Lubricants and Lubrication

LUBRICANTS In order to reduce metal to metal contact and to reduce the frictional force and heat generation, certain foreign substances are introduced between the rubbing surfaces which keep them apart .These substances are called lubricants. LUBRICATION The process to reduce frictional force between the sliding and rubbing surfaces of metals is called lubrication.

FUNCTION OF LUBRICANTS
It reduces wear and tear of the surfaces by avoiding direct metal to metal contact between the rubbing surfaces, i.e. by introducing lubricants between the two surfaces. It reduces expansion of metal due to frictional heat and destruction of material. It acts as coolant of metal. It avoids unsmooth relative motion. It reduces maintenance cost. It also reduces power loss in internal combustion engines. It also sometimes acts as a seal (used between piston & cylinder wall in internal combustion engines)

MECHANISM OF LUBRICATION
(1) Fluidfilm lubrication (2) Boundary lubrication (3) Extreme pressure lubrication
(1) FluidFilm Lubrication (Hydrodynamic) In this, the two moving parts are separated by a thick film of lubricant, about 1000A thick. This type of lubrication occurs in machine parts of low load and high speed such as in clocks, sewing machines (delicate instruments). The coefficient of friction is low, 0.01 to 0.003. Hydrocarbon oils are used for this purpose. In order to maintain viscosity of the oil in all season, ordinary hydrocarbon are blended with selected long chain polymers.

(2) Boundry Lubrication (Thin-film)

It occurs in machine parts of high load and low speed, and viscosity of oil is too low. Here thick film of lubricant cannot be maintained between the moving surfaces but the lubricants are adsorbed physically / chemically on the metal surfaces. The lubricant film thickness is as low as 23-molecule thickness with the frictional coefficient being 0.05 to 0.15. Vegetable and animal oils and their soaps possess properties of surface attachments forming a thin film of metallic soap, which acts as lubricant. For boundary lubrication, the lubricant molecules should have high viscosity index, resistance to heat & oxidation, good oiliness, and low pour point.

(3) Extreme pressure lubrication:

This mechanism occurs under conditions of high load and high speed. Under these conditions, the lubricant may vaporize / decompose due to local heat. Special additives called extreme pressure additives are used with lubricants to overcome this difficulty. Organic compounds containing active groups such as chlorine, phosphorous, sulphur are used as extreme pressure additives. At high temperatures, the additives react with metals giving metallic chlorides / sulphides / phosphides possessing high melting points.

CLASSIFICATION OF LUBRICANTS
1. Liquid Lubricants or lubricating oil
It reduces friction and wear between two moving/sliding metallic surfaces by providing a continuous fluid film in between them. They also acts as (1) Cooling medium (2) sealing medium (3) corrosion preventer (4) low pressure (5) low freezing point (6) heat stability (7) stability to decomposition at the operating temperature.

Classification of lubricating oil

(i)

Animal or vegetable oils

Before the advent of petroleum industry vegetable and animal oils are widely used as lubricants because they possesses good oiliness even under high temperature and heavy loads but they (a) are costly (b) undergo oxidation easily c. have some tendency to hydrolyse So at present they are rarely used as lubricants but used as blending agent with other lubricating oils

(ii)

Mineral or petroleum oils

Obtained by distillation of petroleum. They are most widely used lubricants because they are, cheap, available in abundance, quite stable under severe condition however they possesses poor oiliness than vegetable oils. Oiliness can be increased by adding high molecular weight compounds like oleic acid, stearic acid

Purification of Mineral Oil

Crude petroleum oil contain lot of impurities so purification is needed.

a. Dewaxing
Oil is mixed with suitable solvent ( propane, trichloro ethylene) and then refrigerated. The wax ppt removes from the oil by passing oil-wax suspension through a continuous filter or centrifuge. The solvent present in the oil is then recovered by distillation.

b. Acid refining
The dewaxed oils contain a no. of undesirable compounds like napthalic impurities. For this the oil is treated with conc. H2SO4 and the agitated. Some impurities dissolve in acid and other from sludges. Sludges are removed by filtration. The filtrate is neutralized with calculated quantity of NaOH to remove excess acid. Finally the oil is decolorised by passing through fullers earth at 100 C-140 C.

c. Solvent refining
Oil is mixed with a suitable solvent (eg. Nitrobenzene) in which it is immiscible, but the undesired impurities (eg. Naphthenic and asphaltic components) are highly soluble. The liquid separates into two layers l (i) oil layer free from impurities but may contain some solvent (ii) solvent layer containing dissolved impurities. The oil layer is distilled the solvent is recovered and refined oil is left behind. The solvent layer is also distilled solvent is recovered and the impurities/residues are left behind for other applications.

