Department of the Environment

Design principles of fire safety

HMSO

The need for a comprehensive guide for fire safety in design was identified as a recommendation by the Authors in their Report to the Department of Trade and Industry-titled Fire and Building Regulutiorz--in 1990.

In summer 1993 the Department of the Environment

commissioned us to produce an illustrated text on the fire safety principles underlying current United Kingdom legislation. The target audience was building designers, fire safety officers and building control officers who, together with students and a wider audience in other disciplines, would find the guide a useful amplification of the principles behind legislative provisions. The current methods of prescribing technical levels for fire safety range from broad functional requirements to detailed technical specifications which, together with the continuing changes in detail occasioned by developments, has led us to concentrate on principles rather than numeric detail. The principal contributors were: Geoff G Connell Hon Dip Arch Roger Jowett BSc MSc Dip Arch RIBA ACIArb Phillip H Thomas PhD(Cantab) FIMechE FIFireE MIFS and 0 Leslie Turner OBE RIBA AIFireE They would like to thank their support team, particularly mentioning John Blew, Lesley Turner Dip Arch RIBA, and Robert Biddulph, who produced the illustrations. Foreword written by: Dr William A Allen CBE BArch LLD RIBA HonFAIA HonFIOA, who was Chairman of the Fire Research Advisory Committee 1975-1983.

Chapter 7:

Access and facilities for the fire service

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Introduction Scope The control problem History Principles of requirements Technical contents of provisions General Vehicular access to the building Firefighting shafts Location and number of firefighting shafts Construction of firefighting shafts Firefighting stairs Fire mains and landing valves Firefighting lobbies Fire mains and landing valves Smoke venting of basements Summary of design considerations Access and facilities Ventilating basements References

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Design principles of fire safety

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Introduction

There is at least an implicit assumption in respect of some fire safety controls that a fire will not be allowed to bum unchecked, but fire development will at some stage be restrkted by fire brigade intervention, for example controls aimed at restricting external fire spread. Other controls, for example those dealing with means of escape in case of fire, are based on an assumption that sufficient safety is assured without a need for fire brigade assistance. However, even in the latter case the unpredictability of fire can result in things not going as planned, so that people may be trapped or injured and may need rescue or assistance from the fire brigade. In between the above extremes are controls aimed at restricting fire growth and spread. Increasing height and complexity of buildings means that often it is no longer possible to fight fire solely from the outside of the building. There is an increasing need for fire brigades to be able to enter into buildings to fight fire, and access and facilities are necessary to enable the brigade to carry out this task. As with controls related to external fire spread that are dealt with in Chapter 6, the provision of access and facilities have distinct benefits in terms of restricting property loss, as well as supplementing other life safety controls. This chapter identifies some of the problems associated with controls in this area. It gives some of the historical background behind the relevant controls and standards. It also sets out the basic principles behind the technical provisions aimed at ensuring that fire brigades have sufficient means of access to and where appropriate within buildings, and have sufficient other facilities available to them, in order to enable them to fight the fire and effect rescue if necessary.

Scope
This chapter covers the subject area dealt with by Requirement B5 of Schedule 1 of the Building Regulations 1991,access and facilities for the fire service

The control problem

One control problem associated with provisions for access and facilities for the fire service is common to provisions to restrict external fire spread, that is to strike a reasonable balance between the minimum standards necessary to safeguard people in and around buildings, and a level of provision that veers more towards the protection of property. Firefighting is aimed at property protection as well as safeguarding life, and it is difficult to make any distinction

