LLINGUISTICS

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Theoreticallinguisticsisthatbranchoflinguisticsthatismostconcerned with developing models of linguistic knowledge. Part of this endeavor involves the search for and explanation of linguistic universals, that is, properties all languages have in common. The fields that are generally considered the core of theoretical linguistics are syntax, phonology, morphology, and semantics. Phonology is often informed by phonetics, whichlikepsycholinguisticsandsociolinguisticsisoftennotconsideredpart oftheoreticallinguistics

1.PHONETICS
Phonetics(fromtheGreekword,phone=sound/voice)isthestudyof sounds (voice).Itisconcernedwiththeactualpropertiesofspeechsounds (phones) as well as those of nonspeech sounds, and their production, audition and perception, as opposed to phonology, which operates at the level ofsound systems andabstract sound units (suchas phonemes and distinctivefeatures).Phoneticsdealswiththesoundsthemselvesratherthan thecontextsinwhichtheyareusedinlanguages.Discussionsofmeaning (semantics)thereforedonotenteratthisleveloflinguisticanalysis. Whilewritingsystemsandalphabetsareinmanycasescloselyrelatedtothe soundsofspeech,strictlyspeaking,phoneticiansaremoreconcernedwith thesoundsofspeechthanthesymbolsusedtorepresentthem.Socloseis therelationshipbetweenthemhowever,thatmanydictionarieslistthestudy ofthesymbols(moreaccuratelysemiotics)asapartofphoneticstudies.On the other hand, logographic writing systems typically give much less phonetic information, but the information is not necessarily nonexistent. Forinstance,in Chinesecharacters,a phonetic referstotheportionofthe character that hints at its pronunciation, while the radical refers to the portion that serves as a semantic hint. Characters featuring the same phonetic typically have similar pronunciations, but by no means are the pronunciationspredictablydeterminedbythephoneticduetothefactthat pronunciationsdivergedovermanycenturieswhilethecharactersremained thesame.NotallChinesecharactersare radicalphoneticcompounds,buta goodmajorityofthemare. Phoneticshasthreemainbranches:

articulatoryphonetics ,concernedwiththepositionsandmovementsof the lips, tongue, vocal tract and folds and other speech organs in producingspeech acousticphonetics ,concernedwiththepropertiesofthesoundwaves andhowtheyarereceivedbytheinnerear

auditoryphonetics ,concernedwithspeechperception,principallyhow thebrainformsperceptualrepresentationsoftheinputitreceives.

Thereareoverahundreddifferentphonesrecognizedasdistinctivebythe International Phonetic Association (IPA) and transcribed in their InternationalPhoneticAlphabet. Phonetics was studied as early as 2500 years ago in ancient India, with P ini 'saccountoftheplaceandmannerofarticulationofconsonantsinhis 5thcenturyBCEtreatiseofSanskrit.NearlyallIndicalphabetstodayorder theirconsonantsaccordingtoPini'sclassification.

1.1Articulatoryphonetics
Thefieldof articulatoryphonetics isasubfieldof phonetics.Instudying articulation, the phonetician is attempting to document how we produce speechsounds.Thatis,articulatoryphoneticiansareinterestedinhowthe differentstructuresofthevocaltract,calledthe articulators (tongue,lips, jaw,palate,teethetc.),interacttocreatethespecificsounds. Inordertounderstandhowsoundsaremade,experimentalproceduresare oftenadopted.Forexample,wecanmeasurehowthetonguemakescontact withtheroofofthemouthinnormalspeechproductionbyusingatechnique calledelectropalatography(orEPG).InordertocollectEPGdata,thespeaker needstobefittedwithaspecialprostheticpalate,whichcontainsanumber ofelectrodes.Thewayinwhichtheelectrodesare"contacted"bythetongue duringspeechprovidesuswithimportantinformation,suchashowmuchof thepalateiscontactedindifferentspeechsounds,orwhichregionsofthe palatearecontacted,orwhatthedurationofthecontactis.

1.2Acousticphonetics
Acoustic phonetics is a subfield of phonetics which deals with acoustic aspectsofspeechsounds.Acousticphoneticsinvestigatespropertieslikethe mean squared amplitude of a waveform, its duration, its fundamental frequency, or other properties of its frequency spectrum , and the relationship of these properties to other branches of phonetics (e.g. articulatory or auditoryphonetics),andtoabstractlinguisticconceptslike phones,phrases,orutterances. The study of acoustic phonetics was greatly enhanced in the late 19th centurybytheinventionoftheEdisonphonograph.Thephonographallowed thespeechsignaltoberecordedandthenlaterprocessedandanalyzed.By replaying the same speech signal from the phonograph several times, filteringiteachtimewithadifferent bandpassfilter,a spectrogram ofthe speechutterancecouldbebuiltup.AseriesofpapersbyLudimarHermann published in Pflger's Archiv in the last two decades of the 19th century

investigated the spectral properties of vowels and consonants using the Edisonphonograph,anditwasinthesepapersthattheterm formant was firstintroduced.Hermannalsoplayedbackvowelrecordingsmadewiththe Edisonphonographatdifferentspeedsinanefforttodistinguishbetween Willis'andWheatstone'stheoriesofvowelproduction. Further advances in acoustic phonetics were made possible by the development of the telephone industry. (Incidentally, Alexander Graham Bell'sfather,AlexanderMelvilleBell,wasaphonetician.)DuringWorldWar II,workattheBellTelephoneLaboratories(whichinventedthespectrograph) greatlyfacilitatedthesystematicstudyofthespectralpropertiesofperiodic andaperiodic speech sounds, vocal tract resonances and vowel formants, voicequality,prosody,etc. Onatheoreticallevel,acousticphoneticsreallytookoffwhenitbecameclear that speech acoustic could be modeled in a way analogous to electrical circuits.LordRayleighwasamongthefirsttorecognizethatthenewelectric theorycouldbeusedinacoustics,butitwasnotuntil1941thatthecircuit modelwaseffectively used, ina book byChiba andKajiyama called"The Vowel: Its Nature and Structure". (Interestingly, this book by Japanese authorsworkinginJapanwaspublishedinEnglishattheheightofWorld WarII.)In1952, RomanJakobson, GunnarFant,and MorrisHalle wrote "PreliminariestoSpeechAnalysis",aseminalworktyingacousticphonetics andphonologicaltheorytogether.Thislittlebookwasfollowedin1960by Fant"AcousticTheoryofSpeechProduction",whichhasremainedthemajor theoreticalfoundationforspeechacousticresearchinboththeacademyand industry.(Fantwashimselfveryinvolvedinthetelephoneindustry.)Other importantframersofthefieldincludeKennethN.Stevens,OsamuFujimura, andPeterLadefoged

1.3Auditoryphonetics
Auditoryphonetics isabranchof phonetics concernedwiththe hearing, acquisitionandcomprehensionofphoneticsoundsofwordsofalanguage.