(iii) Blended oil

No single oil serves as a most satisfactory lubricant for many of the modern machineries. The properties are improved by adding specific additives. This blended oil give desired lubricating properties. Additives used are a. Oiliness carriers: oiliness can be increased by adding oiliness-carrier like vegetable oils, coconut oil, castor oil and fatty acids like palmitic acid, oleic acid Extreme-pressure additives Under extreme pressure a thick film of oil is difficult to maintain. Besides improving the oiliness directly high pressure additives are used. This additives contain some materials which are adsorbed on the metal surface producing a layer, thereby preventing the tearing up of the metal The substances are: Fatty ester, acids, organic materials which contain sulphur, organic chlorine compound, organic phosphorous compounds e.t.c Pour-point depressing additives used are phenol and certain condensation products of chlorinated wax with napthalene. This prevents the separation of wax from the oil

b.

c.

d. Viscosity Index Improver These are certain high molecular weight compounds like hexanol e. Thickeners Such as polystyrene, polyesters are used to increase the viscosity of the lubricating oil. f. Antioxidant When added to oil, retards oxidation of oil by getting themselves oxidized. They are added in lubricant used in internal combustion engines, turbine, etc. Antioxidants are aromatic phenolic or amino compounds. g. Corrosion Preventer They are organic compounds of phosphorus or antimony h. Antifoaming agents Glycol and glycerol help in decreasing foam formation.

(2) Solid lubricants

Solid lubricants are used where 1. operating conditions are such that a lubricating film can not be secured by use of lubricating oil or greases 2. Contamination of lubricating oil is unacceptable 3. Operating temp. is too high Two most used solid lubricants are Graphite, and molybdenum disulphide Graphite is used in railway tract joints, chains, air compressors, open gears, heavy machines etc. Molybdenum disulphide possesses low coefficient of friction and is stable in air up to 400 C. its fine powder may be sprinkled on surfaces sliding at high velocities. It is also used along with solvents and greases

(3)Synthetic lubricants
Synthetic lubricants are developed to use in high temp. chemically reactive atmosphere and severe condition like aircraft engines in which the temp. range is -50 to 250 C This lubricant should possess low freezing point, high viscosity index and should be non-inflammable

Examples
Polymerized hydrocarbons like polyethylene, polypropylene are chemically non-reactive and high temperature lubricants Organic amines and amides are good synthetic lubricants, they possesses very low pour-points and high viscosity-index. They can be used in -50 to 250 C Silicones are not oxidised below 200 C, they are used in low temperature lubrication process Flurocarbons are not decomposed by heat, not easily oxidisable and chemically inert and resistant to chemicals, except molten sodium

(4) Greases or semi-solid lubricants

Lubricating grease is a semi-solid, consisting of a soap dispersed throughout a liquid lubricating oil. Petroleum oil or may be a synthetic oil and it may contain any of the additive for specific requirement. Greases are prepared by saponification of fat with alkali, followed by adding hot lubricating oil while under agitation. The structure of greases is that of a gel, soaps are gelling agent, which gives an interconnecting structure containing the added oil. At high temp. soap dissolves and the interconnected structure ceases and the greases liquefies. To improve the heat-resistance , inorganic solid thickening agents are added. Greases can support much heavier loads at lower speed. Greases have the tendency to separate into oil and soap

Greases are used in

a. b. c. d. 1. Situation where oil can not remain in place, due to high load, low speed, sudden jerks etc., rail axle boxes In bearing and gears that work at high temp. In situation where bearing needs to be sealed against entry of dust dirt etc. In situation where dripping, spurting of oil is undesirable. Calcium based greases or cup-greases are emulsions of petroleum with Ca soaps. They are prepared by adding calcium hydroxide to a hot oil under agitation. This greases are very cheap and water resistant. But above 80 C oil and soaps separate out. Soda-based greases are petroleum oils thickened by mixing sodium soaps. They are not water resistant. They can be used up to 175 C. Used in ball bearing. Lithium-based greases are petroleum oils, thickened by mixing lithium soaps. They are water-resistant and suitable for use at low temperature Axle greases are very cheap resin greases, prepared by adding lime to resin and fatty oils. The mixture is mixed and allowed to stand, when greases floats as stiff mass. Fillers are also added to them. They are water resistant and suitable for less delicate equipments working under high loads and low speed.

Classification of greases

2. 3. 4.

Properties of lubricating oils

1. Viscosity
The viscosity of an oil is the measure of the internal friction of the fluid. Viscosity is generally considered to be the most important property of a lubricating oil since friction, wear, and oil consumption are more or less dependent on this characteristic. If the viscosity is too low, liquid oil film cannot be maintained between two moving or sliding surfaces. Excessive wear will take place. On the other hand if the viscosity is too high, excessive friction will result. With increase in temperature, viscosity of liquid decreases. Consequently the lubricating oil becomes thinner, hence the viscosity should not change much with temp.