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between life safety and property safety in respect of most of the provisions needed in buildings in this area. Indeed, it is not thought necessary to attempt to make any such distinction. Fires that get a hold, and particularly ones in high buildings, can have disastrous life safety consequences, as is evidenced by numerous fires throughout the world in high-rise buildings that have resulted in significant life loss. Also, facilities for access for firefighting purposes provides a sound basis for rescue of any persons that may be trapped and not able to escape either by their own efforts or with the assistance of others in the building. However, arrangements for smoke clearance after a fire are clearly more relevant to property protection than life safety, and these are not covered by the Building Regulations. A second control problem is that the application of the Building Regulations does not extend beyond the curtilage of the building. Adequacy of access roads to enable fire appliances to get to the site, as distinct from on the site, and adequacy of public water supplies for firefighting purposes, cannot be dealt with under the Regulations. These have to be dealt with by other legislation. Management of the building in use raises a third control problem. If access arrangements for fire appliances, and other facilities to assist the fire service in fighting fire and possibly in rescue are to be effective, then it is essential that they are available when needed, and are able to function as intended. In particular, obstruction of access roads and hardstandings for fire appliances can potentially cause significant delays in the commencement of firefighting, and if necessary, rescue operations. This could have life safety implications.

History
As long as people have used fire it has been necessary for them to be able to deal with unwanted fire. Consequently, it is to be expected that some of the earliest legislation dealing with fire safety covers the linked aspects of preventing unwanted fires starting, and providing facilities to put them out. Early provisions in Britain can be found in some local ordinances that required fires to be covered at night, and that required water containers to be provided for firefighting purposes. A Scottish Act that was introduced in 1425, was probably the earliest national Act dealing with fire. It included measures aimed at preventing ignition of readily flammable materials, and it required communities to provide ladders for firefighting and rescue purposes, to provide

water buckets, and to provide metal hooks for pulling down burning timbers and roofs. In the 18th Century a number of Acts were introduced in London. These required parishes to provide fire engines and ladders, to fit stopcocks (fire plugs) on water supplies, and to have arrangements to employ persons to fight fires. These Acts were developed over the years, and the Metropolitan Fire Brigade Act 1865 led to the establishment of a fire brigade in London. Elsewhere in Britain in the 19th Century, powers similar to those in London were obtained by some of the larger cities, and at a national level the Lighting and Watching Act 1833 enabled fire engines and other equipment to be provided and maintained for the use of parishes. The Fire Brigades Act 1938 rationalised the position by requiring Local Authorities to '....make provision for the extinction of fires and the protection of life and property in case of fire....'. This resulted in the formation of several hundred separate fire brigades, although these were amalgamated into a National Fire Service in 1941. The Fire Service Act 1947 returned the service to local authority control, but the responsibility was placed at County and County Borough level. This resulted in a significant reduction in the number of separate fire authorities. The situation regarding water supplies for firefighting purposes was dealt with in the Water Act 1945. Building regulations for access and facilities for the fire service were introduced in Scotland in the 1960s in the Building Standards (Scotland) Regulations'. Elsewhere in the UKcprovision relied on local legislation where it provided the necessary powers, and persuasion where powers were not available. In Inner London requirements could be applied to high and large buildings under Section 20 of the London Building Acts (Amendment) Act 1939. To assist fire authorities, guidance on access for fire appliances was issued by the Home Office, and recommendations about firefighting stairways and lifts were included in British Standard CP3 Chapter IV series of codes of practice on fire precautions in buildings in the 1960s. A BS Code (SS5588 Part 5 ) dealing specifically with the subject was published in 1986. That code has since been revised2.

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Principles of requirements
Measures aimed at ensuring speedy and effective firefighting have an obvious benefit in terms of property protection, but there is also a life safety contribution and this is taken into account in the scale of provision of fire precautions in buildings called up under legislation. In order to assist the fire service in its tasks of firefighting and rescue there needs to be a sufficient standard of access, both to and where appropriate within the building, and other facilities of a standard relative to the size and form of the building. These are:
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means of external access to enable fire appliances to be brought near to the building for effective use; and where relevant: means of access into and within the building for firefighting personnel to effect rescue, if necessary, and firefighting; fire mains and associated facilities; and, means for venting heat and smoke from a basement fire.