2.PHONOLOGY
Phonology (Greek phon = voice/sound and logos = word/speech), is a subfieldoflinguisticswhichstudiesthesoundsystemofaspecificlanguage (or languages). Whereas phonetics is about the physical production and perception of the sounds of speech, phonology describes the way sounds functionwithinagivenlanguageoracrosslanguages. An important part of phonology is studying which sounds are distinctive unitswithinalanguage.InEnglish,forexample,/p/and/b/aredistinctive units of sound, (i.e., they are phonemes / the difference is phonemic, or phonematic).Thiscanbeseenfrom minimalpairs suchas"pin"and"bin", which mean different things, but differ only in one sound. On the other hand,/p/isoftenpronounceddifferentlydependingonitspositionrelative toother sounds,yetthesedifferent pronunciationsarestillconsideredby nativespeakers tobethesame"sound".Forexample, the/p/in"pin"is aspiratedwhilethesamephonemein"spin"isnot.Insomeotherlanguages, eg Thai and Quechua,thissamedifferenceofaspirationornonaspiration doesdifferentiatephonemes. In addition to the minimal meaningful sounds (the phonemes), phonology studieshowsoundsalternate,suchasthe/p/inEnglishdescribedabove, andtopicssuchassyllablestructure,stress,accent,andintonation. Theprinciplesofphonologicaltheoryhavealsobeenappliedtotheanalysis of sign languages, in which it is argued that the same or a similar phonologicalsystemunderliesbothsignedandspokenlanguages.(Signsare distinguishedfrom gestures inthatthelatter arenonlinguisticorsupply extrameaningalongsidethelinguisticmessage.)

Contents
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1 Representingphonemes 2 Phonemeinventories o 2.1 Doingaphoneme inventory o 2.2 Phonemicdistinctionsorallophones o 2.3 Changeofaphonemeinventoryovertime 3 Othertopicsinphonology o 3.1 Wordstress 4 Development ofthefield 5 Seealso 6 Externallinks

7 Bibliography [edit]

2.1Representingphonemes
Thewritingsystemsofsomelanguagesarebasedonthephonemicprinciple ofhavingone letter (orcombinationofletters)per phoneme andviceversa. Ideally, speakers can correctly write whatever they can say, and can correctly read anything that is written. (In practice, this ideal is never realized.)HoweverinEnglish,differentspellingscanbeusedforthesame phoneme(e.g., rude and food havethesame vowel sounds),andthesame letter(orcombinationofletters)canrepresentdifferentphonemes(e.g.,the "th" consonant soundsof thin and this aredifferent).Inordertoavoidthis confusion based on orthography, phonologists represent phonemes by writingthembetweentwoslashes:"//"(butwithoutthequotes).Onthe otherhand,theactualsoundsareenclosedbysquarebrackets:"[]"(again, withoutquotes).Whilethelettersbetweenslashesmaybebasedonspelling conventions, the letters between square brackets are usually the InternationalPhoneticAlphabet (IPA)orsomeother phonetictranscription system.

2.2Phonemeinventory
2.2.1Doingaphonemeinventory Part of the phonological study of a language involves looking at data (phonetic transcriptions of the speech of native speakers) and trying to deducewhattheunderlyingphonemesareandwhatthesoundinventoryof thelanguageis.Eventhoughalanguagemaymakedistinctionsbetweena smallnumberofphonemes,speakersactuallyproducemanymorephonetic sounds.Thus,aphonemeinaparticularlanguagecanbepronouncedin manyways.

Looking for minimal pairs forms part of the research in studying the phonemeinventoryofalanguage.Aminimalpairisapairofwordsfromthe samelanguage,thatdifferbyonlyasinglesound,andthatarerecognizedby speakersasbeingtwodifferentwords.Whenthereisaminimalpair,thetwo soundsconstituteseparatephonemes.(Itisoftennotpossibletodetectall phonemeswiththismethodsootherapproachesareusedaswell.) 2.2.2Phonemicdistinctionsorallophones Iftwosimilarsoundsdonotconstituteseparatephonemes,theyarecalled allophones ofthesameunderlyingphoneme.Forinstance,voicelessstops (/p/,/t/,/k/)canbeaspirated.InEnglish,voicelessstopsatthebeginning ofawordareaspirated,whereasafter/s/theyarenotaspirated.(Thiscan be seen by putting your fingers right in front of your lips and notice the difference in breathiness as you say 'pin' and 'spin'.) There is no English word'pin'thatstartswithanunaspiratedp,thereforeinEnglish,aspirated [p] (the [] means aspirated) and unaspirated [p] are allophones of an underlyingphoneme/p/. Another example of allophones in English is how the /t/ sounds in the words'tub','stub','but',and'butter'areallpronounceddifferently,yetare allperceivedas"thesamesound." Another example: in English, the liquids /l/ and // are two separate phonemes(minimalpair'life','rife');however,inKoreanthesetwoliquidsare allophones of the same phoneme, and the general rule is that [] comes beforeavowel,and[l]doesnot(e.g.Seoul,Korea).Anativespeakerwilltell youthatthe [l] inSeoulandthe [] inKoreanareinfactthesameletter. What happens is that a native Korean speaker's brain recognises the underlying phoneme /l/, and, depending on the phonetic context (whether before a vowel or not), expresses it as either [] or [l]. Another Korean speakerwillhearbothsoundsastheunderlyingphonemeandthinkofthem as the same sound. This is one reason why most people have an accent whentheyattempttospeakalanguagethattheydidnotgrowuphearing; theirbrainssortthesoundstheyhearintermsofthephonemesoftheirown nativelanguage. 2.2.3Changeofaphonemeinventoryovertime Theparticularsoundswhicharephonemicinalanguagecanchangeover time. At one time, [f] and [v] were allophones in English, but these later changedintoseparatephonemes.Thisisoneofthemainfactorsofhistorical changeoflanguagesasdescribedinhistoricallinguistics.