Determination of viscosity
Viscosity is the property of a fluid by virtue of which it offers resistance to its own flow. Two layers of a liquid separated by a distance , d and moving with a relative velocity difference v, then force per unit area F, required to maintain this velocity difference is F= v/d, where is the co-efficient of viscosity. The rate at which viscosity of oil changes with temperature is measured by an arbitrary scale known as viscosity index. If the viscosity of an oil falls rapidly as the temp. is raised, it has low-viscosity index. On the other hand if viscosity is slightly affected on raising the temp., the viscosity index is high.

Figure: Redwood Viscometer No.2

The absolute viscosity of fluid oil can be determined by measuring the rate of flow of the oil through a capillary tube kept at a uniform temperature. But in case of lubricating oils specific viscosity is generally determined by measuring the time taken for given quantity of oil to flow through an orifice or jet of standard dimensions under standard conditions. Three type of viscometer namely Redwood, Engler and Saybolt are commonly used. In Redwood viscometer the viscosity of a hydrocarbon can be expressed as the number of seconds taken for the collection of 50ml. of the liquid when flowing under standard conditions through a jet of standard dimensions. The equipment specified is the Redwood ViscometerNo.2. Majority standards developed by British Institute of petroleum (BIP) and American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM).

The redwood viscometer consists of the standard oil cup which is opened at the upper end. It is fitted with an agate jet in the base. The diameter of orifice is different for Redwood Viscometer No.1 and 2. The upper end of the agate jet is closed with a ball, which is lifted to allow the flow of oil during the experiment. The cup is provided with a pointer which indicates the level up to which the oil should be filled in the cup. The lid of the cup is provided with an arrangement to fix a thermometer to indicate the oil temperature. The oil cup is surrounded by the outer jacket of copper vessel which is serves as water bath for maintaining the oil at the desired temperature with the help of electrical heating coil. A wire stirrer is also provided for mixing the oil samples. The difference between the two viscometers viscometer No.1 or No.2 is the diameter of the orifice.

2. Pour point and cloud point The lowest temperature at which an oil ceases to flow or pour is the pour point. When an oil cools slowly, the temp. at which the oil becomes cloudy or hazy in appearance is called its cloud point. High pour point lubricating oils usually cause difficulty in starting in cold weather. 3. Carbon residue The amount of carbon left after the volatile matter in a lubricating oil has been evaporated is known as the carbon residue of an oil. The carbon residue test gives an indication of the amount of carbon that may be deposited in an engine. Excessive carbon in an engine leads to operating difficulties. A good lubricant should deposit least amount of carbon. 4. Flash point and fire point The lowest temperature at which the oil lubricant gives off enough vapour that ignite for a moment, when a tiny flame is brought near the vapors. Wile the fire point is the lowest temperature at which vapours of the oil burn continuously for atleast five seconds, when a tiny flame is bought near it. In most cases the fire points are 5-40 higher than that of flash point. A good lubricant should have flash point at least above the temp. at which it is to be used.

5. Corrosion
The tendency of an oil to corrode the engine parts is known as the corrosive quality of the lubricating oil. To retard corrosive effect certain inhibitor are organic compounds phosphorous, arsenic, antimony or lead.

6. Water and sediment

Water and sediment in a lubricating oil normally are the result of improper handling and stowage. Lubricating oil should be free of water and sediment after leaving the purifier and on arriving at the engine.

7. Acidity or neutralization number

The neutralization number test indicates the amount of potassium hydroxide, in milligrams, necessary to neutralize one gram of the oil tested. It is, therefore, proportional to the total organic and mineral acid present. The results are apt to be misleading or subject to incorrect interpretation, since the test does not distinguish between corrosive and noncorrosive acids, both of which be present. The chief harm resulting from the presence of organic acid, which is noncorrosive, is its tendency to emulsify with water. This emulsion picks up contaminants and is a sludge which may interfere with proper oil circulation.

8. Emulsification
Emulsification is the property of oils to get intimately mixed with water forming a mixture called emulsion. It has tendency to collect dirt, foreign matters etc., thereby causing wearing out of the lubricating parts of the machinery. So a good lubricating oil should form an emulsion with water which breaks up quickly.

9. Oiliness or film strength

The ability of a lubricating oil to maintain lubrication between sliding or moving surfaces under pressure and at local high temperature areas is known as the oiliness or film strength of the oil. Film strength is the result of several oil properties, the most important being viscosity. For extreme pressure lubrication, oiliness of lubricant is very important. Mineral oils have very poor oiliness and this can be enhanced by adding additives like vegetable oils and higher fatty acids.

