poids Total Autoris en Charge PTAC
Half-Shaft
Demi arbre
A half-shaft is an articulating rotating shaft used in independent suspension systems to transmit power from a differential to a wheel. The term is also used to describe an axle shaft. This describes a suspension system wherein each wheel on an axle is sprung separately and can react independently to bumps. A nonindependent suspension uses a solid, beam or rigid axle to "connect" the suspension of two wheels. Both systems have advantages and disadvantages. A ladder frame is shaped like a large ladder. Two long "rails" run along the sides, with cross-members connecting the two. This type of frame is used in some 4x4 vehicles. However, differences exist in the shape, structure and thickness of the various frame elements. A long, flat, flexible piece of steel (or a composite material) curved into an arc that bends when forces act upon it. Leaf springs, most often used in pick-up trucks usually mount a solid axle to a vehicle. This differential has a mechanism to limit the speed differences between its two outputs. A limited slip differential ensures that some torque is always distributed to both wheels, even when one has very little traction. A live axle is a solid axle that transmits power to a pair of wheels. It is composed of a rigid axle with a differential and axle shafts to power two wheels. It is called "live" because it has engine power flowing through it. A solid axle that does not transmit power is called a dead axle. All full-time 4x4 systems and most competitive permanent 4x4 systems lock the centre differential when Low Range is engaged. (Part-time systems have no centre differential, and so are in effect locked when in 4x4 High or 4x4 Low). The assumption is that when you are 4x4 Low, you want the extra traction of a locked centre differential. However, locking the centre differential limits Low Range to off-road use.
Independe nt Suspensio n
Suspensio n indpenda nte
toute scurit. Un demi-arbe est un arbre articul tournant utilis pour les systmes de suspension indpendants afin de transmettre la puissance du diffrentiel une roue. Ce terme dsigne aussi un essieu. C'est un systme de suspension dans lequel chaque roue d'un essieu est monte sur un ressort indpendant et peut donc ragir sparment aux accidents du terrain. Une suspension nonindpendante comporte un axe rigide reliant les suspensions d'une paire de roues. Chaque systme a ses avantages et ses inconvnients. Deux longerons formant les cts du cadre sont relis par des traverses. Ce type de chssis est utilis sur certains modles de 4x4. Il existe des, diffrences dans la forme, la structure et l'paisseur des diffrents lments du cadre. Un bande d'acier (ou matriau composite) souple, formant un arc, se courbe lorsque des forces agissent sur elle. Les ressorts lames, courants sur les pick-up (camionnette caisse), sert gnralement fixer un essieu rigide sur un vhicule. Ce diffrentiel est dot d'un mcanisme destin limiter la diffrence de vitesse entre les deux sorties. Il permet d'assurer une rpartition du couple aux deux roues, mme celle qui prsente une rsistance, ou traction, faible, voire nulle. C'est un essieu qui transmet la puissance une paire de roues. Il est constitu d'un axe rigide avec diffrentiel et cardans pour actionner les deux roues. Il est dit tournant car il reoit la puissance du moteur. On appelle essieu fixe ou rigide l'essieu qui ne transmet pas la puissance. Tous les 4x4 full-time et la plupart des 4x4 permanents bloquent le diffrentiel inter-ponts en position rapports court. (Les 4x4 occasionnels part-time n'ont pas de diffrentiel inter-pont et sont donc de fait bloqus que ce soit en rapports longs ou courts). On considre en effet qu'en position 4x4 rapports courts, le conducteur recherche le supplment de traction d'un diffrentiel central bloqu. De Page 52 / 57 01/05/2005
Ladder Frame Chassis
Cadre de chssis en chelle
Leaf Spring
Ressort lame
LimitedSlip Differentia l
Diffrentie l glissement limit
Live Axle
Essieu tournant ou mobile
Low Lock
Blocage du diffrentiel en rapports courts
fait, cela limite l'utilisation des rapports courts au tout terrain.
Monocoqu e Constructi on
Structure autoportan te
This is a type of body construction that doesnt require a separate frame to provide structural strength or support for the cars mechanical components. A monocoque design uses many strong but light structural elements as an integral part of its construction. This is a high vehicle, designed primarily for transporting more than five people in comfort, on-road, and offering some seat flexibility for load carrying. Examples include the Toyota Previa. Any gear set in which the output shaft turns faster than the input shaft is considered overdrive (the gear ratio is less than 1:1). Overdrive gears are usually for top gear only used in most modern transmissions because they reduce engine rpm and improve fuel economy. (A typical overdrive ratio is 0.78:1).
