CM1008 Media Systems in International Perspective Chapter 1 People learn about the majority of the worlds countries not

ot by experiencing them directly, but instead by gaining secondhand information from friends, family, teachers, coworkers, and of course the media The term media can have a very broad definition, as in any technology that carries a message The term media can also be divided into two more narrow definitions: mass media (e.g., newspapers, magazines, radio, and television) and personal media (e.g., mobile [cell] phones, pagers, fax machines, and personal digital assistants [PDAs]): - Mass media: tend to distribute standardized messages to mass audiences used for synchronous (at the same time), point to mass communication: a media message heard/read by multiple audience members - Personal media: tend to distribute customized messages to smaller audiences or to individuals. used to facilitate asynchronous (at different times), point to point communication (e.g., an email message from a sister read the next day by a brother). The traditional distinction between these two media forms is breaking down because the internet is radically challenging previous paradigms of media distribution patterns: - The Internet is both an auxiliary outlet for content already created for newspaper, radio, and television media, as well as a primary outlet for web page content in its own right. - The Internet allows for point-to-point communication that is both asynchronous (e.g., sending an email) and synchronous (e.g., instant messaging. - The Internet allows for point-to-mass communication that is both asynchronous (e.g., a mass email) and synchronous (e.g., a web blog). Media are probably responsible for nurturing most of our ideas about unfamiliar locations across a world that is so gargantuan that we hardly experience it directly. MEDIA FROM AROUND THE WORLD People experience media in radically different ways across the countries of the world because each country has a unique set of conditions that influence the accessible media content. Central question to ask: What do we learn when we compare media from around the world? Four compared media sources: newspapers, radio, television, and the internet distributes content on a daily basis and around the world. Difference between Internet and other media sources: it is a global medium, confined less by cultural or geographical factors than by audience accessibility. In other words, the internet is more about whether people can get to it, how long they have to access it, and how fast it is, than about what content it distributes.

EIGHT COUNTRIES SELECTED FOR THE BOOK China: has a media system that is undergoing tremendous change in its political and economic structure as it incorporates free-market mechanisms into a communist governing structure. The government continues to exercise tight control over content in newspapers, and on radio, television, and the Internet . has the worlds largest population and therefore represents the largest potential domestic media audience. France: has a media system in which the state is both a regulator of broadcast content and a competitor for broadcast audiences. The government takes an active role in promoting culture in French media content. France has an extensive global media reach through its associations with former colonies and current territories. France has regulations that set quotas for how much foreign-language media can be imported, to preserve the stature of French culture and the French language. Ghana: has a media system that gained constitutional freedom from government control in 1992. As a result, democratic government and a private media sector are both in early stages of development. Ghana is politically stable, but continues to face challenges of poverty and poor public health The government takes an active role in fostering the development of a private media sector and in educating journalists about professional ethics. Lebanon: has a media system that is among the most advanced and free in the Middle East region. In post-civil-war Lebanon, the private sector plays a more active role in developing the countrys media system than the government. The government, however, actively restricts content that arouses religious or ethnic conflicts. Mxico: has a well-developed media system, even though Mxico as a country continues to face challenges of poverty and hunger. The government takes an active and direct role in financing and regulating print media. The government has also established a system in which government publicity is regularly distributed by print and broadcast media. Sweden: has a media system that allows limited commercial competition in the broadcast marketplace. has a legal framework that provides citizensincluding journalistswith unfettered access to public records.

 Because the Swedish language is not spoken very much outside of Scandinavia, there is little opportunity to export Swedish media content. Therefore, mass media in Sweden are often used to teach English as a second language to the population. The Swedish government takes an active role in restricting violent media content and protecting children from advertising. The UK: has a sophisticated media system that has a fairly equal balance between private commercial media and public non-commercial media. The publicly funded British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) is one of the most recognizable media brands throughout the world. The UK has an extensive global reach in the distribution of media content because of the pervasive use of English around the world, and because of the UKs associations with Commonwealth and former colonial countries. The USA: has a media system which is the largest overall media exporter in the world. Television content originating from the USA occupies large portions of television broadcasts in other countries. Relative to other countries, imported media are not easy to find in the USA. The government in the USA for the most part prefers market forces to regulate media content, but takes an active role in restricting potentially obscene media content. BEYOND COUNTRY AS A UNIT OF ANALYSIS Because media tend to spread across clusters of countries, the use of country as a unit of analysis in this book should serve only as a necessary starting point for revealing broader themes and trends in media systems that cross national boundaries into global regions. THE IMPORTANCE OF COMPARING Comparing is a fundamental tool of analytical thinking that enables distinctions to be drawn between two or more things. This understanding is made possible by discovering the point of reference by which we evaluate other objects and experiences: when observing objects and experiences that are different, we also are defining ourselves by the things that are familiar rather than those that are unfamiliar. When it comes to comparing media systems, it is possible to define the points of reference that have been cultivated in you through your experiences with a particular set of media from particular countries or regions. Cultural myopia: people who are not exposed to another country through a range of media content are prone to evaluating that country with shortsighted negativity when they do come across basic information about that country. In essence, the shortsightedness makes unfamiliar objects in the foreground blurry (information about an unfamiliar convention in another country, which lacks an evaluative context), but makes familiar objects in the background clear (information about a familiar convention in the home country, which includes an evaluative context).

 Therefore, as a methodological tool, comparing media helps us to avoid cultural myopia in making shortsighted assessments about countries and cultures with which we are unfamiliar.

A RHETORICAL PERSPECTIVE To gain a fuller understanding of media from around the world, the analysis must lead to interpretations of the findings Interpretation is derived from analysing what a finding means. This is done by: - Finding how the elements of a countrys media system affect the content that is available - Finding how that media system relates also to cultural characteristics that are unique to a country or common to a region - Finding how audiences within countries are led to interact with media. A rhetorical perspective can offer an analysis of how media invite a particular audience to think, feel, or behave, given a particular context. A rhetorical perspective is particularly appropriate for a study of media around the world for two reasons: First, a rhetorical perspective does not conclude that there is one fixed meaning to a phenomenon; instead, it concentrates on reasonable meanings for a message, given the audience and the context. The key here is an underlying assumption that the audience plays an active role in making meaning from a message. - Second, a rhetorical perspective provides a way to analyze what it is that we think we know through the media. Part of this analysis involves identifying options for selecting media content that are available in some countries but not in others. Put another way, a rhetorical perspective analyses how thoughts and opinions are shaped by routine sources of information and entertainment, which in turn are shaped by unique elements that make up a countrys media system. In this book, audience has two definitions: - (1) as readers of this book - (2) as the people who access the media content described in this book.

Chapter 2 Herman & McChesney: the leading impetus for globalization is a corporate profit-making initiative that is reaching beyond domestic markets to fertile foreign markets in order to secure cheaper labor pools and raw materials, and new consumers for existing and yet-to-bedeveloped products and services. McLuhan: Globalisation is creating a global village mind-set, wherein people all around the world feel connected to each other as if they lived in the same local community (through advances in media technology). In the field of media, scholars have primarily studied globalisation to understand the role of communication technologies both in facilitating globalisation and in being facilitated by globalisation epistemological effects of globalisation on human consciousness: how our knowledge is limited by the information to which we are exposed.. FOUR FACTORS STIMULATING GLOBALISATION International Travel: - More people are travelling than ever before - When people travel to other countries and regions of the world, they set into motion an exchange of information that helps give rise to a greater consciousness about countries and regions of the world - The exchange of information occurs at three levels: People who travel abroad gain knowledge about foreign countries People who travel abroad interact with people in other countries and thereby pass on information about their own country to the people in other cultures People who travel abroad bring back knowledge of foreign countries and spread information however condensed it becomes mainly through conversations with relatives, friends and acquaintances. - Reasons why there is an increase in people who travel abroad: Television (providing information and creating interest) The expansion in the number of airlines and airline routes (competition=lower prices, more accessible) Internet (buy tickets, research destinations, booking accommodations) Communication Technologies: - The personal communication technologies (email, (mobile) phones, etc.) have made communication across national boundaries easier, cheaper and faster. - Advances in television technologies are spurring corporate commercialism and globalisation the average selection of television programmes includes more international content than ever before. Global Media Conglomerates: - A giant parent corporation that presides over an combination og wholly and partially owned subsidiaries, companies, and divisions that are scattered across the world, and that are afforded great local autonomy within individual countries in terms of product design and distribution. - they have a decentralized value system that responds to local market conditions in individual countries and regions with content that may or may not be desired in

home country or other foreign markets served by the conglomerate (e.g. localised MTV) - The rise of the global media conglomerate is challenging the conception of nationality as a primary defining influence on self-identity. Because the global media conglomerate is a decentralised and largely amorphous entity that stretches across country borders, audiences are targeted regardless of where they live. - Such cross-border assembling of audiences has led to the conjecture that the role of national boundaries in helping to form individual identity and social cohesiveness is being greatly diminished. Some believe that the emerging conception of self is guided not as much by where a person lives, but rather by the media content that he or she accesses. - Despite the diminishment of national boundaries, the country as a unit remains a central concept of globalization. That is, though media products are increasingly marketed across country borders, the products are shaped and consumed uniquely within individual countries, and influenced uniquely by regulations within individual countries that set the parameters of media content in response to countrywide perceptions of cultural values. Audience Curiosity: - More and more people are becoming interested about other parts of the world curiousity created by the media (e.g. TV programmes, Internet websites) - However, for countries isolated by geography and with a limited history of importing media content, the taste for foreign material must be acquired. - To the audience with minimal prior direct experience of foreign cultures, imported media content initially is often too foreign to be attractive - This is because the ability to understand, appreciate, and enjoy foreign programming is predicated to some extent on being familiar with the look of the foreign people, as well as the production conventions used to create the foreign content and the language that is spoken. (e.g. Japanese people may be less interested in Friends than Europeans) CRITICISMS OF GLOBALISATION Despite its potential to facilitate a greater understanding of the world, globalisation receives three major criticisms advanced by various citizen groups, academics, governments, quasigovernmental bodies, and media professionals. For the most part, smaller, less developed, and economically poorer countries have been in conflict with larger, developed, and wealthier countries. The basic theme that ties all of these criticisms together is the idea that globalization is unfair or unjust to some countries and regions of the world. Criticism 1: Homogenisation of Media The increasing concentration of media ownership is leading to an incredible amount of sameness, or homogenisation, of products and services across the world. The sameness begins with smaller companies being bought by larger global media conglomerates, leading to a process of consolidation.