2.3Othertopicsinphonology
Phonology also includes topics such as assimilation, elision, epenthesis, vowel harmony, tone, nonphonemic prosody and phonotactics. Prosody includestopicssuchasstressandintonation. 2.3.1Wordstress Insomelanguages,stressisnonphonemic.SomeexamplesincludeFinnish andallancientGermaniclanguages(OldNorse, OldEnglish and OldHigh German) as well as some modern Germanic languages such as Icelandic. However, in other modernday Germanic languages such as German or English, stress is phonemically distinctive, although there are only a few minimal pairs. In German, for example, /august/, the personal name August,contrastswith/august/,themonthAugust. ThedistinctionofstressisoftenseeninEnglishwordswheretheverband nounformshavethesamespelling.Forexample,consider /rbl/ 'rebel' thenoun(whichplacestheemphasisonthefirstsyllable)contrastedwith /rbl/ 'rebel' the verb (which instead puts the emphasis on the second syllable). Anotherexampleisthepair insight /nsat/andincite /nsat/,whereinthe formerthestressliesonthefirstsyllableandinthelatteronthesecond syllable. In some regional pronunciations of American English, the words Missouri and misery arealsodistinguishedonlybystress:in Missouri,the stress lies on the penultimate syllable, but in misery it lies on the first syllable.

4.Developmentofthefield
In ancient India,the Sanskrit grammarian P n ni (c. 520460BC),whois consideredthefounderof linguistics,inhistextofSanskritphonology,the ShivaSutras,discoverstheconceptsofthephoneme,themorphemeandthe root. The Shiva Sutras describe a phonemic notational system in the fourteen initial lines of the A dhyy . The notational system introduces differentclustersofphonemesthatservespecialrolesinthemorphology of Sanskrit, and are referred to throughout the text. Panini's grammar of SanskrithadasignificantinfluenceonFerdinanddeSaussure,thefatherof modernstructuralism,whowasaprofessorofSanskrit. ThePolishscholarJanBaudouindeCourtenaycoinedthewordphonemein 1876,andhiswork,thoughoftenunacknowledged,isconsideredtobethe startingpointofmodernphonology.Heworkednotonlyonthetheoryofthe phoneme but also on phonetic alternations (i.e., what is now called allophony and morphophonology).Hisinfluenceon FerdinanddeSaussure wasalsosignificant.

Prince NikolaiTrubetzkoy'sposthumouslypublishedwork,the Principlesof Phonology (1939), is considered the foundation of the Prague School of phonology. Directly influenced by Baudouin de Courtenay, Trubetskoy is consideredthefounderof morphophonology,thoughmorphophonologywas firstrecognizedbyBaudouindeCourtenay.Trubetzkoysplitphonologyinto phonemicsandarchiphonemics;theformerhashadmoreinfluencethanthe latter.AnotherimportantfigureinthePragueSchoolwasRomanJakobson, whowasoneofthemostprominentlinguistsofthetwentiethcentury. In1968, NoamChomsky and MorrisHalle published TheSoundPatternof English(SPE),thebasisforGenerativePhonology.Inthisview,phonological representations (surface forms) are structures whose phonetic part is a sequence of phonemes which are made up of distinctive features. These features were an expansion of earlier work by Roman Jakobson, Gunnar Fant, and Halle. The features describe aspects of articulation and perception,arefromauniversallyfixedset,andhavethebinaryvalues+or .Ordered phonological rules governhow thisphonological representation (also called underlying representation) is transformed into the actual pronunciation(alsocalledsurfaceform.)Animportantconsequenceofthe influence SPE had on phonological theory was the downplaying of the syllable and the emphasis on segments. Furthermore, the Generativists foldedmorphologyintophonology,whichbothsolvedandcreatedproblems. Inthelate1960s,DavidStampeintroducedNaturalPhonology.Inthisview, phonology is based on a set of universal phonological processes which interactwithoneanother;whichonesareactiveandwhicharesuppressed are languagespecific. Rather than acting on segments, phonological processesactondistinctivefeatureswithinprosodicgroups.Prosodicgroups canbeassmallasapartofasyllableoraslargeasanentireutterance. Phonologicalprocessesareunorderedwithrespecttoeachotherandapply simultaneously (though the output of one process may be the input to another).ThesecondmostprominentNaturalPhonologistisStampe'swife, PatriciaDonegan;therearemanyNaturalPhonologistsinEurope,though also a few others in the U.S., such as Geoffrey Pullum. The principles of NaturalPhonologywereextendedtomorphology by WolfgangDressler,who foundedNaturalMorphology. In1976JohnGoldsmithintroducedautosegmentalphonology.Phonological phenomenaarenolongerseenas one linearsequenceofsegments,called phonemesorfeaturecombinations,butratherassomeparallelsequencesof featureswhichresideonmultipletiers. GovernmentPhonology,whichoriginatedintheearly1980sasanattemptto unifytheoreticalnotionsofsyntacticandphonologicalstructures,isbased onthenotionthatalllanguagesnecessarilyfollowasmallsetof principles andvaryaccordingtotheirselectionofcertainbinary parameters.Thatis, alllanguages'phonologicalstructuresareessentiallythesame,butthereis restricted variation that accounts for differences in surface realizations. 8

Principlesareheldtobeinviolable,thoughparametersmaysometimescome intoconflict.Prominentfiguresinclude JonathanKaye, JeanLowenstamm, JeanRogerVergnaud,MonikCharette,JohnHarris,andmanyothers. In a course at the LSA summer institute in 1991, Alan Prince and Paul Smolensky developed Optimality Theoryan overall architecture for phonologyaccordingtowhichlanguageschooseapronunciationofaword that best satisfies a list of constraints which is ordered by importance: a lowerrankedconstraintcanbeviolatedwhentheviolationisnecessaryin ordertoobeyahigherrankedconstraint.Theapproachwassoonextended to morphology by John McCarthy and Alan Prince, and has become the dominanttrendinphonology.Thoughusuallyunacknowledged,Optimality TheorywasstronglyinfluencedbyNaturalPhonology;bothviewphonology in terms of constraints on speakers and their production, though these constraintsareformalizedinverydifferentways.

