Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
In static electric and magnetic fields, the Maxwells equations obtained so far are:
Differential form Controlling principle Integral form
0 E V
Potential around a closed path is zero 0 L d E
l
(1)
D - V
Gausss Law
l l
dv S d D
(2)
J H
V Amperes Circuital Law
l l
S d J L d H
(3)
B
(5)
Modification of Maxwells equations for the case of time varying fields
First Modification of the first Maxwells equation 0 L d E ; 0 E V
l
; ----(1)
To discuss magnetic induction and energy, it is necessary to include time-varying fields, but only
to the extent of introducing the Faradays law.
Faradays law states that the voltage around a closed path can be generated by
- a time changing magnetic flux through a fixed path ( transformer action) or
- by a time-varying path in a steady magnetic field (electric generator action)
Faradays law: The electromotive force around a closed path is equal to the negative of the time
rate of change of magnetic flux enclosed by the path.
l l
o
o
o
o
S
S d B
t t
L d E
In our study of electromagnetics, interest centers on the relation between the time changing
electric and magnetic fields and a fixed path of integration.
For this case the Faradays law reduces to,
l l
o
o
S
S d B
t
L d E
The partial derivative w.r.t time indicates that only variations of magnetic flux through a fixed
closed path or a fixed region in space are being considered.
Thus, for time varying fields, equation (1) gets modified to
t
B
E
o
o
V
S d
t
B
L d E
S
o
o
l l
(6)
Second Modification: Modification of the Continuity equation for time varying fields:
Current is charges in motion. The total current flowing out of some volume must be equal to the
rate of decrease of charge within the volume [charge cannot be created or destroyed- law of
conservation of charges]. This concept is needed in order for understanding why current flows
between the capacitor plates. The explanation is that the current flow is accompanied by charge
build up on the plates. In the form of equation, the law of conservation of charge is
l l
dv
dt
d
- S d J
If the region of integration is stationary, this relation becomes,
l l
o
o
dv
t
- S d J
---- (7)
Applying divergence theorem to this equation, we get,
l l
o
o
V dv
t
)dv J (
If this relation is to hold for any arbitrary volume, then, it must be true that,
t
J
o
o
V
---- ( 8 )
This is the time-varying form of the equation of continuity that replaces equation (5).
Third Modification: Modification of the Maxwells equation for the Amperes Law:
Taking the divergence of equation (3) we get the equation of continuity as,
0 J H V V V
(Divergence of curl is zero- vector identity).
Thus Amperes law is inconsistent with the time varying fields for which the equation of
continuity is
t
J
o
o
V
. To resolve this inconsistency, James Clerk Maxwell in the mid 1860s
suggested modification of the Amperes law to include the validity for time varying fields also; He
suggested substitution of Gausss law (2) into the equation of continuity (8) giving,
t
J
o
o
V
.
But we know that D V
.
Therefore we get ,
t
D
t
) D (
J
o
o
V
o
V o
V
or ----- (9)
This equation may be put into integral form by integrating over a volume and then applying the
divergence theorem:
l
o
o
+ 0 S d )
t
D
J (
------ (10)
Equations 9 and 10 suggest that )
t
D
J (
o
o
+
----- (11)
Taking the divergence of this equation gives equation (9) and thus the inconsistency has been
removed. Note that the Equation (11) has not been derived from the preceding equations but
rather suggested by them. Therefore when Maxwell proposed it, it was a postulate whose validity
had to be established by experiment.
Integrating equation (11) over a surface and application of Stokes theorem gives the integral form
of the equation:
S d )
t
D
J ( L d H
o
o
+
l l
---- (12)
This equation states that the mmf around a closed path is equal to the total current enclosed by
the path. Thus equations 11 and 12 replace the static form of Amperes law (3).
~
Maxwells equations:
In summary, the Maxwells equations are as follows:
Differential form Controlling principle Integral form
J D H
+ V Amperes Circuital Law
l l
+ S d J D L d H
(I)
B
(II)
D - V
Gausss Law
l l
dv S d D
(III)
B
J
o
o
V
l l
o
o
dv
t
- S d J
In all the cases the region of integration is assumed to be stationary.
WORD STATEMENT FORM OF FIELD EQUATIONS:
The word statements of the field equations may readily be obtained from the integral form of the
Maxwells equations:
I. The mmf around a closed path is equal to the conduction current plus the
time derivative of the electric displacement through any surface bounded by the
path.
II. The emf around a closed path is equal to the time derivative of the magnetic
displacement through any surface bounded by the path.
III. The total electric displacement through the surface enclosing a volume is
equal to the total charge within the volume.
IV. The net magnetic flux emerging through any closed surface is zero.
Alternate way of stating the first two equations:
1. The magnetic voltage around a closed path is equal to the electric current through
the path.
2. The electric voltage around a closed path is equal to the magnetic current through
the path
Boundary Conditions using Maxwells equations:
The integral form of Maxwells equations can be used to determine what happens at the boundary
surface between two different media.( Find out why not the differential form?)
The boundary conditions for the electric and magnetic fields at any surface of discontinuity are:
1. The tangential component of E is continuous at the surface. i.e., it is the same just outside the
surface as it is at the inside the surface.