Technical content of provisions

General
The standard of provision of access and facilities for the fire service is related to the use, size, and height of the building, and the intent is to ensure safe access for fire fighters and that they are neither unduly delayed in their firefighting and rescue activities, nor unnecessarily fatigued before they commence them. In a low rise building without a deep basement the means of escape provisions should offer sufficient means of ingress for fire fighters, and the only specific provision in such a case would be for there to be vehicular access to enable appliances to be brought near to the building in order to facilitate ladder access to upper storeys and entry into the building in the general vicinity of the vehicle access points. The main firefighting activities generally take place from within the building, indeed with high buildings beyond the reach of appliances these activities can only take place from within the building. Facilities within the building to assist fire fighters are therefore necessary in tall buildings. The essence is to provide firefighting bridgeheads, properly protected and equipped with a supply of water, at all levels other than the main level where firefighters gain entry into the building direct. The necessary facilities comprise:

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access for fire appliance to near the building entry points; afirefighting shaft that includes a stair protected from the accommodation areas by a firefighting lobby, and containing a fire main; and where appropriate; afirefighting lift in high buildings.

Each of these facilities is intended to contribute to the provision of a sufficiently secure operating base to allow effective action by firefighters. In addition, where there is a basement, a nieans of venting heat and smoke from a basement fire may be needed.

Vehicular access to the building

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The purpose of providing access for firefighting vehicles is to limit the distance a firefighter has to carry equipment before he can commence firefighting. If the distance is too great there would be delay and reduced effectiveness. There are three different levels of provision for access of firefighting vehicles to the exterior of a building. The first two apply.where it is not necessary to provide internal fire mains and other internal firefighting facilities, and the third is where these facilities are needed. The first level applies only to relatively small buildings that are below a stated height. In such cases a pumping appliance should be able to get within a limited distance of an exterior wall of the building. In the case of some buildings a public road may be sufficiently near to satisfy this need, but it should be noted that requirements cannot be made under the Building Regulations for work to be done outside the site of the works. The second level applies to larger buildings, and ones that are higher, but which are not of such a height that a firefighting lift is needed. In these cases a given percentage of the building perimeter should be accessible from an access road close to the faqade. The percentage of faqade is determined by the height and total floor area of the building. Designers of a building, where this second level is appropriate, may opt to provide internal firefighting facilities instead. The third level embraces all other buildings, that is those which are high, have deep basements, or are of the second level, but of such a size that it might be more economical to opt to provide internal firefighting facilities in order to reduce the amount of accessible perimeter. In these cases the provision of firefighting shafts, which

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may or may not need to incorporate a firefighting lift, is necessary, and there should be access for a pumping appliance to within a limited distance of each fire main connecting point. The connecting point should be readily visible from the point where the appliance would be parked (Figure 68).
Figure 68: Access for appliances
Small building Appliance within accepted distance of any point on ground storey. Can be off site. Larger building but not high Access for appliances along a percentage of the perimeter of the building. The percentage varies with the size of the building. High building fitted with rising main. Access for appliances to within a specified distance and in sight of inlet to the rising main.

Access roads for fire appliances should at least be able to accommodate pumping appliances, and in the case of the second level where access to a percentage of the perimeter of the building is needed, they should be able to provide access for turntable ladders or hydraulic platforms where the building is above a stated height. A range of design criteria ought to be considered for access roads. These include minimum widths between curbs, minimum turning circles, clearance heights, and bearing capacity, and where access for high-reach appliances is needed then the roads should be of a size and to be positioned so that these appliances can be operated. Turning facilities may be necessary depending on the length of any dead-end access route. Fire appliances are of different designs and can change depending on local needs. It is therefore advisable for the designer to consult the controlling authority who would be able to provide the necessary design criteria applicable to vehicles that are used in the particular area.
A firefighting shaft provides a protected access route for firefighters into, and then either up or down a building, and enables them to start firefighting or rescue without undue delay.