Seealso

Phoneme Morphophonology Phonologicalhierarchy Prosody(linguistics) Englishphonology Shibboleth

3.MORPHOLOGY
Morphology is asubdiscipline of linguistics that studies wordstructure. Whilewordsaregenerallyacceptedasbeingthesmallestunitsofsyntax,it is clear that in most (if not all) languages, words can be related to other wordsbyrules.Forexample,anyEnglishspeakercanseethatthewords dog, dogs and dogcatcher are closely related. English speakers can also recognizethattheserelationscanbeformulatedasrulesthatcanapplyto many,manyotherpairsofwords. Dog isto dogs justas cat isto cats,or encyclopdia is to encyclopdias; dog is to dogcatcher as dish is to dishwasher.Theruleinthefirstcaseispluralformation;inthesecondcase, atransitiveverb andanounplayingtheroleofitsobjectcanformaword. Morphologyisthebranchoflinguisticsthatstudiessuchrulesacrossand withinlanguages.

3.1History
The history of morphological analysis dates back to the ancient Indian linguistP ini whoformulatedthe3,959rulesofSanskritmorphologyinthe text A dhyy .TheGraecoRomangrammaticaltraditionalsoengagedin morphologicalanalysis. ThetermmorphologyitselfwascoinedbyAugustSchleicherin1859:Frdie LehrevonderWortformwhleichdasWort"Morphologie" ("forthescienceof wordformation,Ichoosetheterm'morphology'", MmoiresAcad.Impriale 7/1/7,35).

3.2Fundamentalconcepts
3.2.1Lexemesandwordwords The word "word" is ambiguous in common usage. To take up again the exampleofdogvs.dogs,thereisonesenseinwhichthesetwoarethesame "word"(theyarebothnounsthatrefertothesamekindofanimal,differing onlyinnumber),andanothersenseinwhichtheyaredifferentwords(they can'tgenerallybeusedinthesamesentences without alteringotherwords tofit;forexample,theverbsisandareinThedogishappyandThedogsare happy). The distinction between these two senses of "word" is probably the most importantoneinmorphology.Thefirstsenseof"word,"theoneinwhich dog anddogsare"thesameword,"iscalled lexeme.Thesecondsenseiscalled wordform.Wethussaythatdoganddogsaredifferentformsofthesame lexeme. Dog and dogcatcher,ontheotherhand,aredifferentlexemes;for example,theyrefertotwodifferentkindsofentities.Theformofawordthat ischosenconventionallytorepresentthecanonicalformofawordiscalleda lemmaorcitationform. 3.2.2Inflectionvs.wordformation Given the notion of a lexeme, it is possible to distinguish two kinds of morphologicalrules.Somemorphologicalrulesrelatedifferentformsofthe samelexeme;whileotherrulesrelatetwodifferentlexemes.Rulesofthefirst kindarecalledinflectionalrules,whilethoseofthesecondkindarecalled wordformation.TheEnglishplural,asillustratedby dog and dogs,isan inflectionalrule;compoundslikedogcatcherordishwasherareanexample ofawordformationrule.Informally,wordformationforms"newwords"(that is, lexemes), while inflection gives you more forms of the "same" word (lexeme). There is a further distinction between two kinds of wordformation: derivation and compounding. Compounding is a kind of wordformation 10

which involves combining complete word forms into a compound; dog catcherisacompound,becausebothdogandcatcherarewords.Derivation involves suffixes or prefixes that are not independent words; the word independent is derived from the word dependent by prefixing it with the derivationalprefixin,anddependentitselfisderivedfromtheverbdepend. Thedistinctionbetweeninflectionandwordformationisnotatallclearcut. Therearemanyexampleswherelinguistsfailtoagreewhetheragivenruleis inflection or wordformation. However, the next section will clarify this distinctionfurther. 3.2.3Paradigmsandmorphosyntax The notion of a paradigm is closely related to that of inflection. The paradigmofalexemeisthesetofallofitswordforms,organizedbytheir grammatical categories. The familiar examples of paradigms are the conjugations ofverbs,andthe declensions ofnouns.Thewordformsofa lexemecanusuallybearrangedintotables,byclassifyingthembyshared featuressuchastense,aspect,mood,number,genderorcase.Forexample, the personal pronouns in English can beorganizedintotables, using the categoriesofperson,number,genderandcase. Thecategoriesusedtogroupwordformsintoparadigmscannotbechosen arbitrarily;theymustbecategoriesthatarerelevanttostatingthesyntactic rules ofthelanguage.Forexample,personandnumberarecategoriesthat can be used to define paradigms in English, because English has grammaticalagreementrulesthatrequiretheverbinasentencetoappearin aninflectionalformthatmatchesthepersonandnumberofthesubject.In otherwords,thesyntacticrulesofEnglishcareaboutthedifferencebetween doganddogs,becausethechoicebetweenthesetwoformsdetermineswhich formoftheverbmustbeused;butincontrast,nosyntacticruleofEnglish caresaboutthedifferencebetween dog and dogcatcher,or dependent and independent. The first two are just nouns, and the second two just adjectives, and they generally behave like any other noun or adjective behaves. The major difference between inflection and word formation is that inflectionalformsoflexemesareorganizedintoparadigms,whicharedefined bytherequirementsofsyntacticrules.Thepartofmorphologythatcovers the relationship between syntax and morphology is called morphosyntax, and it concerns itself with inflection and paradigms, but not with word formationorcompounding. 3.2.4Allomorphyandmorphophonology In the exposition above, morphological rules are described as analogies betweenwordforms:dogistodogsascatistocats,andasdishistodishes. Inthiscase,theanalogyappliesbothtothemeaningofthewordsandto 11

theirforms:ineachpair,thewordintheleftalwaysmeans"oneofX"and theoneontheright"manyofX",andatthedistinctionisalwayssignaledby havingthepluralformhavean s attheend,whichthesingulardoesnot have. Oneofthelargestsourcesofcomplexityinmorphologyisthatthissortof onetoonecorrespondencebetweenmeaningandformhardlyeverholds.In English, we have word form pairs like ox/oxen, goose/geese, and sheep/sheep, where the difference between thesingular and thepluralis signaledinadifferentwayfromtheregularpattern,ornotsignalledatall. Even the case we consider "regular", with the final s, is not quite that simple;thesindogsisnotpronouncedthesamewayasthe sincats,and inaplurallikedishes,wehavean"extra"vowelbeforethes.Thesecases, where the same distinction is effected by different changes of form for differentlexemes,arecalledallomorphy. Thereareseveralkindsofallomorphy.Oneispureallomorphy,wherethe allomorphs are just arbitrary. The most extreme cases here are called suppletion, where two forms related by a morphological rule are just arbitrarilydifferent:forexample,thepastofgoiswent,whichisasuppletive form. Ontheotherhand,otherkindsofallomorphyareduetointeractionbetween morphologyand phonology.Phonologicalrulesconstrainwhichsoundscan appear next to each other in a language, and morphological rules, when applied blindly, would often violate phonological rules, by resulting in impossible sound sequences. For example, if we were to try to form the pluralof dish byjustputtinga s attheend,we'dget *dishs,whichisnot permittedbythephonology;to"rescue"theword,weputavowelsoundin between,andgetdishes.Similarrulesapplytothepronunciationofthe sin dogs and cats: it depends on the quality (voiced vs. unvoiced) of the precedingphoneme. Thestudyofallomorphythatresultsfromtheinteractionofmorphologyand phonology iscalled morphophonology.Manymorphophonologicalrulesfall underthecategoryofsandhi.