Construction de la caisse en un seul morceau sans chssis spar devant assurer la rigidit de la structure et recevoir les lments mcaniques. Cette structure intgre en effet des lments de structure trs rigides mais lgers. Vhicule assez haut, conu l'origine pour transporter plus de cinq passagers confortablement et offrant une certaine souplesse dans l'escamotage de siges pour le transport de chargement volumineux. La Toyota Previa est un monospace. Dmultiplication de la transmission en sortie de bote allongeant le rapport final, l'arbre secondaire tourne plus vite que l'arbre primaire (le rapport est infrieur 1:1). Prsent dans la plupart des systmes de transmissions modernes gnralement rserv la vitesse suprieure il rduit le rgime du moteur et permet une conomie de carburant. (Le rapport dmultipli type est 0.78:1). Lorsque l'arbre cames commandant les soupapes est install dans la culasse, au-dessus des soupapes, on parle de moteur arbre cames en tte. Cette proximit avec les soupapes permet d'utiliser pour celles-ci des composants plus rsistants et plus lgers et d'assurer une grande rapidit d'ouverture et fermeture des soupapes comme du rgime du moteur. Si le moteur est quip d'un seul arbre came en tte, il actionne la fois les soupapes d'admission et d'chappement. Le double arbre came en tte est dot d'un arbre actionnant les soupapes d'admission, et d'un arbre actionnant les soupapes d'chappement. Le plus simple des systmes quatre roues motrices, le 4x4 occasionnel Part-time fonctionne tout le temps en deux roues motrices (gnralement les roues arrires) sur route sche, le mode 4x4 ne peut tre engag qu'en tout terrain ou lorsque la chausse est trs glissante car ce systme oblige les roues avant et arrire rouler la mme vitesse. Conduire en quatre Page 53 / 57 01/05/2005
MultiPurpose Vehicle (MPV)
Monospac e
Overdrive
Rapport dmultipli
Overhead Cam
Arbre cames en tte
Overhead camshaft describes a type of valve train arrangement in which the engines camshaft is in its cylinder head above (or over) the valves. When the camshaft is placed close to the valves, the valve train components can be stiffer and lighter, allow the valves to open and close more rapidly and the engine to run at higher rpm. In a singleoverhead-cam (SOHC) layout, one camshaft actuates all of the valves in a cylinder head. In a doubleoverhead-camshaft (DOHC) layout, one camshaft actuates the intake valves and one camshaft operates the exhaust valves. The most basic type of four-wheel drive system, part-time 4x4 operates in 4x2 mode (usually rear-wheel drive) all of the time on dry road, 4x4 mode can be engaged only offroad or when the tarmac is very slippery because this system forces the front and rear wheels to travel at the same speed. Using 4x4 on dry road can damage the drive train and cause extreme tyre wear. Virtually,
Part-time 4x4
4x4 occasionn el
all part-time 4x4 systems also employ a two-speed transfer box.
Permanent 4x4
4x4 permanent
As the name suggests, permanent 4x4 sends power to all four wheels continuously, on-road or off-road. There is no 4x2 capability, and the driver does not need to determine when to engage 4x4 mode. Drive selections typically include 4x4 High and 4x4 Low. Most permanent 4x4 systems also have a locking centre differential and a two-speed transfer case. This term describes an engine and transmission combination. See drive train. In the valve train of an overhead valve (OHV) engine, pushrods are used to transfer the reciprocating motion from the camshaft to the rocker arms and then to the valves. Pushrod engines are generally shorter than overhead cam engines and often operate at lower engine speeds. This system ensures on-road steering precision, as it is the most direct system available giving optimum feedback and a fast, predictable response. This is a measure of a vehicles ability to drive over a sharp ridge or ramp without touching its underside.The ramp angle is the angle measured from the lowest part of the chassis at mid-wheelbase down to the periphery of front and rear wheels. A short wheelbase vehicle with large tyres will have the best ramp breakover angle. A steering mechanism in which the steering shaft turns a worm gear that, in turn, causes a toothed metal block to move back and forth. Ball bearings in a recirculating track reduce friction between the worm gear and the block. As the block moves, its teeth rotate a gear connected to a steering arm, which then moves the steering linkage. This type of steering is considered durable and easy to operate. A recovery strap is a strap made of