 The increasing ownership of more media outlets by fewer companies has caused concern about whether the rise of the global media conglomerate represents a combination of too much power and world reach. Bagdikian: an unhealthy paradox has emerged, in that the number of media choices continues to increase, but the number of ownership bodies behind the choices continues to decrease. Compaine (counter): the power of global media conglomerates has been overstated because the revenue of the conglomerates today is actually comparable to the revenue of media companies in the 1950s. Examples of formulas that can be used to illustrate how certain media products are homogenised across the world include: Newspaper layouts that divide the paper into sections placed in the following order: Current Events, Hard News, Feature, Local News, Sports, and Business. - Radio formats that air only top-selling (pop) songs, and that feature fast-talking deejays often cracking predictable jokes. - Television reality shows on which contestants are gradually eliminated, and on which some contestants engage in romance. - Internet web pages with common links such as about us, home, and contact us. Behind a conglomerates design and distribution of media products and services that end up being homogeneous is a conservative economic strategy that seeks to maximize profit through proven formulas in the design of content, rather than risk the failure of an unexpected smaller audience as a result of groundbreaking content. Criticism 2: Unfairness in Global Information Flow The idea that there is an inequality in the flow of information throughout the worlds media. UNESCO debate: the flow of information through media around the world puts developing countries at a disadvantage, while putting Western countries at an advantage. Global information flow: the study of how media content moves all around the world through newspapers, television programs, radio programs, web sites, and other media that people can access identifying patterns in the movement of media content from and through countries and regions all around the world. Criticisms about global information flow round around perceptions by representatives from developing countries that their countries receive sparse and unfair coverage in the flow of global information: - The media often use the phrase third world nations to describe developing countries. - The number of patterns of information flow around the world that produce inequities in the direction, volume, and representation of information flowing back and forth between weaker (impoverished, developing) countries and stronger (affluent, Western) countries often said that the UK and USA (worlds most communicating nation) are responsible for the unfair information flow. Direction of Global Information Flow: the way in which information moves around the world is mostly unidirectional: when information flows mostly from one country or region to another country or region, but not vice versa. - the flow of information from Western countries into developing countries

the flow of information from the Northern Hemisphere into Southern Hemisphere countries - the flow of information from English-speaking countries into non-English speaking countries - the flow of information from larger countries into smaller countries - the flow of information from wealthier countries into poorer countries Critics contend that countries with little information flowing out of them to the rest of the world are vulnerable to distorted perceptions about those countries being created in worldwide media content produced in foreign countries. Disproportionate Volume of Global Information flow: the amount of information that flows into or out of a country - Ethnocentric: a countrys available media content is supplied mostly by domestic media sources lacks a global perspective on life. - Exocentric: a countrys available media content is supplied mostly by foreign media sources lacks a homegrown perspective on life. - Worldcentric (most desirable): a countrys available media content has a robust mixture of both domestic and foreign media sources offers a more global perspective on life. - Critics argue that global news flow is dominated by Western news wholesalers which sell information to media organisations around the world all four newswires (main source of news) are based in Western countries leads to some critics to charge that too much of the global news flow is derived within the ideological framework of a Western-country orientation. Country Misrepresentation in Global Information Flow: many countries are misrepresented in the global information flow (specifically developing countries routinely portrayed in negative ways by foreign media) - information about foreign countries in the domestic media of some countries is meager from the start. - As a result, any negative images of foreign countries in domestic media are amplified and tend to leave an especially permanent impression for audiences not yet familiar with basic background information about the countries in question. - In addition, these negative images can become what people instinctively think about when certain developing countries are brought to their attention through the news media or through conversation with others. Theories about Factors Influencing Global Information Flow: a major contributing factor to the unequal global information flow, is that some developing countries have difficulty supplying their own residents with domestically produced media content. Several circumstances have contributed to this problem: - developing countries have lacked the technological resources needed to produce and distribute their own media content. - even if technology were available, developing countries also need to provide professional training for their would-be media practitioners. This means that a country must have an adequate and experienced supply of writers, on-air talent, directors, producers, engineers, and other personnel. - some developing countries have found it difficult to raise the investment capital needed to acquire technologies and to fund the many expenses involved in producing media content.

some developing countries have been destabilized by political or military conflicts that have affected continuous media operations. - some developing countries have a high rate of reading illiteracy, which interferes with the distribution of newspaper content, whereas other developing countries have a high rate of electronic media illiteracy both of which are activities that must be learned Hester: factors to explain why information flows more readily between some countries, and more sparsely between other countries: - Geography: Are the countries close to each other? Do they border each other? Is one or both of the countries an island? Is one or both flanked by a border of steep mountains, open desert, dense jungle, or large bodies of water? - Language: Do inhabitants of the countries speak similar languages and dialects? Do they have similar vocabularies? - Cultural/Historical Ties: Do the countries have a shared cultural or historical tradition? Has there been emigration from one country to another? Do the countries celebrate the same or similar holidays? - Trade: Are goods bought and sold between the countries? Are goods made in one country sold in another country? - Military Cooperation: Do the countries have military alliances? Have the countries fought together or against each other in a war or conflict? Do the countries supply or receive military equipment and resources from each other? Religion: Are the populations of the countries religious? Do the countries have similar or different religions? UNESCOS Recommended Changes: 1. Money should be provided by the United Nations to finance new regional newswire services, which would be indigenous to the developing countries on which the news would report. (e.g. Caribbean News Corporation (CNC)) 2. Indigenous news reportersthose who live in the foreign countryshould be used by news organisations to report on foreign countries. 3. Editors, directors, producers, reporters, and other news personnel should make a conscientious effort to balance negative news stories with positive news stories when covering developing countries. Criticism 3: Spread of Cultural Imperialism Cultural Imperialism/Cultural Hegemony: culture in less media-savvy countries is being diluted by culture represented in the media content imported from more media-savvy countries. Culture: rituals, styles, and language that have historical longevity in a country. Scholars who take a hard-line view of cultural imperialism criticize what they see as a replacement of the domestic culture of a country by a culture in the media from a foreign country. Aspects of a domestic culture are said to succumb to an imported culture if the imported media represents an inappropriate volume in relation to domestically produced media. The main forces behind the media invasion are said to be foreign governments and global conglomerates seeking to expand markets for their products and ideas to foreign audiences and to government leaders.

 To do this, they export media that cultivates values that promote an acceptance of the products and ideas they wish to market. Some scholars have discussed cultural imperialism as a kind of electronic colonialism, a phrase that plays off classic colonialism of the 18 th and 19th century (the new kind of electronic colonialism is said to be less destructive but also less conspicuous). It begins with the combination of a desire by developing countries to stimulate their domestic media offerings, and a desire by media conglomerates and advertisers to sell products and services to foreign markets. These two factors lead to activities that facilitate electronic colonialism/ levels of cultural imperialism: - the gifting or discounting of equipment and old program content : As television and radio networks in the wealthier nations have updated their technology, they have sought to sell their old equipment or give it away to broadcasters in developing countries, as a tax write-off. - the invasion of current media content (e.g. films, sitcoms, music TV): people living in heavy media-importing countries are naturally curious about how people live in countries that have high visibility in global information flow and satisfy their curiosities by accessing imported media from the high-profile countries leads to the change whereby domestic audiences gradually discard their own cultural traditionsoften subconsciouslyas they emulate attributes of foreign cultures. - Conventions used in the production of media content: some countries import not only the content of media produced in foreign countries, but also ways in which content is produced and shaped (e.g. layout of newspaper). The criticism of cultural imperialism is focused mostly on the USA and the UK: - The USA exports more media content than any other country in the world - The UK distributed media content across the world through a network of countries that formerly were its colonies. - Both countries also play a significant role in training media producers, especially from developing countries. - Both countries are also believed to have too much presence in global media operations, and thereby exert too much influence on the cultures of mediaimporting nations. - Both countries have leveraged this heightened international media presence unfairly through reduced economy-of-scale costs that less developed countries and non-English-speaking countries cannot match. - Counter-argument 1: the market acceptance of media content and models of media operation from the USA and the UK is merely the result of these countries winning a global business competition. In other words, media companies based in the USA and the UK are offering products and services that people in other countries prefer rather than the options available in their own countries or from other countries in the world. - Counter-argument 2: countries importing media from the USA and the UK have the ability to absorb pieces of external culture without losing their own cultural foundations. As long as domestic cultures are robust and well established, any traditions adopted by society alongside the importation of media content are said to attain only secondary status in relation to native traditions.

Counter-argument 3: what is happening around the world is merely a natural evolution of cultures meshing together as the planet continues to accommodate population growth in such an evolutionary context (of globalisation), old ways of doing things will naturally be replaced by new ways of doing things. Therefore, countries that import foreign media content are merely witnessing changes on the part of people who are open to change and who want to be more integrated with a world culture rather than to remain part of a parochial culture derived from a local country or region.

Chapter 3 Methodological approach: a way of studying a phenomenon systematically is composed of a conceptual framework breaking down into the variables that make up this framework Conceptual framework: a set of connecting assumptions that guide the approach and the variables that are used to generate information. Variables/Elements: categories of information that vary according to different conditions and circumstances. THE METHODOLOGICAL APPROACH OF A SYSTEM System: a collection of interrelated parts in motion that make up a whole these parts interact with each other to produce a whole system. Characteristics of a system: - consists of multiple parts that are mutually influenced by each other - draws on a wide range of resources to exist and to function properly - is always undergoing change because of external forces but retains a basic stability because of an established internal structure (institutions, people, technology, etc.) These characteristics depict a media system as essentially a dynamic, self-perpetuating entity made up of multiple interrelated parts Media exhibit characteristics of a system: - Consist of multiple variables that are mutually influenced by external forces such as technological innovation, intercountry relations, and globalisation - make use of a wide range of resources to produce and deliver content (equipment, people and information) - undergo constant change in a variety of areas including content development, industry restructuring, regulatory activity, and market exploration, while retaining a fundamental internal structure Because media exhibit these characteristics, the concept of a system can be used to describe media The connecting assumptions that comprise the conceptual framework of a media system and the variables that make up this framework: 1. Elements are the fundamental components of a media system. Without the elements, the media system does not function. 2. Each element is directly related to each of the other elements. In addition, a change in one element may lead to changes in some or all of the other elements. 3. Some elements will have a greater influence on the media system in different conditions than other elements. Each element impacts the media system in different ways, under different conditions, and with different effects. Sometimes, one element may have a greater impact on the media system than another element, due to a set of circumstances that exist during a particular time period. 4. One or more elements may illuminate some or all of the other elements. In other words, focusing on one or more element may make it possible to see other elements more clearly than if the focus was initially on the other elements.