Firefighting shafts

Firefighting shafts need to be provided in tall buildings, buildings with deep basements, and in buildings with large floor areas. The shaft should contain a firefighting stair, and on every storey where there is access to accommodation from the stairway a firefighting lobby is interposed between the stairway and the accommodation. A fire main with outlets in each lobby and with a charging point in the shaft at the level where there is access to the shaft from outside, is also necessary. In high buildings and ones having deep basements the firefighting shaft also includes a firefighting lift. The firefighting lift is accessed from the firefighting lobby at each storey (Figure 69).
- Stair entered at access level direct fiom outside

Figure 69: Firefighting shaft, typical arrangement

or via protected corridor:

- Lobby minimum specified size hut not too large

in order to avoid use for other purposes. Lift needed in high buildings. Lift can be banked with other passenger lifts. The main landing valve in lobby. Shaft protected by jire resisting coristriictiori arid doors to specified standard. - A lesser standard offire r-esistanceaccepted for construction within shaft. - Ventilation o f stair and lobby necessary.
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Where there is a firefighting lift it is the normal fire service practice to take the lift to the storey below the storey on fire (the storey above the fire storey in the case of a basement fire), in order to avoid personnel and the lift car being directly exposed to the fire before the situation can be assessed and firefighting started. Access to the storey on fire is then by the firefighting stair. A British ' gives guidance for the Standard Code of Practice, BS 5588: Part 5 design and construction of firefighting shafts, and (Figure 3) illustrates buildings where firefighting shafts are needed, and those storeys that need to be served by the shaft.

Location and number of firefighting shafts

The scale of provision for firefighting shafts, based on area per shaft, relates to the area of the largest of those storeys that determine the need for firefighting shafts. There is an allowance given where the building is sprinklered, fewer shafts are needed. Location of the shafts is governed by the necessity for every part of each storey, other than that at fire service access level, to be no more than a specified distance from the entrance to the lobby of the firefighting shaft. The distance is measured along the line of a route suitable for laying a hose. The hose length criterion alone could be considered as sufficient to provide for a satisfactory numbsr of shafts, particularly since it is

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Figure 70: Provision and extent of firefighting stairs and lifts

tall building medium height building

access level shallow basement

Shaft and lift to basement only

Shaft to upper storeys only

Shaft to all storeys; lift to basements only

Shaft and I$ to upper storeys only

Shaft and lift to all storeys

based on a practical performance limit, rather than an arbitrary area limit. If the shafts are economically positioned to meet the hose length criterion, the area criterion may in some cases necessitate additional shafts. The only justification for this would seem to be that the area that could be theoretically swept by the maximum hose length from a centrally placed point, is greater than the maximum area specified for a single shaft under the area criterion. Whether this is a critical factor from a practical point of view is debatable.

Construction of firefighting shafts

Firefighting shafts need to have a good standard of fire separation from other parts of the building. This is because firefighters could, and indeed often would, be operating from the shaft at an advanced stage of a fire. As a consequence the standard of fire-resisting separation provided by the structure surrounding the shaft may in some cases be more than that of the constructional elements of the building. Construction of separating elements within the shaft may be of a lesser standard, and the fire resistance of doors within the shaft, and in the shaft enclosure, are usually accepted as half that of the respective structure. This may seem to be an anomaly in terms of maintaining a standard of fire-resisting separation, but it can be defended on the grounds that in the early stages'of the fire it is unlikely that the door between the firefighting lobby and the accommodation would be directly attacked by the fire, although the separating structure might well be attacked. The main function of the door at this stage is to keep the firefighting lobby relatively smoke free, and during firefighting operations the door between the shaft and the accommodation would be open at least some of the time, so the standard of fire resistance is then relatively

unimportant. However the door may be the only protection for a fire fighter if he has to retreat from a fire.

Firefighting stairs

These need to be sufficiently wide to be easily used by firefighters carrying their equipment. This means that in some cases they may be somewhat wider than stairs provided solely for means of escape. The stairway should be provided with a means of smoke venhng by openable vents so that it can be kept relatively smoke-free.