3.2.5Lexicalmorphology Lexicalmorphologyisthebranchofmorphologythatdealswiththelexicon, which,morphologicallyconceived,isthecollectionoflexemesinalanguage. As such, it concerns itself primarily with wordformation: derivation and compounding.

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3.3Modelsofmorphology
There are three major families ofapproaches tomorphology, whichtry to capturethedistinctionsaboveindifferentways.Theseare:

Morphemebased morphology , which makes use of an Itemand Arrangementapproach. Lexemebasedmorphology ,whichnormallymakesuseofanItemand Processapproach. Wordbased morphology ,whichnormallymakesuseofa Wordand Paradigmapproach.

Please notethat whiletheassociations indicated between theconcepts in eachiteminthatlistisverystrong,itisnotabsolute. 3.3.1Morphemebasedmorphology In morphemebasedmorphology,wordformsareanalyzedassequencesof morphemes.A morpheme isdefinedastheminimalmeaningfulunitofa language.Inawordlikeindependently,wesaythatthemorphemesare in, depend, ent,and ly; depend isthe root andtheothermorphemesare,in thiscase,derivationalaffixes.[1] Inawordlike dogs,wesaythat dog isthe root,andthat s isaninflectionalmorpheme.Thiswayofanalyzingword formsasiftheyweremadeofmorphemesputaftereachotherlikebeadson astring,iscalledItemandArrangement. Themorphemebasedapproachisthefirstonethatbeginnerstomorphology usuallythinkof,andwhichlaymentendtofindthemostobvious.Thisisso tosuchanextentthatveryoftenbeginnersthinkthatmorphemesarean inevitable, fundamental notion of morphology; and many fiveminute explanations of morphology are, in fact, fiveminute explanations of morphemebasedmorphology.Thisis,however,notso;thefundamentalidea ofmorphologyisthatthewordsofalanguagearerelatedtoeachotherby different kindsofrules.Analyzingwordsassequencesofmorphemes isa wayofdescribingtheserelations,butisnottheonlyway.Inactualacademic linguistics,morphemebasedmorphologycertainlyhasmanyadherents,but isbynomeansabsolutelydominant. Applying a morphemebased model strictly quickly leads to complications whenonetriestoanalyzemanyformsofallomorphy.Forexample,it'seasy tothinkthatindogs,wehavetherootdog,followedbythepluralmorpheme s;thesamesortofanalysisisalsostraightforwardfor oxen,withthestem ox,andasuppletivepluralmorphemeen.Butthen,howdowe"splitup"the wordgeeseintoroot+pluralmorpheme?Howdowedosoforsheep? Theorists who wish to maintain a strict morphemebased approach often preservetheideaincaseslikethesebysayingthat geese is goose followed

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bya nullmorpheme (amorphemethathasnophonologicalcontent),and thatthevowelchangeinthestemisamorphophonologicalrule.Itisalso commonformorphemebasedanalysestopositnullmorphemeseveninthe absenceofanyallomorphy.Forexample,ifthepluralnoun dogsisanalyzed asarootdogfollowedbyapluralmorpheme s,thenonemightanalyzethe singulardogastherootdogfollowedbyanullmorphemeforthesingular. 3.3.2Lexemebasedmorphology Lexemebased morphology is (usually) an ItemandProcess approach. Instead of analyzing a word form as a set of morphemes arranged in sequence,wethinkofawordformastheresultofapplyingrulesthat altera wordformorstems,toproduceanewone.Aninflectionalruletakesastem, doessomechangestoit,andoutputsawordform;aderivationalruletakes astem,andoutputsaderivedstem;acompoundingruletakeswordforms, andoutputsacompoundstem. TheItemandProcessapproachbypassesthedifficultydescribedabovefor ItemandArrangementapproaches.Facedwithaplurallike geese,wedon't havetoassumethereisazeromorph;allwesayisthatwhilethepluralof dog isformedbyaddingan s totheend,thepluralof goose isformedby changingthevowelinthestem. 3.3.3Wordbasedmorphology Wordbased morphology is a (usually) WordandParadigm approach. This kindoftheorytakesparadigmsasacentralnotion.Insteadofstatingrules to combine morphemes into word forms, or to generate wordforms from stems,wordbasedmorphologystatesgeneralizationsthatholdbetweenthe forms of inflectional paradigms. The major point behind this approach is that many such generalizations arehard tostate with either of the other approaches.Theexamplesareusuallydrawnfromfusionallanguages,where a given "piece" of a word, which a morphemebased theory would call an inflectional morpheme, corresponds to a combination of grammatical categories, for example, "third person plural." Morphemebased theories usually have no problems with this situation, since one just says that a givenmorphemehastwocategories.ItemandProcesstheories,ontheother hand, often break down in cases like these, because they all too often assumethattherewillbetwoseparateruleshere,oneforthirdperson,and the other for plural, but the distinction between them turns out to be artificial. WordandParadigm approaches treat these as whole words that arerelatedtoeachotherbyanalogicalrules.Wordscanbecategorizedbased onthepatternthattheyfitinto.Thisappliesbothtoexistingwordsandto new ones. Application of a different pattern than the one that was used historicallycangiverisetoanewword,suchas olderreplacingelder(where older follows the normal pattern of adjectival superlatives) and cows replacingkine(wherecowsfitstheregularpatternofpluralformation).While

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a WordandParadigm approach can explain this easily, other approaches havedifficultywithphenomenasuchasthis.