Sometimes there is a special relationship between a subset of two or three elements that drives changes in all the other elements. By studying this subset, it may be possible to more clearly understand how two or three elements interacting with each other can exert a greater force on other variables than if they were interacting individually with other variables. 6. All of the elements taken together make up a whole media system. Thus, all of the elements must be studied to provide a full understanding of a whole media system. 7. The whole of a media system is greater than the sum of its parts. Viewed individually, each element of a media system has a limited impact on the whole system. But viewed collectively, elements combined into a system comprise a force that has greater power and influence than can be assessed by simply adding up effects of individual elements.
5.

CENTRALITY OF MEDIA CONTENT Content should remain a focal point in the comparisons of media systems because it is central to a tangible understanding of media USING A RHETORICAL PERSPECTIVE TO GENERATE ELEMENTS OF A MEDIA SYSTEM a rhetorical perspective provides a way to analyze potential meanings about the look, sound, and feel of media systems in light of circumstances related to globalization. Criteria that describe a rhetorical perspective for selecting elements that will elicit fair and meaningful comparisons of media systems from around the world: 1. The elements must exist in the media systems of all countries. 2. The elements must be flexible enough and diversified enough to yield interpretations that take context into account. 3. The elements must be basic enough that conclusions are not obscured by a focus on overly specific details. 4. There must be enough parity in the elements across the media systems of all countries. ELEMENTS OF A MEDIA SYSTEM Nine elements to compare the media systems of the eight countries: The elements must exist in the media systems of all countries: 1. Cultural Characteristics of the Eight Countries 2. Philosophies for Media Systems 3. Regulation of Media 4. Financing of Media 5. Accessibility of Media 6. Media Content 7. News Reporting 8. Media Imports and Exports 9. Media Audiences

ELEMENTS OF A MEDIA SYSTEM AS A TREE cultural characteristics as representing local or domestic conditions that influence more subtle attributes of the tree. Similar to how the nutrients in soil affect the texture of a tree, certain cultural characteristics affect the texture of a media system. philosophies for media systems as being analogous to the root network of a countrys media system. Sometimes, the root system of a tree can comingle with the root system of another tree nearby. Similarly, the media system of one country can comingle with the media system of another country regulation as being analogous to the trunk of a media system. Another portion of a tree above the ground is the main branches, which provide the basic parameters and the support for the smaller feeder branches of the tree financing: main tree branches accessibility: the feeder branches Because leaves are the most observable and changeable part of a tree, we can think of leaves as analogous to content in a media system. we can think of the standout leaves in a media system as being analogous to the element of news reporting. we can think of seeds as being analogous to the element of imports/exports in a media system. We can think of living creatures that observe a tree as being analogous to an audience for a media system - audiences interact with media content through the accessibility of the content. In other words, the feeder branches of a tree ultimately determine which leaves and seeds are reachable by passersby on the ground.

Lecture 1 (Chapter 1,2 & 3) Media System: o Multiple interrelated and interdependent parts o Draws on a wide range of resources o Basic stable structure, always changing by external forces Elements of a Media System: o Cultural Characteristics o Philosophies o Regulation o Financing o Accessibility o Content o News Reporting o Import and Exports o Audiences Comparisons in a media system are Important: o Enhance understanding o Why/How things occur o Highlights similarities and differences o BUT: We must refrain from subjective judgment Be aware of points of reference Cultural Bias. Globalization: o Media systems are affected by globalization o World wide climate in which people, industries, governments, and countries across the world are being propelled into closer political, economic and cultural unions. 4 Drivers of Globalization: o International Travel o Communication Technologies o Global Media Conglomerates o Audience Curiosity Cross-National Comparisons in Globalization: o Theorists highlight the diminishment of national boundaries and the erosion of nation state powers. o Nation states SHOULD NOT be displaced too readily in studying media systems. Comparing Media Systems in a Climate of Globalization o Media systems are shaped by national characteristics (tradition, language, economics, geography) o Media systems remain, to a certain degree, national in organization and orientation o Nation states still determine how media industries are shaped. A comparative analysis of media systems bridges the gap between traditional (national) studies and that of new media in a globalized world.

Chapter 4 Culture: a densely packed and far-reaching term with multiple levels of meanings: - High culture: an appreciation for fine arts (opera, ballet) - Popular culture: hit music or movie stars - A specific population of people who live in a particular geographic area a clique of people who share a similar lifestyle or outlook - Defines ordinary routines that people follow (their preferences) Culture is defined as that which distinguishes one group of people from another group of people how the values of a group of people are manifested essentially in that groups rituals and symbols (Hofstede, Pedersen) At the centre of culture is a set of societal norms based on values shared by a population that has experienced a common history These norms in turn foster the development of social institutions, including family, education, government and media The geography of a country has an influence on the media content that crosses the countrys borders. The languages in a country influence the languages in which media content is delivered, as well as the kinds of audiences that can be reached The cultural characteristics of a country predispose the population toward communicating in peson and in media content according to particular conventions and with particular expectations The cultural characteristics of a country give rise to an overarching philosophy that permeates how media might operate within the given country

Chapter 5 Philosophies for media system: lie underneath the decisions that structure the operations of media systems is perceived as a network that feeds the media system with characteristic from the surrounding culture. Normative theories of the press: the research in international media studies on philosophies for media systems (asks question: What is the overall purpose of media?) now with the widespread of electronic media: Normative theories of media Normative-theories research became problematic because of a growing recognition that such research was conceptually biased in ways that affected the usefulness of the findings (certain theories (libertarian, social responsibility) of the media would have ethical superiority over other theories (authoritarian, communist)). Philosophy research: the conceptualization of normative-theory research to better describe a more even line of inquiry into the purpose of the media. This transformed analysis of philosophies takes into account significant cultural characteristics that affect the development of a countrys media system and presupposes that there are many valid options for setting up a media system given with an overall purpose in mind Six philosophies for media systems: - Legacy philosophies (Formerly Normative Theories): 1. Authoritarian 2. Libertarian 3. Communist 4. Social Responsibility - Contemporary Philosophies: 5. Developmental 6. Democratic-Participant AUTHORITARIAN PHILOSOPHY Holds that the head of the country is an all-knowing ruler who deserves obedience and acquiescence Holds that the traditional culture should be aggressively maintained against encroaching external or contemporary culture (e.g. revealing clothing, lackadaisical religious practices, popular arts) Can be found in ancient Greece and 16th century Europe core writings are works by Plato Tends to be adopted in countries where elite segments of society perceive that society is vulnerable to severe internal or external threats Is commonly represented in the governance of society in three main areas: - Decree: is issued by a ruler, and then adhered to by government agencies and citizens without much formal debate or acclamation by vote - Legislative process: involves the ruler submitting a policy to a deliberative body that debates the policy and then enacts it into law - Religious doctrine : interpreted from sacred texts by religious leaders and then formulated into policy or law by the government When a media system draws on the roots of authoritarian philosophy, at least three principles are commonly followed:

Serving the state: media exist to disseminate information that only the state deems to be appropriate all news must serve the goals of the state - Immunity of the state: media are not permitted to criticise the state one reason given is that the state is morally superior; therefore, criticism from a morally inferior media organisation would be inappropriate there should also be no kinds of media content that call into question the activities, policies, and laws of the state - State control over the media: media are either privately or publicly owned, but in either case are controlled by the state media cannot therefore operate independently of state control Authoritarian media philosophy is commonly implemented through two procedures: - Control of Content: State censorship: when a government agency reviews content prior to its dissemination in the media Self censorship: when the media organisation prevents content from being disseminated because it is perceived to be contrary to state objectives - Punishment: the state has the right to penalize individuals and media organisation for seditious libel (criticism of the state)

LIBERTARIAN PHILOSOPHY Holds that the individual is responsible for civic participation and the discovery of truth individuals take responsibility of their own actions Argues that to provide the proper social structure for individuals to pursue their own selfdetermined destinies, the law must protect individuals from undue interference and retribution from the government. Argues that the proper role of government is to concern itself with defending the state against hostile countries or assisting the state during national disasters, rather than intervening in individuals personal lives by attempting to regulate their morals and interests Historical precedent for libertarian philosophy can be found in 17 th century England (Locke, Mill) Libertarian philosophy sought to empower citizens to take control over their own lives Tends to take root in societies in which there is heightened suspicion about the power of government Holds that if government is too involved in regulating the commerce of the state, then the true needs of the people will be obviated in favour of what the government perceives to be the needs of the people Libertarian media philosophy is commonly represented in the governance of society through two main avenues: - Constitutional law: provides for the private ownership of property if citizens can own their own property, then citizens will use that property to chart their own destiny in a way that helps them satisfy a search for truth - Legislative and judicial law: stimulates a free market in which ideas and products can compete against eachother. When a media system draws of the roots of libertarian philosophy, at least three principles are commonly followed: - Most media are privately owned and operated establishes the right of media to operated as a commercial activity and to make a profit

Government can enter the marketplace only to maintain fair competition it is appropriate for government to develop laws and policies ensuring that bigger players do not have unfair advantage over smaller players (e.g. predatory pricing: when a larger company or individual with multiple product lines temporarily offers an artificially low price on selected products until smaller competitors are driven out of business after which the prices are raised again. - The media regulate themselves rather than be regulated by government when marketplace competition drives the development of media products and services, companies will automatically regulate themselves in order to satisfy the needs and interests of the marketplace Libertarian media philosophy is implemented through a balance between rewards and punishments designed to encourage individuals and organisations with media properties to engage in fair competition. COMMUNIST PHILOSOPHY Holds that the role of the state is to be the caretaker for the well-being of society a centralised government plans the distribution of both the necessities of sustenance and the pleasures of culture The role of the individual is to respect the states objectives and methods for bettering society the needs and interests of the individual are de-emphasised in favour of the needs and interests of society. Holds that if individuals work together as a collective whole, then it is possible to achieve an egalitarian society in which there are no wealthy classes and no poverty classes. Historical precedent for communist philosophy was established in the late 17 th and early 18th centuries in Germany Karl Marx. Tends to arise out of a concern for the exploitation of labourers by business owners believes that the wealth that is being accumulated from these industries causes an undesirable schism between wealthy classes of people (bourgeoisie) and poorer classes of people (proletariat) Has particular appeal to agricultural societies undergoing rapid industrialization Communist philosophy is commonly represented in the governance of society through two main methods: - Decree: issued by the communist party - Planning objective: developed and administered by a central government committee allocate resources to achieve economic targets for goods and services to be provided to the population at fair prices and without surplus waste. When a media system draws on the roots of communist philosophy, at least three principles are commonly followed: - State ownership of property: media are owned and operated by the government allows content to be produced without acceding to a profit-making model - The use of media to elevate public tastes: when the general population is left to determine the content of media on their own, the result will inevitably be a dumbing down of the content into primal or sensational themes that have limited societal value thus calls for media to promote more tasteful and sophisticated content. - Media are used as a tool for teaching communist doctrine: is considered necessary to guard against the temptations of materialism, detachment from other human beings and ultimately greater fissures between wealthier and poorer classes the media