10. Aniline Point The temp. at which the homogeneous mixture of equal volume of aniline and oil separates out is called aniline point. It gives an indication of the possible deterioration of oil in contact with rubber sealings, packing etc. Aromatic hydrocarbons have the tendency to dissolve natural rubber and certain type of synthetic rubbers. higher aniline point means a higher percentage of paraffinic hydrocarbons and lower % of aromatic hydrocarbons. 11. Ash The ash content of an oil is a measure of the amount of noncombustible material present that would cause abrasion of moving parts. 12. Specific Gravity Ratio of weight of oil volume to weight of same water volume at a given temperature. It is used in identifying unknown oil as it gives an indication of type of crude from which the lubricant has been prepared.

13. Sulphur
The test for sulphur indicates the total sulphur content of the oil and does not distinguish between the corrosive and noncorrosive forms. A certain amount of noncorrosive sulphur compounds is allowable, but the corrosive compounds must be eliminated because of their tendency to form acid when combined with water vapor.

14. Saponification Number

It is the number of mg of KOH required to saponify 1 g of oil. Mineral oils do not saponify, but vegetable and animal oils do. This test helps us to ascertain whether the oil is animal/vegetable or mineral based.

Cutting fluids
Any liquid or a gas used to cool as well as to lubricate is called a cutting fluid. Emulsion of oil in water are mostly used as cutting fluids. It a. Cool the tools b. Lubricate the tools c. To cool as well as lubricate the tools In order to provide satisfactory service, the cutting fluid should provide 1. Good lubricating property 2. Low viscosity so that lubricants can easily fill in the cracks 3. Chemical stability 4. Non-corrosive nature towards the metal as well as the tool 5. High thermal conductivity

Oil as cutting fluid

In fine work a stream of oil is directed over the work-piece. Here the cutting fluid acts more as lubricant and less as heat-carrying agent. When the speed is low and the pressure is high the oils are mostly used as cutting fluids. Compounded oils obtained by mixing petroleum oils with vegetables and animal oils.

Water as cutting fluid

For rough grinding and turning only cooling action is sufficient. Water being good cooling agent and cheap, so mostly used as cutting fluid.

Emulsion as cutting fluid

In most cases use of either oil or water alone is not satisfactory and both a cooling agent and a lubricant is needed simultaneously. For such situation oilin water emulsion are employed. These are prepared by mixing small amount of petroleum oil with water, and then stabilizing by adding emulsifier ( soap, sulphonated oil, H2SO4 treated castor oil, chloro-sulphonated organic compounds). Moreover, to prevent thickening glycols or alcohols are added.

Selection of lubricants
In selecting a lubricant for a particular job, the service condition requirements are to be related to the properties of the lubricants. If a lubricant used at high temp. undergoes volatilization of a portion of it, leaving being a residual oil, which will have different lubricating properties like higher viscosity.

a. Lubricants for cutting tools

In this operation, a metal is continuously removed from the surface and causes high friction, which results in excessive power consumption and liberation of high amount of heat. Heat liberated may overheat the tool and may lower its temper. Therefore the main functions of cutting fluids are To cool the tool, to cool the metal-work piece, so as to prevent distortion, to reduce power consumption by lubricating action and to improve surface finish. For heavy cutting, cutting oils like mineral oils of low viscosities containing additives like fatty oils, sulphurized fatty oils and chlorinated compounds, attach themselves to the surface of fresh metal.

For light cutting most effective lubricants are oil-emulsions. Oil-emulsions have smaller lubricating effect than cutting oil, but they are most effective as cooling media, due to high heat capacity of water, water is present in them as an external phase. b. Lubricants for internal combustion engines The lubricants are exposed at high temperatures. Petroleum oils containing additives, are used as lubricants for internal combustion engines c. Lubricants for gears They are subjected to extreme-pressure. So they should possesses good oiliness, not to be removed by centrifugal force from the place of equilibrium and have a high-load carrying additives. d. Lubricants for delicate instruments Delicates instruments like watches, sewing machines thin vegetable oils are employed e. Lubricants for very high-pressure and low speeds such as tractor roller, concrete mixer, railway track joints Under these conditions, oil/grease films can not be maintained. So solid lubricants like graphite, mica etc are employed either in dry powder form or as emulsion in oil or water

f. Lubricants for transformer The functions of the lubricating oil in an electrical transformer are to insulate the winding and to carry away the heat generated, when the transformer is on load. Transformer liquid is exposed to air. When the transformer is on-load such exposure coupled with elevated temperature, electrical stress and catalytic influence of copper leading to the formation of acids and sludge. Acids tend to attack the copper conductors, the transformer tank, the cotton insulation, while sludge coats the windings and thus increasing the temperature. High temperature promotes formation of more acids and sludge. The production of these injurious substances should be as small as possible, so highly refined mineral oils of high insulating quality and chemical stability are employed. g. Lubricants for refrigeration system Oil with low pour-point, low viscosity and low cloud point is needed. So napthalene based oil are employed mostly.