roues motrices sur route sche peut endommager la chaine cinmatique et provoquer une usure extrme des pneus. Pratiquement, tous les 4x4 occasionnels sont quips d'un botier de transfert deux vitesses. Comme son nom l'indique, le 4x4 permanent transmet toujours la puissance aux quatre roues, sur route ou sur tout terrain. Il n'y a pas de possibilit de 4x2, et le chauffeur n'a pas intervenir pour engager le mode 4x4. Ce type de 4x4 propose deux types de rapports, Long ou Court. La plupart des systmes permanents sont aussi quips du blocage du diffrentiel central et d'une bote de transfert deux vitesses. Voir Groupe motopropulseur Sur un moteur soupapes en tte, les tiges de poussoirs transmettent le mouvement de l'arbre cames aux culbuteurs qui actionnent les soupapes. Ces moteurs sont gnralement plus courts que ceux arbre cames en tte et fonctionnent plus bas rgime. C'est le systme le plus utilis qui assure une direction prcise: la transmission des informations au conducteur est optimale et le systme ragit rapidement et de faon prvisible. Mesure la capacit d'un vhicule franchir une crte pointue ou une rampe sans que le bas de caisse ne frotte. L'angle ventral est mesure entre la partie la plus basse du chssis prise au milieu de l'empattement et le point de contact des roues avec le sol. Un vhicule avec un empattement court et de grands pneux aura un bon angle ventral. Mcanisme de direction dans lequel l'arbre de direction fait tourner une vis sans fin qui elle-mme dplace un bloc de mtal dent d'avant en arrire. Les roulements bille rduisent le frottement entre la vis sans fin et le bloc. En se dplaant, le bloc fait tourner un pignon connect un bras qui dplace la timonerie de direction.. Ce type de direction est durable et d'un maniement ais. Courroie en nylon lastique avec Page 54 / 57 01/05/2005
Powertrain
Pushrod
(Tige de) Poussoirs
Rack and Pinion Steering
Direction crmaillr e
Ramp Breakover Angle
Angle ventral
Recirculati ng-Ball Steering
Direction circulation de billes
Recovery
Courroie
Strap
de rcuprati on
elastic nylon with loops on both ends. Unlike a simple rope or chain, a recovery strap uses kinetic energy (like a rubber band) to help free a stuck vehicle using another vehicle. See beam axle. A device used primarily to dampen suspension oscillations, shock absorbers respond to motion. An SOHC engine uses one camshaft in each cylinder head to operate both the exhaust valves and the intake valves. A strut is a suspension element in which a reinforced shock absorber is used as one of the wheels locating members, typically by solidly bolting the wheel hub to the bottom end of the strut. A sub-frame is a small, separate frame usually attached to a unitised body vehicle. A front sub-frame might be used to "cradle" the engine and transmission, while a rear subframe would attach the rear suspension to the unibody structure. This term refers to a protection cover or plate under a vehicle that covers vulnerable components, such as the transmission/ transfer gearbox, engine oil pan or fuel tank. This term refers to the amount of vertical wheel movement allowed by the suspension. This alignment measurement is the amount by which the front wheels (when viewed from above) are not parallel to each other. Toe can affect handling and steering feel. Torque is the rotational equivalent of force, measured in Newton metres (Nm). In an engine, torque is the twisting force measured at the crankshaft. This is a type of spring made of a long solid or tubular rod with one end fixed to the chassis and the other twisted by a lever connected to the suspension. This is the concept of achieving (and maintaining) grip between the wheels and the ground/road surface without slip, skid or sinkage. A transfer box (or transfer case) is a system of gears or an auxiliary transmission used in 4x4 vehicles
Rigid Axle Shock Absorber Single Overhead Cam Amortisse ur Simple arbre cames en tte Jambe de force
Strut
boucles aux deux extrmits. la diffrence d'une simple corde ou d'une chane, une courroie de rcupration met profit l'nergie cintique (comme un lastique) pour dgager un vhicule en le tractant. Voir Essieu rigide Les amortisseurs attnuent les oscillations des ressorts du systme de suspension. Un moteur SOHC utilise un seul arbre came par culasse pour actionner les soupapes dchappement et dadmission. lment de suspension par lequel un amortisseur contribue au positionnement de la roue. Cet amortisseur est boulonn en haut sur la caisse et en bas sur le portemoyeu. C'est une petite structure distincte gnralement fixe la caisse. l'avant, un faux chssis ou berceau reoit le moteur et la transmission, tandis qu'a l'arrire il lie la suspension arrire la caisse. Couverture de protection sous un vhicule protgeant les lments vulnrables comme la transmission/ bote de transfert, le rservoir d'huile moteur ou le rservoir de carburant. Ampleur du mouvement vertical de la roue autoris par la suspension. Mesure de l'cart convergence ou ouverture (roues vu du dessus) sparant les roues avant de la parallle. Le rglage du paralllisme influence la conduite et la direction du vhicule. Le couple est l'quivalent, pour un mouvement rotatif, de la force , mesur en Newton mtres (Nm). Dans un moteur, le couple est la force de torsion mesure au vilebrequin. C'est un modle de ressort fait d'une barre pleine ou tubulaire avec une extremit fixe au chssis et l'autre tordue par un bras connect la suspension. Force de l'adhrence possible entre les roues et le sol/la surface de la route sans glisser, draper, ni s'embourber. Systme de pignons ou transmission secondaire utilise sur les 4x4 pour transfrer la puissance de la Page 55 / 57 01/05/2005