should remind people about the importance of communal values that elevate society to more enlightened levels Communist philosophy is implemented through two general procedures: - The control of content through censorship: administered by government agencies that review the content before it is distributed - Punishment: the state has the right to punish individuals and media organisations for criticizing communist doctrine or for demeaning prescribed cultural values SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY PHILOPSOPHY Holds that government influence the media to provide fair and balanced information with a goal of effecting change for the better in society Focuses more on news media, though the philosophy also applies to other media content and to media operations in general According to this philosophy, government is envisioned as an indirect but persuasive influence in getting the media industry to set codes of conduct to which media professionals voluntarily adhere the role of the government is to guarantee that society as a whole benefits from a vigorous and reasoned debate in an effort to achieve a greater public civility, but that the names of people, institutions, and ideas are not unnecessarily smeared in the process. Requires media organisations to regulate themselves, and also requires government to step in on behalf of the public when media organisations fail to regulate themselves adequately Positions media ownership as a public trust wherein media organisations have certain obligations to society and exist primarily to serve the public media are allowed to operate with relative freedom from government control, but the government is allowed to place expectations on the conduct of media organisations. The historical precedent for social responsibility philosophy was established in the 1940s in the USA (Hocking, Rivers, Schramm, Christians) - arose out of a concern about large newspaper companies during WWII that were publishing increasingly sensationalized stories about domestic corruption and overseas totalitarianism. Has particular appeal to societies that desire a proactive but nonintrusive role of government in the affairs of the people Social responsibility philosophy is represented in the governance of society in two areas: - Bully pulpit: government leaders threaten government action, which puts pressure on media professionals to establish their own codes of conduct - Regulation: government enacts legally binding regulations that are designed to preserve a standard of quality to media content When a media system draws on the roots of social responsibility philosophy, at least three principles are followed: - News media routinely provide factual coverage tempered with contextual information journalism is expected to provide an appropriate historical context that helps to put the information into perspective. - Media content contains balanced opinion and commentary has to do with maintaining equilibrium between the opinions that are presented - Editors and directors should clarify societal goals and desires news media are to provide analysis about whether the covered events indicate an adherence to socially redeeming values that are commonly exalted by society Social responsibility philosophy is commonly implemented through two procedures:

Public accountability: through laws and regulations if there is enough of a public outcry over the activities of a media organisation, the government has a right to launch an investigation The use of public admonishment: if a media organisation engages in activities that the public determines to be at odds with widely held societal values, then the government can engage in a dialogue with the public through the media that effectively embarrasses the media organisation.

DEVELOPMENTAL PHILOSOPHY Holds that media are to improve the social conditions of developing nations. Requires governments to support the role of media as a stimulant for social change (or in developing countries): governments are expected to acquire media technology and to deploy it with the purpose of fixing situations that contribute to social hardships. The historical precedent for developmental philosophy is difficult to pinpoint culminated during the UNESCO debates in 1970. Is represented in the governance of society in two main areas: - The legal establishment of media freedom: independence from government control calls for the legal establishment of media freedom to criticise the government so that governments will be less likely to engage in corruption - The government mandate: requires media to perform certain tasks in exchange for funding seen as necessary because of a lack of available private investment capital. When a media system draws on the roots of developmental philosophy, three principles are followed: - Media serve as a watchdog on the activities of government, especially efforts to improve physical infrastructure - Media pursue cultural autonomy: assumes that for a developing country to remain or become established as an independent and viable nation, the countrys media system promotes the countrys distinctive culture. - Media export domestic media content to other countries: reinforces the developing country as a sovereign and stable entity in the eyes of the international community. Developmental philosophy generally is implemented in two main areas: - International assistance: in the form of loans, and equipment and software donations. - Public expectation: the public are led to expect improvements in social conditions by being exposed through media content to a better quality of life in foreign countries. DEMOCRATIC-PARTICIPANT PHILOSOPHY Holds that citizen-created content is essential to all forms of government without the participation of citizens, democratic-participant philosophy see social policy as unduly influenced by wealthy corporate executives or elitist government officials. Argues that the citizens voice is central to any government that seeks to successfully manage the affairs of its people proposes formulating media operations in such a way as to involve citizens in all phases of producing media content. The historical precedent for democratic-participant philosophy was established in the 1970s through the 1990s in the USA (Enzensberger, Rosen, Taylor, Rosen)

 Argues that two situations most often create disenfranchisement: - Countries with media systems operated largely by transnational media conglomerates, which are seen as stultifying the involvement of common citizens in the process of creating content there should also be a place for alternative content, including the right of citizens to reply to corporate media content with which they disagree - Countries that have media systems administered largely by government agencies citizens are prevented from performing an integral role in the creation media content, unless that role supports government objectives. Democratic-participant philosophy is represented in the governance of society in two main areas: - Citizen-group pressure: a collection of individuals that attempts to gain greater access for citizens in both the use of media production equipment and in the creation of institutional media content - Alternative media start-ups: organisations formed with the express purpose of providing alternative voices and conventions for producing media content. When a media system draws on the roots of democratic-participant philosophy, two principles are commonly followed: - Media organisations take exception to government-driven objectives and corporate profit motives to make room for citizen-initiated media content - Citizen groups are guaranteed the freedom to express opinions without fear of retribution from the government or from corporate media. Democratic-participant philosophy is implemented in many ways, but three procedures are most common: - Media content includes citizen viewpoints that take on a number of forms depending on the particular medium - Media organisations allow citizens to participate in the process of producing content - Citizens are provided with access to media facilities to produce and distribute their own content

Hardy Article Normative Theories of Media: o A critical approach towards the organization of the media o States the values that media systems should theoretically uphold in policy in regulation. Paradigms of Media, Democracy and Policy: o Liberal Democratic Theory o Neoliberalism o Libertarianism o Critical Political Economy (CPE) Liberal Democratic Theory: o The primary democratic role of the media is to oversee the state the media is free from state interference o Supports a free market economic model but it can also give rise to justifications for state action to protect pluralism and diversity of opinion o Foundational value, is the freedom of expression that some nations provide. o Two Responses to this Model: Social Responsibility: Press should become subject to a stronger code of practice monitored by an independent agency. Social Market: State interventions in markets on behalf of democratic objectives

Neoliberalism: o Social development should proceed according to the dictates of the market, with minimum government involvement. Combines libertarianism with neoclassical economic theory of markets. o Core feature: a belief in the efficacy of markets and of market competition to provide the best and most desirable mechanisms for satisfying consumer wants the best quality goods produced at the lowest price. Four conditions of perfect competition: Allocative Efficiency: Choice in the distribution of resources Productive Efficiency: Goods will be produced at the lowest possible costs. Price will not rise above marginal cost Competitive markets will encourage innovation and product development. The government/state should provide those service which individuals/companies find unprofitable to provide (road, education etc) Public intervention in the sphere of culture should be present to increase the public knowledge and generate quality entertainment. With the exception of such public, non-market goods, there should be no state involvement in market competition as the state can only bring about an outcome less desirable than that resulting from unregulated self-seeking (Adam Smith)

o o o

 Libertarianism: o Combines the political concept of natural, inviolable rights and individual self determination with an assertion of property rights. o Is against state supported media structures (e.g. public service broadcasting) and state involvement in media and communications. o Has also challenged the basis for state regulation and intervention, especially in supporting media cultures around the internet and new communications media o Has been mutually influencing (together with postmodernists) and challenging the normative basis for media policy shared by both liberal democratic and critical polical economy approaches. Critical Political Economy (CPE): o Criticizes the capitalist market system for its failure to deliver economic fairness, social justice, or the basis for democratic polity. o Follows Marx in shifting attention from the real of exchange to the organization of property and production o Addresses how market power operates against principles of free and freely informed exchange. o Core feature: The analysis and critique of the increasing concentration of corporate media ownership is seen as integral to the logic of capitalism and so requires not simply anti-monopoly policies by the state, but transformation of the economic system. o Gooding and Murdock State Also: o Holistic: The economy is interrelated with politics, social and cultural life, rather than being a separate domain. o Its historical and pays close attention to long-term changes o Is centrally concerned with the balance between public and private o Goes beyond technical issues of efficiency and questions justice, equity and public wants. Market Failure o Common strands amongst different paradigms o Liberal Democracy: individuals must have access to a wide range of ideas and opinions in order to exercise their will and judgment as citizens. o Liberal Democratic Paradigm: Based on principles of non-inference by the state, in the exercise of free speech. Favors media professionalism/social responsibility model and industry self-regulation. o State intervention finds justification in social market approaches - state may intervene in the exercise of property rights in the economy in order to support public policy objectives. o Three main types of market failure recognized: Externalities Public Goods Monopolies

Four reasons why broadcasting runs on purely commercial terms would be undesirable: Market Failure (A market system would lean towards concentration of ownership) Citizenship & Community (Consumers would fragment more than they wish. It could give rise to negative externalities e.g. promotes violence) Democracy Industrial Policy (Both democracy and industrial policy: Media concentration would allow for dangerous accumulations of media policy) This all supports the case for public service broadcasting as a highly effective form of intervention.