3.4Morphologicaltypology
Seethemainarticle,morphologicaltypology In the 19th century, philologists devised a now classic classification of languages in terms of their morphology. According to this typology, some languages are isolating, and have little or no morphology; others are agglutinative, and their words tend to have lots of easilyseparable morphemes; while yet others are fusional, because their inflectional morphemes are said to be "fused" together. The classic example of an isolating language is Chinese; the classic example of an agglutinative languageis Turkish;both Latin and Greek areclassicexamplesoffusional languages. Whenoneconsidersthevariabilityoftheworld'slanguages,itbecomesclear that this classification is not at all clearcut, and many languages don't neatlyfitanyoneofthesetypes.However,examinedagainstthelightofthe threegeneralmodelsofmorphologydescribedabove,itisalsoclearthatthe classificationisverymuchbiasedtowardsamorphemebasedconceptionof morphology.Itmakesdirectuseofthenotionofmorphemeinthedefinition of agglutinative and fusional languages. It describes the latter as having separatemorphemes "fused" together (which often does correspond to the historyofthelanguage,butnottoitssynchronicreality). Thethreemodelsofmorphologystemfromattemptstoanalyzelanguages thatmoreorlessmatchdifferentcategoriesinthistypology.TheItemand Arrangementapproachfitsverynaturallywithagglutinativelanguages;while theItemandProcessandWordandParadigmapproachesusuallyaddress fusionallanguages. Thereadershouldalsonotethattheclassicaltypologyalsomostlyappliesto inflectional morphology. There is very little fusion going on with word formation.Languagesmaybeclassifiedassyntheticoranalyticintheirword formation,dependingonthepreferredwayofexpressingnotionsthatarenot inflectional:eitherbyusingwordformation(synthetic),orbyusingsyntactic phrases(analytic).

3.5Footnotes
1. ^ Theexistenceofwordslike appendix and pending inEnglishdoes notmeanthattheEnglishword dependisanalyzedintoaderivational prefixdeandarootpend.Whileallthosewereindeedoncerelatedto eachotherby morphologicalrules, thiswassoonly inLatin,notin English.EnglishborrowedthewordsfromFrenchandLatin,butnot

15

the morphological rules that allowed Latin speakers to combine de andtheverbpendere'hang'intothederivativedependere.

3.6Seealso

affixation boundmorpheme dependentmarkinglanguage headmarkinglanguage inflectedlanguage morphologicaltypology nouncase rootmorpheme syntactichierarchy uninflectedword distributedmorphology nonconcatenativemorphology unpairedword

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4.SYNTAX
Syntax, originating from the Greek words (syn, meaning "co" or "together")and(txis,meaning"sequence,order,arrangement"),canin linguisticsbedescribed asthe study oftherules,or"patternedrelations" thatgovernthewaythewordsinasentencecometogether.Itconcernshow different words (which, going back to Dionysios Thrax, are categorized as nouns,adjectives,verbs,etc.)arecombinedintoclauses,which,inturn,are combined into sentences. Syntax attempts to systematize descriptive grammar,andisunconcernedwithprescriptivegrammar(see Prescription anddescription). Thereexistmanytheoriesofformalsyntaxtheoriesthathaveintimerisen or fallen in influence. Most theories of syntax at least share two commonalities: First, they hierarchically group subunits into constituent units (phrases). Second, they provide some system of rules to explain patterns of acceptability/grammaticality and unacceptability/ungrammaticality. Most formal theories of syntax offer explanations of the systematic relationships between syntactic form and semantic meaning.Theearliestframeworkof semiotics wasestablishedby Charles W. Morris in his 1938 book Foundations of the Theory of Signs. Syntaxisdefined,withinthestudyofsigns,asthefirstofitsthreesubfields (thestudyoftheinterrelationofthesigns).Thesecondsubfieldissemantics (thestudyoftherelationbetweenthesignsandtheobjectstowhichthey apply),andthethirdispragmatics(therelationshipbetweenthesignsystem andtheuser). In the framework of transformationalgenerative grammar (of which GovernmentandBindingTheory and Minimalism arerecentdevelopments), the structure of a sentence is represented by phrase structure trees, otherwise known as phrase markers or tree diagrams. Such trees provide information about the sentences they represent by showing how, starting fromaninitialcategory S (or,for ID/LPgrammar, Z),thevarious syntactic categories(e.g.nounphrase,verbphrase,etc.)areformed. Therearevarioustheoriesastohowbesttomakegrammarssuchthatby systematicapplicationoftherules,onecanarriveateveryphrasemarkerin alanguage(andhenceeverysentenceinthelanguage).Themostcommon are Phrase structure grammars and ID/LP grammars, the latter having a slightexplanatoryadvantageovertheformer. [citationneeded]Dependencygrammar isaclassofsyntactictheoriesseparatefromgenerativegrammarinwhich structure is determined by the relation between a word (a head) and its dependents. One difference from phrase structure grammar is that 17

dependencygrammardoesnothavephrasalcategories.Algebraicsyntaxisa typeofdependencygrammar. Amodernapproachtocombiningaccuratedescriptionsofthegrammatical patterns of language with their function in context is that of systemic functional grammar, an approach originally developed by Michael A.K. Hallidayinthe1960sandnowpursuedactivelyinallcontinents.Systemic functional grammar is related both to featurebased approaches such as Headdrivenphrasestructuregrammarandtotheolderfunctionaltraditions of European schools of linguistics such as British Contextualism and the PragueSchool. Monotonic approaches to syntax, such as HeadDriven Phrase Structure Grammar, Lexical Functional Grammar, Construction Grammar, and cognitive grammar do generally not operate with rules of syntactic combination,butratherwiththenotionofsyntacticschematawhichlicense orblocktheoccurrenceofsequencesofwordsindiscourse. Treeadjoininggrammarisagrammarformalismwhichhasbeenusedasthe basis for a number of syntactic theories. However, in monotonic and monostratale frameworks, variants of unification grammar are often preferredformalisms. Another meaning of the term syntax has been evolved in the field of computer science, especially in the subfield of programming languages, where the set of allowed reserved words and their parameters and the correct wordorder inthe expression iscalledthesyntaxoflanguage.This applicationofthewordcanapplytonaturallanguages,aswell,asthrough Latin'sinflectionalcaseendings. Incomputerlanguages,syntaxcanbeextremelyrigid,asinthecaseofmost assembler languages, or less rigid, as in languages that make use of "keyword" parameters that can be stated in any order. The syntax of expressionscanbespecifiedwithparsetrees.Theanalysisofprogramming language syntaxusuallyentailsthetransformationofalinearsequenceof tokens (a token is akin to an individual word or punctuation mark in a naturallanguage)intoahierarchical syntaxtree (abstractsyntaxtrees are oneconvenientformofsyntaxtree). This process, called parsing, is in some respects analogous to syntactic analysis in linguistics; in fact, certain concepts, such as the Chomsky hierarchyandcontextfreegrammars,arecommontothestudyofsyntaxin bothlinguisticsandcomputerscience.