A firefighting stair may also serve as a stair for means of escape, but it has a number of important functions. during firefighting. It serves as a means of final approach to the floor on fire and would be used for floor to floor movement during firefighting operations. The stair would also serve as a safe route of egress for the fire service should the firefighting lift fail or become unreliable.
If a firefighting stairway serves levels both above and below ground it would be necessary to subdivide the stairway at or about ground level to prevent smoke from a basement fire affecting the stairway above ground.
These serve as a safe area where firefighters may assemble their equipment before commitment to firefighting operations. They should be of sufficient size to enable firefighters to lay out hose and connect it to a landing valve, but they should not be so large as to encourage any storage or unauthorised use. Thus guidance may specify a maximum limit on size as well as a minimum.

Firefighting lobbies

A means of smoke venting by openable vents is needed so that the lobby can be kept relatively smoke-free.
Fire mains are installed in a building and equipped with landing valves in each firefighting lobby so that firefighters may be able to connect their hoses and obtain a supply of water for firefighting purposes. Those mains above firefighting access level are usually known as risers and those below that level as fallers. All firefighting shafts should incorporate a fire main and associated landing valves. In some cases the mains may be dry (dry risers/fallers), and these would be equipped with a hose connection at fire-service access level to enable firefighters to charge the main from a pumping appliance on their arrival at the incident. In high buildings the mains should be wet (wet risers), that is they would be permanently charged with water supplied from tanks and pumps within the building.

Fire mains and landing valves

All fire mains have a landing valve in each firefighting lobby, and the valve is positioned so that firefighters can lay out and charge a hose line before they enter the'fire compartment.

BS 5306 Part l 3 gives guidance on the design and construction of fire mains.

Smoke venting of basements

Fires in basements can pose particular problems to firefighters. Products of combustion will tend to rise via stairways and this can make access by firefighters difficult. The problem can be to some extent reduced by providing means whereby a basement fire may be vented. Other than small basements, all basements, (not just deep ones that are accessed by firefighting shafts) should to be provided with means of venting smoke and heat, to improve visibility, reduce temperatures, and make search, rescue and firefighting more tolerable. Smoke venting can be provided by natural means using smoke outlet shafts with removable or openable covers, or by mechanical means. Where mechanical extraction is used it is necessary to provide a sprinkler system in the basement storeys, to control the fire sufficiently to enable the mechanical extraction system to cope with its designed performance.

Summary of design considerations

The objective is to provide access and facilities to assist fire fighters in the protection of life, and comprise:
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external access for fire appliances; access and facilities within a building for firefighting personnel, and adequate means of ventilating heat and smoke from basements.
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The size of a building, its height, and depth of any basements determines both the need and extent and in general terms the following provisions meet the objectives.

Access and facilities A small low building only needs fire appliance access to within a limited distance of all points of the ground storey;
A large low or medium height building needs access for appliances around a proportion of its fagade and with access into the building; A high building needs fire appliance access to within a limited distance to a firefighting shaft(s) within the building, such shafts comprise a firefighting stair, firefighting lobbies and a firefighting main. Firefighting lifts are needed in high buildings. All firefighting shafts should be designed and constructed to BS 5588 Part 5 , which also includes their smoke venting provisions.

Ventilating basements
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Means of venting heat and smoke from large or deep basements may be natural or mechanical. In the former case by perimeter smoke outlets providing a proportion of the floor area they serve. Mechanically by a protected extract system supplemented by automatic sprinklers.

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References

1 . The Scottish Office. The Building Standards (Scotland) Regulations 1963. Statutory Instrument 1963 No. 1897. London, HMSO. 2. British Standards Institution. Fire precautions in the design, construction and use of buildings. Code of practice for firefighting stairs and lifts. British Standard BS 5588: Part 5: 1991, London, BSI, 1991.
3. British Standards Institution. Fire extinguishing installations and equipment on premises. Hydrant systems, hose reels and foam inlets. British Standard BS 5306: Part 1: 1976 (1988) London, BSI, 1991.

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