Public Service Broadcasting o Could affect the various market failures o Five key characteristics: Democracy Education The Human Spirit (culture) Economy Nation Pressure grew to restrict PSBs to content that the market did/does not provide Davis Committee Report (1999) found that BBC used its license fee money to make programs that could have been made by the private sector. Foul Trading There is no market failure for public funding.

o o

Six Reasons to Challenge the Idea That Free-Markets Produce a Media System That Responds to/Expresses Peoples Views: o Market dominance by oligopolies has reduced media diversity, audience choice and public control. o Rising capitalism restricts entry to the market creating a zone of influence where dominant economic forces have a privileged position. o The consumer representation thesis ignores the decoupling of the link between media and political representation o Media controllers subordinate their ideological commitments to the imperatives of the market is only partially true o The concept of consumer sovereignty ignores the variety and complexity of influences which shape media content. o The idealized notion of market democracy ignores the structuring influence of advertising in commercial broadcasting and press. Three Ways to Approach the Analysis of Media o 3 Principle Object Domains that have to be analyzed: The process of production and diffusion The construction of the media message The reception and appropriation of media messages

 Liberal Pluralism vs Critical Political Economy: o CPE: The media is seen as a part of an ideological arena in which various class views are fought out dominance of certain classes over others o LP: The relationship of power to media content and media discourse is not determined. o Criticism of CPE: Sustains a reductionist account of the relationship between culture and the economy in which culture is overly determined by the economy. States that the structure of media and culture reflects the economic base. Leads to the idea that mass media is a transmitted ruling class ideology and its performance is determined by state power/economic and political interests of media owners and advertisers. Media Determination o Three Related Problems: Instrumentalism Reductionism Determination Instrumentalism: Accounts that conceive capitalist media corporations as instruments of class domination and to serve their interests (propaganda model). Commercial media institutions are driven by core economic interests to secure future profitability and expand market share. Influences of (commercial) media institutions: Economic Influences Political Influences Sources and interactions with extra media social actors. Technology Management control, corporate policies and organizational dynamics Professional culture and norms Gender, ethnicity etc Reader/Viewer preferences. Media systems are shaped by the complex interaction of political, economic, technological, social and cultural influences as well as by each media components historically determined rules.

o o o

Media Ownership and Influence o There are links between ownership and influence Ownership is related to pluralism (diversity of elements) Ownership affects competition Ownership affects content diversity.

Media structures/processes shape the production contexts and frame the operations, budgets and strategic goals of media institutions.

 Media and Power o Symbolic power stems from the activity of producing, transmitting and receiving symbolic forms. o Media power: the concentration in media institutions of the symbolic power of constructing reality. o Three main forms of Media Power: Discursive Power: The way the media privileges particular discourses and constructs reality. Access Power: Whose voices, identities and interests populate our media. Resource Power: the ways in which media conglomerates can affect the actions of governments and states.

Forms and Resources of Power (Thompson): Forms of Power Economic Power Political Power Coercive Power Symbolic Power Resources Material and Financial Authority Physical and armed forces Means of information and communication Key Institutions Economic institutions Political institutions Military, police Cultural institutions

Revising CPE: Synthesis: the interweaving of CPE, sociology and critical cultural theory which share a focus on the nature and effects of power imbalances in communication resources ( radical pluralist) Main Factors that Encourage Media Support of Dominant Power Interests: o State censorship o High entry costs o Media concentration o Corporate ownership o Mass market pressures o Consumer inequalities o Advertising influence o Rise of public relations o News routines and values o Unequal resources/access o Dominant discourses Countervailing Influences: o Cultural Power o State Empowerment o Media Regulation o Source Power o Consumer Power o Producer Power o Staff Power

 Holism: looking at power of the media by considering both political economy approaches and cultural approaches (looking at different elements of the communications process as a whole) Humility: Incorporation into analysis of the recognized limitations, as well as value and importance of a political economic consideration of media processes. Public Sphere: Critical Tools for Analysis and Evaluation (Habermas) o o Public Sphere: A space for collective will formation in which an autonomous public opinion is created that influences government policy. Three principle features: An expanded concept of citizenship Critique of market liberalism Complex model of how the media should be organized. (normative model)

Lecture 2 (Chapters 4,5)

Normative Theories of Media: o Concerns ideal functions of media o What the media should do o What purpose should the media serve o Related to larger claims about the good society Normative vs Philosophies of Media Systems o Normative theories articulate the standards for how media systems should operate o Philosophies analyze the underlying values that influence or might influence the operations of a media system. Four Theories of the Press and what the Press Should Be and Do o Authoritarian Theory o Soviet Communist Theory o Libertarian Theory o Social Responsibility Theory Authoritarian Theory (Non-Democratic): o Media are subordinate to the authority o Media should serve the interest of the state to maintain social order and achieve political goals. o Compliance of the media through: Licensing Censorship Punishment of Government Critics Extreme Authoritarianism = Totalitarianism with total control over society

Soviet Communist Theory (Non-Democratic): o Media should serve and be controlled by the people (represented by the state) o Media should support the communist system o Media should serve communist society by education Libertarian Theory (Democratic): o Maximizes individual human freedom o Media should be free of state control o Media will serve democracy in a free marketplace of ideas o Government may only intervene to maintain fair competition o Seen as a perfect theory for the elite but less for the ones at the bottom of the pyramid. Social Responsibility Theory (Democratic): o Press has right to criticize government o Press has responsibility to preserve democracy Properly inform the public Responding to societys needs and interests Press not free to do as it pleases Government may regulate press in the public interest High professional standards are imperative Chief Responsibilities of Media: Factual Accuracy

o o o o

Promotion of open debate Representation of diverse views Protection of individual rights against government abuses of power Objectivity Factual reporting of commentary Balancing of opposing viewpoints Neutral observer role for journalists Social Responsibility in International Terms Media industries still tend to ignore local cultures and diverse voices in developing countries Quality journalism education is required around the globe. Criticism of the Social Responsibility Theory:

Lacks critique of the impact of capitalist media ownership and funding Little attention to commercial constraints on democratic/social performance of media Extension of Theories (FTP Theories): Development Theory (Non-Democratic): o Media serves national goals in economic and social development Eradication of disease Economic self-sufficiency Political integration Raising literacy levels Information must be managed by the government (government propaganda) Used in on-democratic developing countries Loses ground to the social responsibility approach

o o o

Democratic-Participant Theory (Democratic): o Opposes commercialization of modern media and their top-down, no participant character. o Stresses the need for access and the right to communicate o Emphasis on: Popular inclusion Empowerment Diverse viewpoints Active citizen involvement Lots of expression Participation more important than quality content/discourse

Criticisms of the FTP Tradition: o Narrow Scope and Focus of Classifications Strong focus on mass media Strong focus on state-media relations Little attention to economic influences and the complex interaction between media power and political economic power Oversimplification of media systems Media systems are not singular entities

 Gap between normative and actual expectations Future Challenges in Classifying National Media Systems o Recent changes in media, social, and political life including: Media proliferation Media convergence and digitalization Transnationalization of media Loss of clear national consensus about the public role of media

Alternative Approaches: Hallin and Mancini (2004) Comparing Media Systems approach: o Analysis of the media systems of 18 Western democracies o Identified 3 basic models of political communication based on these 4 dimensions: Development of media markets Political parallelism Development of journalistic professionalism Degree and nature of state intervention Polarized Pluralist Model: o Mediterranean area of Southern Europe o Low levels of newspaper circulation and journalistic professionalization o High levels of political parallelisms and state intervention Democratic Corporatist Model: o Central and Northern Europe o High levels of all 4 dimensions Liberal Model: o North Atlantic region o Media levels of newspaper circulation o Strong professionalization o Low levels of parallelism (except the UK) and state intervention.

Chapter 6 Media organisations are often regulated because of nearly universal perceptions that media content and media operations can significantly impact economies, social policies, political debate and the lives of people Regulation: influences on media operations and media content (from both governmental and non-governmental organisations) Broadcast media are more regulated than print media because of some version of the scarcity of spectrum space argument: the broadcasting band can only accommodate a limited number of frequencies for use by broadcasters, but at the same time reaches more people than print media because of its pervasiveness in peoples lives. Two technological developments that have caused a reexamination of this argument: - The growth of cable, satellite and web technologies diminishes the importance of radio/television frequencies in distributing content - The use of the Internet to distribute broadcast content, as well as its own content Five basic categories of bodies that regulate media in each country: - Government-related agencies: bureaucracies that have government oversight of media operations Categories of content that are consistently regulated: Watershed: a specific time period late at night in which certain restrictions on content are relaxed because of the assumption that minors are not watching television or listening to the radio Minutage: the total number of advertising minutes allowed during a prescribed segment of time Bumper: a momentary graphic that appears on the TV screen between regular programming and advertising to create clear separation between the two types of content - Media organisations/Professional organisations: the outlets that deliver media content self-regulation: they enact their own policies about what content is either acceptable or unacceptable - Citizen groups: non-profit organisations assembled by activists because of a concern about various aspects of media operations (e.g. Parents Television Council in the USA) are motivated by moral concerns about thwarting media content that is perceived to cause great harm to society: violation by a news programme of an individuals right to privacy the potential of minors to be morally corrupted by viewing debased media content - Advertisers and Sponsors: can make requests that media organisations with which they do business refrain from delivering a certain kind of content, with the threat of withdrawing the advertising/sponsorship monies - Audiences: regulate media content because the size of an audience often defines the success of media content plays a paramount role in the regulation of media content

Regulation of media in the EU: stipulate the following Television Without Frontiers Directive:

that 50% of each member countrys television and radio programming must originate within the EU Advertising content must have limited advertising minutage Certain genres of programmes (e.g. news and films) must not be interrupted by advertising content There must be clear separation between advertising content and regular content

Chapter 7 Financing: the provision of money or services to facilitate the production and distribution of media content It is a critical element of a media system, because money shapes the media content that is produced, as well as the audiences that are served by media content, plus the audiences that underserved by media content Different media content is paid for by different combinations of financing models that have developed within the constraints of prevailing geopolitical and economic forces Advertising: a method of financing in which a provider of media content sells space or time to a vendor so that the vendor can promote a product or service to the audience the media selling audiences to advertisers Sponsorship: a variation of advertising in both commercial and non-commercial media content, wherein space and time are underwritten by a vendor (the vendor is mentioned throughout the media content in exchange for money) Advertising tends to be used in countries influenced by a libertarian philosophy of media operations in which there is a market-based economy Two main assumptions behind the worthiness of advertising of financing: - The government should not be involved in financing the business of media, and individuals should not be required to pay for media it should be a voluntary outgrowth of a commercial marketplace in which individuals freely select media content from the choices that are available - Individuals can directly select the choices of media content to be offered when they form audiences large enough to persuade vendors to pay for the content through advertising Criticism on advertising: - When media organisations rely exclusively/predominantly on advertising as a source of revenue, misplaced priorities and given to advertising content over the arrangement of other media content - Advertising effectively harms society in a host of areas countries with leanings toward a social responsibility philosophy tend to place greater governmental restrictions on advertising in favour of protecting society from harms, and media content being dumbed down to accommodate the advertiser goal of making content understandable to the largest possible number of people Support of advertising: - It provides media producers with a financing model that allows media organisations to be more innovative and responsive to audience tastes - Because advertising revenue can be increased depending on the popularity of media content, media organisations theoretically have a strong financial incentive to invest in technology and content that meets audiences tastes and continues to grow audience numbers License fee: used to finance broadcast media requires people to pay an annual fee for the privilege of owning and using television sets Three assumptions behind the worthiness of using a license fee to finance media operations: - Media use is a luxury that consumers should pay for directly out of their own pockets