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5.SEMANTICS
Semantics (Greek: , semantiks, significant meaning, from sema,sign)isthestudyofmeaning,insomesenseofthatterm.Semantics is commonly contrasted with syntax, which pertains to the formal arrangementofcharactersandwordsintheexpressionsofagivenlanguage. Semanticsisdistinguishedfromontology(studyofexistence)inbeingabout theuseofawordmorethanthenatureoftheentityreferencedbytheword. This is reflected in the argument, "That's only semantics," when someone triestodrawconclusionsaboutwhatistrueabouttheworldbasedonwhat istrueaboutaword. Semanticmemoryisatermusedinneuropsychologytorefertomemoryfor facts,or"knowledge",asopposedtomemoryforevents(episodicmemory). Severalmoreparticularsensesofthewordcanbeidentified:

5.1Linguistics
Semantics is a subfield of linguistics that is traditionally defined as the study of meaning of (parts of) words, phrases, sentences, and texts. Semanticscanbeapproachedfromatheoreticalaswellasanempirical(for example psycholinguistic and neuroscientific) point of view. The decompositional perspective towards meaning holds that the meaning of words can be analyzed by defining meaning atoms or primitives, which establish a language of thought. An area of study is the meaning of compounds, another is the study of relations between different linguistic expressions (homonymy, synonymy, antonymy, polysemy, paronyms, hypernymy, hyponymy, meronymy, metonymy, holonymy, exocentric, and endocentric). Semantics includes the study of thematic roles, argument structure, and its linking to syntax. Semantics deals with sense and reference, truth conditions, and discourse analysis. Pragmatics is often consideredapartofsemantics,butotherwiseistreatedasabranchofits own.

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5.2Logic
Many of the formal approaches to semantics applied in linguistics, mathematicallogic,andcomputerscienceoriginatedintechniquesforthe semantics of logic, most influentially being Alfred Tarski's ideas in model theoryandhissemantictheoryoftruth.Also,inferentialrolesemanticshas itsrootsintheworkofGerhardGentzenonprooftheoryandprooftheoretic semantics. One of the most popular alternatives to the standard model theoreticsemanticsistruthvaluesemantics.

5.3Mathematicsandcomputerscience
"Semantics"isalsousedasaterminmathematicsandcomputerscience 5.3.1Mathematics Mathematicscanbedefinedasthelogicallyrigorousstudyoftopicssuchas quantity, structure, space, and change. Another view, held by many mathematicians,isthatmathematicsisthebodyofknowledgejustifiedby deductivereasoning,startingfromaxiomsanddefinitions. Mathematics is used throughout the world in fields such as science, engineering, medicine and economics.These fields bothinspire andmake useofnewdiscoveriesinmathematics.Newmathematicsisalsocreatedfor itsownsake,withoutanyparticularapplicationinview. Theword"mathematics"comesfromtheGreek (mthma)meaning science,knowledge,orlearning,and (mathmatiks),meaning fondoflearning.Itisoftenabbreviated math inthe U.S.and Canada and mathsinBritainandmanyCommonwealthcountries.

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Contents
[hide]

1 History 2 Inspiration,pureandappliedmathematics,andaesthetics 3 Notation,language,andrigor 4 Ismathematicsascience? 5 Overviewoffieldsofmathematics 6 Majorthemesinmathematics o 6.1 Quantity o 6.2 Structure o 6.3 Space o 6.4 Change o 6.5 Foundationsandmethods o 6.6 Discretemathematics o 6.7 Appliedmathematics o 6.8 Importanttheorems o 6.9 Importantconjectures o 6.10 Historyandtheworldofmathematicians 7 Commonmisconceptions o 7.1 Relationship betweenmathematicsandphysicalreality o 7.2 Whatmathematicsisnot 8 Seealso 9 Notes 10 References 11 Furtherreading 12 Externallinks

5.3.1.1History Mainarticle:Historyofmathematics Theevolutionofmathematicsmightbeseentobeaneverincreasingseries of abstractions, or alternatively an expansion of subject matter. The first abstractionwasprobablythatof numbers.Therealizationthattwoapples andtwoorangeshavesomethingincommon,namelythattheyfillthehands ofexactlyoneperson,wasabreakthroughinhumanthought.Inadditionto recognizing how to count concrete objects, prehistoric peoples also recognized how to count abstract quantities, like time days, seasons, years. Arithmetic (addition, subtraction, multiplication and division), naturallyfollowed.Monolithicmonumentstestifytoknowledgeofgeometry. Furtherstepsneedwritingorsomeothersystemforrecordingnumberssuch astalliesortheknottedstringscalledquipuusedbytheIncaempiretostore numericaldata.Numeralsystemshavebeenmanyanddiverse.

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From the beginnings of recorded history, the major disciplines within mathematics arose out of the need to do calculations on taxation and commerce, to understand the relationships among numbers, to measure land,andtopredictastronomicalevents.Theseneedscanberoughlyrelated to the broad subdivision of mathematics, into the studies of quantity, structure,space,andchange. Mathematicssincehasbeenmuchextended,andtherehasbeenafruitful interaction between mathematics and science, to the benefit of both. Mathematicaldiscoverieshavebeenmadethroughouthistoryandcontinue tobemadetoday.According toMikhailB.Sevryuk, intheJanuary2006 issueoftheBulletinoftheAmericanMathematicalSociety,"Thenumberof papers and books included in the Mathematical Reviews database since 1940(thefirstyearofoperationofMR)isnowmorethan1.9million,and more than 75 thousand items are added to the database each year. The overwhelming majority of works in this ocean contain new mathematical theoremsandtheirproof." 5.3.1.2Inspiration,pureandappliedmathematics,andaesthetics Mainarticle:Mathematicalbeauty Mathematics arises wherever there are difficult problems that involve quantity,structure,space,orchange.Atfirstthesewerefoundincommerce, land measurement and later astronomy; nowadays, all sciences suggest problems studied by mathematicians, and many problems arise within mathematicsitself.NewtoninventedinfinitesimalcalculusandFeynmanhis Feynman path integral using a combination of reasoning and physical insight, and today's string theory also inspires new mathematics. Some mathematicsisonlyrelevantintheareathatinspiredit,andisappliedto solvefurtherproblemsinthatarea.Butoftenmathematicsinspiredbyone area proves useful in many areas, and joins the general stock of mathematical concepts. The remarkable fact that even the "purest" mathematicsoftenturnsouttohavepracticalapplicationsiswhat Eugene Wignerhascalled"theunreasonableeffectivenessofmathematics." Asinmostareasofstudy,theexplosionofknowledgeinthescientificage hasledtospecializationinmathematics.Onemajordistinctionisbetween pure mathematics and applied mathematics. Within applied mathematics, two major areas have split off and become disciplines in their own right, statisticsandcomputerscience. Manymathematicianstalkaboutthe elegance ofmathematics,itsintrinsic aesthetics andinner beauty. Simplicity and generality arevalued.Thereis beautyalsoinacleverproof,suchasEuclid'sproofthatthereareinfinitely many primenumbers,andinanumericalmethodthatspeedscalculation, such as the fast Fourier transform. G. H. Hardy in A Mathematician's