2. The tangential component of H is discontinuous across the surface except at the surface of a
perfect conductor. At the surface of a perfect conductor, the tangential component of H is
discontinuous by an amount equal to the surface current per unit width.
3. The normal component of B is continuous at the surface of discontinuity.
4. The normal component of D is continuous if there is no surface charge density. Otherwise D is
discontinuous by an amount equal to the surface charge density.
y
Proof: AX
E
x1
E
x2
1,
r
1
, o
1
2,
r
2
, o
2
( medium 1) ( medium 2)
E
Y1
E
Y2
E
x3
E
x4
X
Fig 2 A boundary between two media
Let the surface of discontinuity be the plane x=0 as shown in fig 2.
Ax/2
Ax/2
Conditions on the tangential components of E and H
1. Condition for E
tan
at the surface of the boundary:
Consider a small rectangle of width Ax and length Ay enclosing a small portion of each media (1) and (2).
The integral form of the second Maxwell equation ( II ) is,
l l
S
S d B L d E
For the elemental rectangle of fig 2, we apply this equation and get
y x B
2
x
E
2
x
E y E
2
x
E
2
x
E y E
z x4 x3 y1 x1 x2 y2
+ + ----(13)
where B
z
is the average magnetic flux density through the rectangle y x . Now, as this area of the
rectangle is made to approach to zero, always keeping the surface of discontinuity between the sides of the
triangle. If B
z
is finite, then as Ax =o, the RHS of equation 13 will approach zero. If E is also assumed to
be finite everywhere, then, Ax/2 terms of the LHS of equation 13 will reduce to zero, leaving
E
y2
Ay - E
y1
Ay = 0
for Ax = 0. Therefore
E
y2 =
E
y1
That is, the tangential component of E is continuous.
2. Condition for H
tan
at the surface of the boundary:
Now the integral form of the first Maxwells equation ( I ) is
S d ) J D ( L d H
S
+
l l
For the elemental rectangle this equation becomes,
y x ) J D (
2
x
H
2
x
H y H
2
x
H
2
x
H y H
z z x4 x3 y1 x1 x2 y2
+ + +
----(14)
If the rate of change of electric displacement D
1
r
1
o
1
AX
2
r
2
o
2
D
N2
Fig 3 A pill-box volume enclosing a portion of a boundary surface
In this expression, dS is the area of each of the flat surfaces of the pillbox, Ax is their separation, and p is
the average charge density within the volume Ax dS.
edge
is the outward electric flux through the curved
edge surface of the pillbox. As Ax 0, that is, as the flat surfaces of the pillbox are squeezed together,
always keeping the boundary surface between them,
edge
0, for finite values of displacement density.
Also, for finite values of average density , the RHS of equation (17) reduces to
0 dS D dS D
n2 n1
for Ax = 0.Then for the case of no surface charge condition on the normal components of D
D
n1
= D
n2
---- (18)
That is, if there is no surface charge, the normal component of D is continuous across the surface.
In the case of a metallic surface: In the case of a metallic surface, the charge is considered to reside on
the surface. If this layer of surface charge has a surface charge density p
S
Coulombs per square meter,
the charge density p of the surface layer is given by
3 S
C/m
x
where Ax is the thickness of the surface layer. As Ax approaches zero, the charge density approaches
infinity in such a manner that
S 0 x
x lim V
V
Then in fig 3, if the surface charge is always kept between the two flat surfaces as the seperation between
them is decreased, the RHS of equation (17) approaches p
S
dS as Ax approaches zero. Equation 17 then
reduces to
S n2 n1
D D ----( 19 )
When there is a surface charge density p
S,
the normal component of displacement density is
discontinuous across the surface by the amount of the surface charge density.
For any metallic conductor the displacement density, D = rE within the conductor will be a small
quantity( it will be zero in the electrostatic case, or in the case of a perfect conductor). Then if the medium
(2) is a metallic conductor, D
n2
= 0 ; and the equation (19) becomes
D
n1
= p
S
----(20)
The normal component of the displacement density in the dielectric is equal to the surface charge
density on the conductor.
4 Condition on the normal component of B (B
nor
):
The integral form of the fourth Maxwells equation is
l
S
0 S d B
----( IV )
The pill-box structure is again shown in fig 4 for magnetic flux density. Applying the fourth Maxwells
equation to this pill-box structure, we get
0 dS B dS B
edge n2 n1
+ ----(21)
B
N1
dS
1
r
1
o
1
AX
2
r
2
o
2
B
N2
Fig 4 A pill-box volume enclosing a portion of a boundary surface
In this expression, dS is the area of each of the flat surfaces of the pillbox, Ax is their separation, and p is
the average charge density within the volume Ax dS.
edge
is the outward electric flux through the curved
edge surface of the pillbox. As Ax 0, that is, as the flat surfaces of the pillbox are squeezed together,
always keeping the boundary surface between them,
edge
0, for finite values of magnetic flux density.
The RHS of equation (21) reduces to
0 dS B dS B
n2 n1
for Ax = 0.Then the condition on the normal components of B since there are no isolated magnetic
charges,
B
n1
= B
n2
---- (22)
i.e., The normal component of magnetic flux density is always continuous across the boundary.