Sub-frame
Fauxchssis
Sump Guard
Plaque de blindage (carter) Course de la suspensio n Paralllism e
Suspensio n Travel
Toe-InToe-Out
Torque
Couple
Torsion Bar
Barre de torsion
Traction Transfer Gearbox
Traction Boite de transfert
that transfers power from the transmission to the front and rear driveshafts. Transfer gear-boxes typically have two gear ranges, High and Low. High Range is used for typical on-highway or light off-road use. Low Range is used for serious off-road conditions. Putting a transfer gearbox in "neutral" disconnects the transmission from the wheels. Unless the brakes are applied (foot brake or hand brake), a vehicle can roll when the transfer gearbox is in "neutral" even if the transmission is in "park" (automatic) or a forward/reverse gear (manual). A transmission is a gearbox (either manual or automatic) with a number of different ratios to match the engines rpm and torque to various driving situations. Distance measured between the two wheels of a same axle. A UJ "connects" two shafts that arent in a straight line. Depending on its design, a universal joint can accommodate a large variation between the angle of the input shaft and that of the output shaft. Distance measured between the axles of the wheels of a same side. This complex device relies on the characteristics of a silicon fluid inside it. It can act as a differential, as a means to restrict wheel spin or both. Inside are two sets of slotted metal plates one connected to a front shaft, the other to a rear shaft. When there is a significant speed difference between the shafts, the silicon fluid heats up, expands and becomes thicker, limiting the speed difference and thereby slippage right-to-left or front-to-rear. In effect, it "locks " the shafts together (although not mechanically, as in a locking differential). When there is little or no speed difference between the shafts, the viscous coupling does not work. A winch is an externally mounted device consisting of a cable spooled onto a drum. It is used to pull heavy or bulky objects or to retrieve a vehicle that is stuck. The drum can be driven by the engine, by hydraulic power or electrically. This steering mechanism uses an
Transmissi on
Transmissi on
Tread
Voie
Universal Joint (UJ)
Joint de cardan Empattem ent
Wheelbase
Viscous Coupling Unit (VCU)
Viscocoupleur
Winch
Treuil
Worm-
Direction
transmission aux essieux avant et arrire. La boite de transfert a gnralement deux gammes de rapports, Longs et Courts. Les rapports longs sont utiliss pour la route et les terrains non accidents. Les rapports courts pour les terrains difficiles. La position neutre dbranche la transmission des roues. moins d'utiliser les freins ( pied ou main), le vhicule n'est pas immobilis quand la boite de transfert est en position neutre, mme si la transmission est en position parking (bote automatique) ou avec une vitesse engage (bote manuelle). La transmission est une bote de vitesses (manuelle ou automatique) avec plusieurs rapports correspondant au rgime et au couple du moteur dans les diffrentes situations de conduite. Distance mesure entre les roues dume mme essieu. Le joint de cardan relie deux arbres qui ne sont pas aligns. Selon sa conception, un joint de cardan autorise une grande variation de l'angle entre arbre d'entre et arbre de sortie. Distance mesure entre les axes des roues dun mme cot. Ce systme complexe repose sur les caractristiques d'un fluide base de silicone. Il peut agir comme un diffrentiel, rduire la vitesse des roues, ou les deux la fois. Il contient deux jeux de plaques de mtal l'un reli l'essieu avant, l'autre l'essieu arrire. Si la vitesse entre les deux essieux diffre fortement, le fluide base de silicone chauffe, se dilate et durcit, rduisant ainsi la diffrence de vitesse et donc le glissement droitegauche ou avant-arrire. Il verrouille les essieux (l'action n'est pas mcanique comme avec le blocage du diffrentiel). Si la diffrence de vitesse est faible ou nulle, le visco-coupleur n'intervient pas. Systme extrieur compos d'un cble enroul sur un tambour, utilis pour tirer des objets lourds ou volumineux ou dgager un vhicule embourb. Le tambour peut tre actionn par le moteur, par nergie hydraulique ou encore l'lectricit. Ce mcanisme de direction fait appel Page 56 / 57 01/05/2005
and-Roller Steering
vis et galet
hourglass-shaped worm and a pinion roller in external contact. This type of steering gear is known for its durability.
une vis sans fin et un galet, la vis tant l'extrmit de la colonne de direction. Ce systme est rput pour sa longvit.
Page 57 / 57 01/05/2005