The design of the media content should not depend solely on advertising financing, because it caters to mass tastes - Direct governmental appropriation in unreliable because it can change with the political orientation of the government Criticism on license fee: - Due to the fact that the revenue from license fees is dependent on a fixed segment of the population that owns televisions sets or radio receivers, the collectable revenue is also fixed broadcasters might have little incentive to improve the quality of content or the delivery of content if improvements will not increase revenue - Media organisations receiving such monies have unfair advantages over media organisations that do not receive license-fee monies. - Some people are forced to pay license fees for media content that they do not access some who should pay refuse to do so without getting caught Support of license fee: - License fees enable media organisations to produce and deliver high-quality media content without the pressure of meeting the expectations of advertisers or achieving sizable audiences Government Appropriation: a method of financing, when the government allocation monies or resources for the production and delivery of media content the allocation is known as government subsidy. Two assumptions behind the worthiness of using government appropriation as a source of financing of media operations: - Certain media (select broadcast media) should be set aside as public services made available to the general population and produced without profit-making directives - Society in general should share the cost of providing public-service media content Government appropriation is commonly used as a financing source in countries following communist, authoritarian or social responsibility philosophies, which seek to actively control media content, and in developing countries, which lack large enough middle or wealthy classes. Criticism on government appropriation: - The revenue created through general taxation is connected to unpredictable swings makes it difficult for media organisations to plan the production and delivery of content - It forces some people to pay for media content they do not access - It permits the government to have too much control over media content if a media organisation provides content that is considered to be inappropriate by powerful government officials, financing will be reduced or withheld in order to terminate the content User Fees: a method of financing which permits a media organisation by law to charge a fee to individual audience members who access that organisations media content Subscription: the user pays a flat and predictable fee for regular access to the medium Per-user fee: a user pays for each instance of access to media content Two basic assumptions behind the appropriateness of user fees as a source of financing: - It allows audience members to pay only for the media content they access

It provides a more direct relationship between audience needs and resulting media content because the financial path between user fees and media organisations is more direct User fees are tended to be used as the preferred model for financing in two situations: - Whether a libertarian philosophy for a countrys media system underlies the prevailing outlook for how a content provider should operate it is seen as an appropriate mechanism for allowing the marketplace to determine the selection of media content - When certain media content is accessed by a niche audience it is then see as a more appropriate financing method than a license fee or government allocation, which is premise on providing media content benefiting social as a whole. Criticism on user fees: - It only leads to the production and distribution of media content that appeals to the largest audience possible, not to a small but loyal audience - It tends to increase on a regular basis providers of media content are in a coercive position to raise user fees for content that is delivered by satellite and cable technologies because audience members are reluctant to discontinue using expensive equipment connected to wiring that has been installed and already runs through the households Donation: a method of financing in which an individual/institution voluntarily contributes money to a provider of media content (usually to non-profit media organisations) usually by people who see their donations as aiding the survival of media content that would otherwise be discontinued or people seeking tax relief Assumption behind donation: it allows individuals/institutions of their own preference, to contribute to media content that they alone desire to be produced or distributed Criticism on donation: - Donations rise with economies in an upturn and fall with economies in a downturn such unpredictability makes it difficult for providers of media content to plan for production and distribution on a long-term basis. - Large institutional donors sometimes contribute monies for media content that will promote ideological causes Support of donation: - It is a welcome method for financing specialty media content often considered to be artistic and cultural to reach audiences that otherwise would be underserved.

Becker and Vlad (Freedom of the Press around the World) Normative Theories of the Press o Normative: the ideal situation of what ought to be rather than what really exists. o Four Theories of the Press: Authoritarian: Government controls the press through prior censorship and through punishment after publication. Soviet Communist: Modern version of authoritarian theory. Controls the media and assigns them the responsibility of building a classless, Marxists society. Libertarian: Counterpoint to the authoritarian model. Absence of government control and the view that the truth will prevail in an environment where media is free to operate. Social Responsibility: Media have obligations to society that accompany their freedom. One of these is to provide meaningful information to society. Two Extra Models (Its actually Six Theories of the Press): Developmental Model: Press is seen as a building tool for national identity and economic development. Democratic Socialist: Allows for state intervention, economic controls to protect citizens from press concentration and to provide for their need. Criticism: Does not take into account broadcast media, where intervention has been essential Many systems dont fit the model Little evidence to support that media actually reflects the larger society. Media Reform Model (Media Freedom is only Reached Via These Stages): Pre-transition Stage (1st): Lays the groundwork for subsequent change. Opens or frees a previously constrained media system. Primary Transition Stage (2nd): Systematic change in the former authoritarian regime, easier access to information, ownership etc Secondary Stage (3rd): Politicians and journalists participate in training, networks form. Late or Mature Stage (4th): Legal and institutional questions are resolved, everything is well established. The Public Service Core Model: Private Sector: responds to market forces and public tastes Social Market Sector: minority media supported by state to promote media diversity Civil Society Sector: under the control of social and political groups, for their own causes. Professional Sector: Made up of communications professionals, journalists etc

 Empirical Models of Freedom (What Actually Exists): o The Polarized Pluralistic Model: Press is not oriented toward the masses but towards the elite. Circulation is limited. The electronic media system is highly centralized. Freedom of the press is relatively new. Newspapers have a weak footing in the system. State is owner, regulator, provides for funding. Media system closely mirrors political divisions. Professionalization of journalism not highly developed. (Italy, Spain etc) o Democratic Corporatist Model: High level of newspaper circulation, early press freedom. Strong state support for the media and regulation of them. Media reflect the political divisions in society. Media is also very commercialized. There is a growing emphasis on professional journalism too. Highly organized journalism. o Liberal Model: High levels of newspaper circulation. High press freedom. Commercialism dominates. Weak link between media and political parties. Professionalism is high, but weakly organized. Role of state is limited. Is becoming increasingly popular around the world. Threats To Press Freedom: o Censorship: Characteristic of totalitarian systems. Institutions read the content before it is published. o Self-Censorship: Journalists or organizations make the decision to not publish an item. Might not be popular topic anymore, risk of government consequences etc o Political Instability: May restrict media freedom due to dangerous political situations. o Economic Harassment: Media outlets may get punished or rewarded for portraying a certain news item in a certain way. o Media Concentration: Large conglomerates may reflect these organizations more than smaller agencies. o Legal Systems: Some governments abuse their legal system to prevent press freedom. o Violence: Violence against journalists? Duh

Slides Week 3 (Chapters 6,7) Why are there policies, regulation and financing in media and communication? o Public communication is a central aspect of society o Plays an important role in any media system o Freedom, democracy, access etc o Social and cultural goals, diversity, pluralism o Profitability and employment Media Policy: o The general principles that guide decisions of authorities and/or governments about the function of the mass media. Content, ownership, technical development, relationship of media with the public and authorities are filed under policy. o An overall plan embracing general goals and acceptable procedures of a governmental body. o What does media policy deal with? Public and private communication Mass media, mail, telecommunications, information Policy frameworks are set by: Legalities Economic aspects Social and cultural aspects

Policy regulates: Technology and infrastructure for communications Content General Elements of the Media Policy Model: What are the goals or objectives What are the values and criteria by which goals are defined What is the various content to which the policy applies What are the different distribution services What is the proper policy to be implemented? Some countries/sectors are more regulated than others due to:

Scarcity of spectrum Societal impact Philosophies Financing in Media and Communication: o Changes: Advertising License Fees Government subsidies User fees Subscription (Unlimited viewing) Unit Pay (Pay-Per View) Syndication, merchandising, copyright etc

Trends that affected these changes: Digitalization Convergence Deregulation Diversification of supply There is more available content than ever before. Fragmentation of audiences Increased individualization of lifestyles

Chapter 8 Qualitative evaluations, such as low, moderate, or high are used to describe aspects of a mediums accessibility in comparison with other countries. Newspaper distribution terms: - Broadsheet: a newspaper whose shape is more horizontal than vertical before it is opened up serious newspapers, focusing on politics, crime, business, education, and other related subjects - Tabloid: a newspaper whose shape is more vertical than horizontal before it is opened up can either be serious, focusing mainly on factual news, or more sensational or entertaining, focusing on more dramatic news (crime, celebrities) - Circulation: the number of copies of a newspaper that are printed and delivered. Radio and Television distribution terms: - Station: a single facility that delivers a programme. - Network: a group of affiliate stations/member stations that receive programming at select times of the day from a programme supplier usually commercial - Ownership group: a collection of stations that belong to the same private corporation - Channel: a numerical brand used to identify a media outlet to allow the audience to easily identify a single source of the programming often used to represent the main public identity of the radio or TV content - AM radio: the distribution of programming on the Amplitude Modulation band of the frequency spectrum - FM radio: the distribution of programming on the Frequency Modulation band of the frequency spectrum - Long wave: the distribution of programming on the Long Wave band of the frequency spectrum - Short wave: the distribution of programming on the Short Wave band of the frequency spectrum - Terrestrial broadcasting: content that is delivered through the airways to an antenna connected to a television set or a radio receiver - Broadcasting: the delivery of content not just through the airwaves, but also through cable and satellite technology - Multichannel broadcaster: categorises satellite and cable broadcasters together as essentially the same kind of entity both distribute multiple TV and radio channels, mainly due to the proliferation of global media conglomerates - Penetration: the percentage of households that are reached by a particular medium

Fuchs and Horak Article (Africa and the Digital Divide) Digital Divide: o Not only limited to the topic of access to the internet, but also to one of usage and usage benefits. Communication and the access to communication technologies are fundamental human rights. Four Types of Barriers to Access (Van Dijk) o Lack of Mental Access (elementary digital experience) o Lack of Material Access (No Possession of Computers) o Lack of Skill Access (Digital Skills) o Lack of Usage Access (Meaningful Usage Opportunities) The digital divide is a multidimensional phenomenon o Global digital divide (divergence of internet access) o Social Divide (Rich and Poor) o Income, education, age, family etc Democratic Divide (Those who do/dont use ICT to participate in public life)

Aspects of Digital Divide: o Material Access: Physical Access Financial Access Usage and Skills Access: Cognitive Access Design Access Benefit Access: Content Access Production Access Institutional Access:

Institutional Access Political Access Six Demographic Dimensions of the Digital Divide: o Gender o Geography o Income o Education o Occupation o Ethnicity

 Potential Strategies for Dealing with the Global Digital Divide: o Wait and See: Markets and technological development will cheapen when more and more people gain access to them. (Wealth gap will keep increasing) o Entering Markets and Competition: Doing so, will allow third world countries to leapfrog directly into information societies o Foreign Capital: Attracting foreign investors will increase wealth for all and access in developing countries (some markets do not automatically eliminate poverty due to wealth distribution) o Technologies for the Third World: Focuses too much on technological determinism and that the primary aim is to close the digital divide by depending on technological developments which not all third world countries can do. o Third World Doesnt Need Technology: Doesnt really work, as access to basic technology is a human right. o Global Redistribution: Redistribute wealth, education, health, literacy etc This goes further than the digital divide and looks too much into economic, social and political aspects. The Core of Society Consists of Three Subsystems: o The Economic System: Values and property that satisfy human needs are produced o The Political System: Power is distributed and collected decisions are taken o The Cultural System: Skills, meaning and competences are acquired, produced and enacted in ways of life. There is also an economic, political and cultural divide! Western Technologies cannot be the main means for solving the digital divide developing countries are not only excluded from wealth but also from technological progress Solutions: o The radical global redistribution of wealth (human aid, income etc) o Elimination of debt burdens o Technology with no strings attached for developing countries Cultural Imperialism: Applying Western technologies in developing countries but neglecting local traditions and ideas.

Lecture Week 4 (Chapter 8) Accessibility of Media Why is it an issue? o Enables you to understand the range of media content to which people are exposed o Reveals the limitations and possibilities of the selection of media in various countries o Shows how available media choices translate into cognitive emotive points of reference that invite audiences to adopt feeling, beliefs and behaviors related to content that is accessed Perspectives on Access: o Access for whom? Access for suppliers Access for consumers Access to what?

Access to communications infrastructure Access to content and information Audiences Four Foci of Equal Access: o Equal access to the information society is a central and universal value. This can be broken down into four areas of attention: Technical Access Competence for access (knowledge and skills) Access to plurality of content (diversity) Market access (how much is supplied). Media Access and Inequality o Access is related to inequality o Social Inequality The unequal allocation of scarce goods in a society of income, property, educational opportunities and (political) power to the elite The differences between people that are valorized, given strength and made significant in shaping society Social Stratification: A society that is organized in distinct layers according to the above ^^. Society is ranked into a hierarchy Five Basic Principles of Stratification (anywhere): A characteristic of society not of individual differences Persists of generations Is universal but varies in intensity Involves inequalities and beliefs (ideology as well as hegemony) Highlights social divisons. Four Major Systems of Social Stratification: Socio-Economic: Labor, wealth, income Gender: Sex Ethnicity: race Age

Has led to slavery, class forming etc Technological progress will moderate the intensity of stratification.

The Kutznets Curve: Developed by Simon Kutznets Economic inequality increases over time while a country is developing Yet, after a certain average income is attained, inequality starts to decrease Technologies and Social Inequality

Competence destruction increases inequality New technologies reduce inequality by generating more demand for skilled workers New technologies influence inequality indirectly by altering the structure of political interests and the capacity of groups to mobilize New technologies enhance equality by democratizing consumption. BUT: The forms that technologies take and their social implications reflect the interests of those who invested/created them Technology is continuously reinvented Technologies adapt rather than act as an external influencing force. The Right to Media Access o Millennium Declaration (2000): To Ensure the freedom of the media to perform their essential role and the right of the public to have access to information. Historically: Universal service obligation to ensure equal access to (tele) communications in the 19th century. Provide a fair price and good service and to control competition Access to Internet as a Right: World Summit on the Information Society: Convention for right to freedom of expression, association and privacy Internet should be universal and affordable Developing countries should be able to participate The Digital Divide New technology may exacerbate inequality rather than minimize it. A gap between people with and without internet access. The haves and have-nots. 4 components that contribute to the digital divide: Socioeconomic status Income Education Race Pippa Norris (2001) Idea of the Digital Divide: A 179 nation comparative study

Digital Divide is a multidimensional phenomenon with 3 aspects: o Global Divide: Divergence of internet access between industrialized and developing societies o Social Divide: Gap between information rich and poor o Democratic Divide: difference between those who do, and do not, use digital resources to engage, mobilize and participate in public life.

Theoretical Debate: Cyber Optimists: o Predict a normalization of the internet o Technological innovations, market competition will all aid this divide o Potential to revive mass political participation Cyber Skeptics o Technology adapts to society and not vice versa o Politics will get in the way Cyber Pessimists o Predict Global Inequalities o Greater social stratification o Widens democratic gap. Findings that Norris Made: Global Inequalities: o Substantial and Growing o Reflects long-term N-S divide Social Stratification: o Widespread and unlikely to close Democratic Divide: o More level playing file for organizations o Challenge to understand new organizations and how they will cope with mobilization and communication Policies that will work to change this: Access: o Increase access to schools, community centers etc... Basic Skills: o Teach people Costs: o Lower costs increase competition Democratization: o New leadership.

Chapter 9 Media Content: - Traditional definition: quantifiable data contained within a medium, and identifiable through a research methodology called content analysis this definition treats media content vs. media forms as separate promotes the idea that content is primarily hat drives an audience to access selected media, yet media forms are also important (the medium is the message Marshal McLuhan) - More recent definition: a combination of form (the way in which the substance of a medium is presented) and substance (the information contained within a medium), neither of which can be perfectly separated from each other Distinctive themes in media content: - Themes of Form in Newspaper content: format (tabloid vs. broadsheet) proportions of text, advertising, graphics, photographs, cartoons, etc. - Themes of Substance in Newspaper content: Sections/Typical Coverage Violence Nudity, Profanity, Sexuality - Themes of Form in Radio and Television content: published radio and television programme listings private vs. public broadcasters start and end times of programs advertising minutage actual time length of programme content - Themes of Substance in Radio formats and Television genres: typical radio formats/TV genres Unique radio formats/TV genres Violence Nudity, Profanity, Sexuality Geolocation technology: used by the internet to bring up content that is local to where the internet is being accessed (e.g. localised advertisements)

Essner (Globalization of News) Tabloidisation: A recent trend in the media, which is the direct result of commercialized media (often promoted by the pressures of advertisers to reach a large audience). o Started when newspapers added sections emphasizing sports and entertainment illustrations and sensations that appealed to wider audiences. o Ultimately led to the establishment of tabloid newspapers that produce all news and information with an eye towards saleability o It is a downgrading of hard news and upgrading of sex, scandals and infotainment. Micro Level: Can be viewed as a media phenomenon involving the revision of traditional newspaper and other media formats driven by reader preferences and commercial requirements. Macro level: Can bee seen as a social phenomenon both instigating and symbolizing major changes to the constitution of society (less important to education and more to political and marketing, increases political alienation.) Aspects of Tabloidisation: o An overall decrease in journalistic standards o A decrease in hard news (politics and economics) and increase in soft news (sensation and entertainment) o A general change of the medias definition of what they think the voters need to know to evaluate a persons fitness for public office

Lecture Slides (Chapter 9): What is Content? o Content is the complete quantitative and qualitative range of verbal and visual information distributed by the mass media. o Content Analysis: Who says what, through which channel, to whom and with what effect? o The Medium is the Message: Audiences seek media forms more than they seek information. Why is content important? o Closely linked to access o The availability of content is dependent on the functioning of the market o Market failure leads to regulation Threats to media content: o Concentration o Deregulation o Politicization/Parallelism o Censorship o This leads to: Less choice Entertainment More of the same Less Diversity 3 Constants in Western Media Policy that deal with Content o Freedom of Communication o Media Access o Media Diversity The Concepts and Dimensions of Media Diversity o Social Diversity: The variety of people in societys political, socio-cultural and socioeconomic sphere. o Media Diversity: The heterogeneity in the offering of media conent o Opinion Diversity: Diversity of opinion o This is part of the diversity chain The Diversity Chain: o First there is social diversity in society, next there is media diversity reflecting social diversity, and subsequently there is opinion diversity that is nurtured by

mediadiversity. The chain ends in democracy.

Three Different Dimensions of Media Diversity: o Source Diversity: Diversity in terms of media ownership and workforce o Content Diversity: How diverse content is (program type, format, genre, demographic) o Exposure Diversity: How diverse is the audience Intra Medium Diversity: Diversity within a specific medium Inter Media Diversity: Diversity between all media in the market. American Approach to Media Diversity: o Competition and Anti-Trust regulations placed in the free marketplace European Approach to Media Diversity: o Media and regulation laced in public service broadcasting Four Dimensions of European Media Diversity: o Diversity of formats and issues o Diversity of content with the intent of the media to give full information o Diversity of people and groups o Diversity in terms of geographic coverage Measuring Media Diversity: o Reflective Diversity: The actual match between media users preferences and the reflection of those preferences in media content. It is the extent to which existing populations preferences are proportionally represented in the media. o Open Diversity: The extent to which divergent preferences and opinions are equally represented in the media. How much equal access for ideas is there in the communications system? Dutch Findings on Diversity: o Program supply is very diverse o Women, children, senior citizens and ethnic minorities are underrepresented. o Public channels have a lower reflective diversity o Commercial channels have a higher reflective diversity as they are more successful in acquainting their audiences with different social groups. o The audience tends to watch shows that represent their group o The composition of the audience for non-fiction programs correlates with the gender of presenters.

Chapter 10: News reporting: the delivery of new information to mass audiences (e.g. hard news, soft news, breaking news, human interest news, sports news, business news, etc.) News content in profit-making media tends to be packaged as a product designed to appeal to the largest possible audience The impact of news reporting: - On peoples basic decision making as they go about the day (e.g. weather forecasts) - Peoples mind-sets as they experience non-news events in life - Government officials may pursue policies designed to address issues that were raised by a news story - Personnel in decision-making positions at news organisations may decide to cover an event mainly because other news organisations are covering the event Three dimensions of news reporting: - Bias vs. Objectivity: the degree to which the news content is objective or biased the degree to which a news organisation is independent from outside financial or political influences on the organisation Commentary: reporting by individual media professionals and citizens that effectively editorialise an issue Advocacy journalism: reporting that advocates a policy, position, belief or action Meta messages: slogans, promotions, titles of programmes and publications, word choices, and imagery that indicate whether the news organisation perceives of its news reporting as having either a mission of objectivity or a mission that follows a bias Balance: providing opposing viewpoints within a story, either between two stories that are juxtaposed or across stories appearing on successive days - Entertainment vs. Serious: the degree to which news is more entertaining or more serious principles laid out to identify entertaining or serious news: People: the coverage of either celebrities/public scandals or politicians and ordinary people Priority: the coverage of either dominant dramatic news or in order of priority according to its impact on peoples lives Special Effects: the usage of eye-catching special affects (emphasis on the delivery of the news) or downplays of special effects (emphasis on the news itself) - Depth vs. Brevity: the degree to which the news is either superficial (short news reports) or substantial (longer news reports) principles laid out to identify depth or brevity: Length: the time length of a story on radio and television Space: the amount of space a story occupies in a newspaper or on a website Companion Reports: multiple reports in a single newspaper, website, or radio or television newscast that address the newsworthy event Serialising: news reporting that includes more than one story on a news event on successive days.