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Vehicles Handbook

Logistic Department Action contre la Faim

Document revision history:

Action contre la Faim - Kit Log V 2.0 V 2.0 English/ 04 vehicles

Action contre la Faim - Kit Log V 2.0 V 2.0 English/ 04 vehicles

2.1. 2x4 and 4x4

Action contre la Faim - Kit Log V 2.0 V 2.0 English/ 04 vehicles

2.2. The engine

All engines, and particularly diesel engines, need a warming up time.

2.3. The clutch

2.4. The transmission

Action contre la Faim - Kit Log V 2.0 V 2.0 English/ 04 vehicles

Action contre la Faim - Kit Log V 2.0 V 2.0 English/ 04 vehicles

2.6. Suspension and shock absorbers

Action contre la Faim - Kit Log V 2.0 V 2.0 English/ 04 vehicles

2.7. The cooling system

Action contre la Faim - Kit Log V 2.0 V 2.0 English/ 04 vehicles

Action contre la Faim - Kit Log V 2.0 V 2.0 English/ 04 vehicles

2.8. Electrical equipment

Action contre la Faim - Kit Log V 2.0 V 2.0 English/ 04 vehicles

Society of Automotive Engineers

High temperature viscosity* (Measured at 100 C)

Action contre la Faim - Kit Log V 2.0 V 2.0 English/ 04 vehicles

Petrol engine (Service):

Light duty diesel engine

Heavy duty diesel engine (Trucks)

Refer to the full API and ACEA documentation.

3.2. Oil filter

Action contre la Faim - Kit Log V 2.0 V 2.0 English/ 04 vehicles

3.3. Other parts lubrications

Action contre la Faim - Kit Log V 2.0 V 2.0 English/ 04 vehicles

4.1. Tyres categories

4.2. Tyre structure

Action contre la Faim - Kit Log V 2.0 V 2.0 English/ 04 vehicles

4.3. The tread on the tyre

4.4. Classification of tyres (data from Michelin)

101 102 103 104 105 106 107

114 115 116 117 118 119 120

Action contre la Faim - Kit Log V 2.0 V 2.0 English/ 04 vehicles

325 335 345 355 365 375 Speed rating Q R S T H

82 83 84 85 86 87 Km/h 160 170 180 190 210

475 487 500 515 530 545

95 96 97 98 99 100 Speed rating V W Y ZR(Y) ZR

690 710 730 750 775 800

1000 1030 1060 1090 1120 1150

121 122 123 124 125 126

1450 1500 1550 1600 1650 1700

4.5. Choosing a tyre

Action contre la Faim - Kit Log V 2.0 V 2.0 English/ 04 vehicles

5. Driving within Action contre la Faim

5.2. Drivers check-lists

Action contre la Faim - Kit Log V 2.0 V 2.0 English/ 04 vehicles

Action contre la Faim - Kit Log V 2.0 V 2.0 English/ 04 vehicles

6.2. The different types of 4x4

Full time 4x4 YES NO YES YES YES

Permanent 4x4 NO NO YES YES YES

All Wheel Drive NO NO YES YES NO

Central differential usually locked in 4x4 low

Land Cruiser 78/79

Defender Lada Niva

6.3. Selection of the appropriate 4-WD mode

Action contre la Faim - Kit Log V 2.0 V 2.0 English/ 04 vehicles

Action contre la Faim - Kit Log V 2.0 V 2.0 English/ 04 vehicles