Curran Article (Media System, Public Knowledge and Democracy) There is a shift towards entertainment centered and market driven media There is a relationship between what is reported by the media and what the public knows. Different media systems: o Public Service: The programming principles of public service still largely dominate (e.g. Denmark) o Dual System: Combines deregulated commercial media with strong public service broadcasting organizations (e.g. UK) o Market Model: Includes a commitment to social responsibility journalism and market competition and thus being more responsive to audience demands (e.g. USA) Public service television denotes more attention to public affairs and international news, and fosters greater knowledge in these areas than the market model. Public service television also gives greater prominence to news, encourages higher levels of news consumption and contributes to a smaller within nation knowledge gap between the advantaged and disadvantaged. Marketisation in the news media is becoming more market oriented and entertainment centered. o The Consequences: The multiplication of privately owned television channels The weakening of program requirements on commercial broadcasters (deregulation) A contradiction in the audience less influence of public broadcasters.

Chapter 11 The USA is by far the most prolific media exporter in the world Media content that leaves one country and arrives in other countries serves as a kind of ambassador for the originating country exported media content encourage foreign audiences to gain some fairly definitive first impression about the culture of the originating country. Exported media content is similar to the seeds of a tree: when they fall from a tree (exported) they have the chance to spring up in other locations and may be able to grow into its own fullfledged media system in another country where the conditions are favourable Trees (media systems) that undergo a regular interchange with their immediate and distant environment generally tend to flourish compared to trees that live in insulted environments. FACTORS INFLUENCING THE EXPORTING OF MEDIA CONTENT Some media content is purposefully exported to reach targeted audiences in other countries, other media content can be accidentally exported because it spills over the border from one country to another. Newspapers are mostly exported through printing papers, but mainly for expatriates or vacationing readers, due to that its processes are expensive and the news might become old when it reaches the destined audience. Radio is mostly exported by terrestrial broadcast as it can be picked up almost anywhere in the world. It can also be accessible via Internet or foreign songs that are aired on a home countrys radio station. Television is mostly exported by satellite and cable distribution systems. Often, it is more viable for a broadcaster to purchase the rights of foreign television content, which leads to the pattern whereby foreign television content is exported to countries where there is a strong demand for it. The Internet is exported through a range of technologies (telephone lines, cables and satellite) and can be accessed everywhere where there is access. This leads to a pattern whereby internet content is exported to all countries but is accessed only by those who know it is available, and those who seek it out. ETNOCENTRIC, EXOCENTRIC, AND WORLDCENTRIC COUNTRIES Reasons why countries exchange media content with each other: - They are geographically close to each other - They share a common language - They have a common history with each other The exchange of media content between two countries is rarely bidirectional (going equally between two countries) Ethnocentric: countries that do not import very much foreign media content (geographically isolated and own economic vibrant media industries) Exocentric: countries that are big importers of media content (smaller countries with comparatively smaller populations which are economically disadvantaged and have underdeveloped domestic media industries) Worldcentric: countries that are both big exporters of media content and big importers of media content (small countries with vibrant media industries and that have populations of

people who speak multiple languages, and are therefore more interested in foreign media content) People in ethnocentric countries may suffer from cultural myopia, where a persons perception of the foreground of the home country is clear, whereas the background of the rest of the world is blurry (us vs. them), due to a lack of foreign media content.

Liebes & Livingstone Article (European Soap Operas The Diversification of a Genre Soap opera is not simply an imported American genre. o European soaps have developed three sub types of the genre: Community Soap: Distinct families all live in the same community. Dynastic/Patriarchal: One powerful family connected by romance, marriage and rivalry. Dyadic Soap: A destabilized network of young couples with past/present/future romantic ties. Local productions of European family series were meant to combat the threat of television capitulating to Americanization (Cultural Imperialism, globalization and modernization) Community and Dynastic forms of soap operas are the two most commonly adopted in Europe. The community model is more often associated with public service tradition (bringing up social issues) The Dynastic model seems to fit with the cultural preoccupations of the countries which produce them, allowing space for the expression of particular socio-cultural concerns. In the dyadic form, the absence of cultural content is the point. It lacks stability/sense of reality and that makes it popular! It does depend on the cultural factors of a country which model is preferred. The preference for local soaps over imported ones, suggest that local production remains worth pursuing for both economic and cultural reasons.

Lecture Slides Week 7 (Chapter 11) Cultural Globalization: o The transmission or diffusion across national borders of various forms of media and the arts o Not a homogenized global culture but a complex and diverse phenomenon consisting of global cultures, originating in many different countries. o Involves transmission of symbols, meanings, beliefs and values o Constructs and deconstructs social identities and social relations o Raises important and controversial issues concerning its effects on national and local cultures and their responses to it. How Countries vary in Reception to Cultural Products: o Size: Smaller countries (relatively) are more internationally oriented than larger countries. Availability: In smaller countries, products are not as widely available. Social Involvement: Exchanges between groups/countries is more significant in smaller groups/countries. Price: Smaller home markets do not allow for economies of scale. Transnational exchanges have more significance for smaller countries. 100,000 phone calls is nothing China, but it is a lot in Luxembourg. o Centrality: The more central the position of a countrys culture production, the less oriented it is towards foreign products and producers. o Economic Development: Developing countries are more dependent on foreign cultural imports and their role as exporters is small. Lack of technological resources Lack of qualified media workers Lack of investment capital Political instability Illiteracy o Language o Geographic Proximity o Cultural Proximity o Trade o Military Conflict o Religion o Cultural/Historical Ties.

 Theoretical Models of Cultural Globalization:

National Policies toward Cultural Globalization: o Cultural Policy To protect the country from domination by other cultural products Develop and protect international markets for the countrys international exports Create and maintain international images of the country, region or city. Strategies: Resist Global Culture: Taxes, Tariffs, Import Quotas Subsidies for domestic producers Globalizing National or Local Cultures Transforming cultural sites (disneyfication, upscaling) Recreating national cultural items for export. (glocalization)

Chapter 12 Media audience: an artificial construct that describes only the common denominators of individuals interacting with selected media/adds up individual patterns of media use into general statements that describe similarities of media use among a large group of people Media audiences can reach some but not all of the media content available in a media system, depending on where the content is carried, and where the audience comes into contact with the media system during daily routines (accessibility, censorship, costs) A RHETORICAL PERSPECTIVE ON MEDIA AUDIENCES Quantitative audience data: majority of data that is complied numerical information measuring peoples habits related to media use Qualitative audience data: descriptive information about an audiences surroundings and culture that influence their interactions with media content, as well as how they think and feel as a result of the interactions. Rhetorical perspective: gives a more balanced perspective to study how a person interacts with media within a given media system, by looking at how a person is guided by the selection of media regularly surrounding that person, to be exposed only to certain kinds of content.

Lecture Week 8 (Chapter 12, 13) !!! CONCLUDING PRIMER QUESTIONS IN CHAPTER 13 ARE VERY IMPORTAN!! Audience: receivers of media messages o Its a construct that describes the common denominators of individuals interacting with media. o The audience exists nowhere; it inhabits no real space, only positions within analytic discourses o Audience members are individual consumers o Boundaries between audience members are usually based on economic criteria o Members tend to be unrelated to each other. o Members have no shared identity o Formation is temporary Goals of Audience Research: o Accounting for sales (book-keeping) o Measuring actual and potential reach for possible advertising o Manipulating and channeling audience choice behavior o Looking for audience market opportunities o Product testing and improving communication effectiveness o Meeting responsibilities to serve an audience o Evaluation media performance in a number of ways. Traditions in Audience Research: o Structural o Behavioral o Cultural

 Society as a Source o Audience as a group or public Media responding to the general need of a pre-existing group or public. Group membership precedes media use. Gratification set as Audience Audiences form and reform on the basis of media-related interests, needs or preferences (e.g. differing and changing tastes) The medium audience Audience identified by a particular type of medium, the TV or Film audience, fiction or non-fiction readers. Audience as defined by channel or content

Audiences of a particular film, book, TV-Show or newspaper (e.g. people who watch Ik hou van Holland or Twilight) Last Remarks on Audiences: o There is an erosion in mass media audiences o The overall mass media audience however, has not changed fundamentally o Industry is still quite conservative and traditional RECAP ON COUNTRIES: France: o Strong Importance of the State on the Media Marketplace o State a regulator and competitor o State active in promoting culture and pluralism o Extensive Global Media Reach (colonies) Sweden: o Limited Marketplace, Strong Regulation o Active State for Pluralism o Public Service Broadcasters dont advertise o Strong media presence of English language United Kingdom: o Strong Regulation of Marketplace o Public service obligations for public and commercial broadcasters o Extensive global reach o Sophisticated media system USA: o o o o o Highly driven commercial media marketplace Profit Driven Reluctant government, restrictive in unsuited content Advertising is highly present Huge global reach

Mexico: o Commercial marketplace with strong government presence

o o

Developing country with well developed media system Telenovela typical export product

China: o o o o

Strong government control Censorship on government criticism and improper content Increasing commercialization Large audience

Ghana: o Developing Media System o Strong government intervention in media marketplace towards freedom and expression o Lack of funding, poverty o Growing competition and commercialization Lebanon: o Developing media system o Most advanced and free in middle east o Marketplace is weak with strong religious influence o Active private sector o Ample access to foreign media Main Issues in Media Systems!!! o Relation between public and private media within systems: News primarily private, internet private but broadcasting mixed Tensions between audience tastes and broader societal norms and values Discussions on mixing public and private goals Content on the internet, what should be a public good? News reporting as a product, public service or propaganda: News is embedded within institutional, national and cultural contexts. News as a product is aimed at entertainment and large audiences News as a public service lacks audience interests but is informative News as propaganda offers fake government reality News needs continuous criticism. Morality in the Media How much profanity can be shown in the media? Increased globalization = increased awareness of morality in the media Media Violence How much media violence can be shown on the media?