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Apology expressed the belief that these aesthetic considerations are, in themselves,sufficienttojustifythestudyofpuremathematics. 5.3.1.3Notation,language,andrigor

Mainarticle:Mathematicalnotation Mostofthemathematicalnotationweusetodaywasnotinventeduntilthe 16th century. Before that, mathematics was written out in words, a painstaking process that limited mathematical discovery. Modern notation makes mathematics mucheasier for theprofessional, but beginners often finditdaunting.Itisextremelycompressed:afewsymbolscontainagreat dealofinformation.Like musicalnotation,modernmathematicalnotation hasastrictsyntaxandencodesinformationthatwouldbedifficulttowrite inanyotherway. Mathematical language also is hard for beginners. Even common words, suchasor and only,havemoreprecisemeaningsthanineverydayspeech. Mathematicians,likelawyers,strivetobeasunambiguousaspossible.Also confusing to beginners, words such as open and field have been given specialized mathematical meanings, and mathematical jargon includes technicaltermssuchas"homeomorphism"and integrable.Itwassaidthat HenriPoincar wasonlyelectedtotheAcadmieFranaisesothathecould tellthemhowtodefineautomorpheintheirdictionary.Butthereisareason for special notation and technical jargon: mathematics requires more precision than everyday speech. Mathematicians refer to this precision of languageandlogicas"rigor". Rigorisfundamentallyamatterofmathematicalproof.Mathematicianswant theirtheoremstofollowfromaxiomsbymeansofsystematicreasoning.This istoavoidmistaken'theorems',basedonfallibleintuitions,ofwhichmany instances have occurred in the history of the subject (for example, in mathematical analysis). The level of rigor expected in mathematics has variedovertime;theGreeksexpecteddetailedarguments,butbythetimeof IsaacNewton themethodsemployedwerelessrigorous.Problemsinherent in the definitions used by Newton would lead to a resurgence of careful analysis and formal proof in the 19th century. Today, mathematicians continuetoargueamongthemselvesaboutcomputerassistedproofs.Since errorscanbemadeinacomputation,suchproofsmaynotbesufficiently rigorous. Axiomsintraditionalthoughtwere'selfevidenttruths',butthatconception isproblematic.Ataformallevel,anaxiomisjustastringofsymbols,which hasanintrinsicmeaningonlyinthecontextofallderivableformulasofan axiomatic system. It was the goal of Hilbert's program to put all of mathematics on a firm axiomatic basis, but according to Gdel's

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incompleteness theorem every (sufficiently powerful)axiomaticsystem has undecidable formulas; and so a final axiomatization of mathematics is unavailable.Nonethelessmathematicsisoftenimaginedtobe(asfarasits formalcontent)nothingbutsettheoryinsomeaxiomatization,inthesense that every mathematical statement or proof could be cast into formulas withinsettheory. 5.3.1.4Ismathematicsascience? Carl Friedrich Gauss referred to mathematics as "the Queen of the Sciences".[1] Ifoneconsiders sciencetobestrictlyaboutthephysicalworld, then mathematics, or at least pure mathematics, is not a science. Karl Popper believed that mathematics was not experimentally falsifiable and thusnotascience. [citationneeded]However,otherthinkers,notablyImreLakatos, haveappliedaversionoffalsificationismtomathematicsitself. An alternative view is that certain scientific fields (such as theoretical physics) are mathematics with axioms that are intended tocorrespond to reality.Infact,thetheoreticalphysicist,J.M.Ziman,proposedthatscience is public knowledge and thus includes mathematics. [1] In any case, mathematics shares much in common with many fields in the physical sciences,notablytheexplorationofthelogicalconsequencesofassumptions. Intuition and experimentation also play a role in the formulation of conjectures inbothmathematicsandthe(other)sciences.As experimental mathematics continues to grow in importance within mathematics, and computationandsimulationplayanever bigger roleinboththesciences and mathematics, the objection that mathematics does not utilize the ScientificMethodbecomesweakerandweaker. The opinions of mathematicians onthismatter are varied. Whilesome in appliedmathematicsfeelthattheyarescientists,thoseinpuremathematics oftenfeelthattheyareworkinginanareamoreakintologicandthatthey are,hence,fundamentally philosophers.Manymathematiciansfeelthatto calltheirareaascienceistodownplaytheimportanceofitsaestheticside, anditshistoryinthetraditionalsevenliberalarts;othersfeelthattoignore its connection to the sciences is to turn a blind eye to the fact that the interface between mathematics and its applications in science and engineering has driven much development in mathematics. One way this differenceofviewpointplaysoutisinthephilosophicaldebateastowhether mathematicsiscreated(asinart)ordiscovered(asinscience).Itiscommon toseeuniversitiesdividedintosectionsthatincludeadivisionof Scienceand Mathematics,indicatingthatthefieldsareseenasbeingalliedbutthatthey do not coincide. In practice, mathematicians are typically grouped with scientistsatthegrosslevelbutseparatedatfinerlevels.

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5.3.1.5Overviewoffieldsofmathematics Asnotedabove,themajordisciplineswithinmathematicsfirstaroseoutof theneed todocalculationsincommerce, tounderstand therelationships between numbers, to measure land, and to predict astronomical events. These four needs can be roughly related to the broad subdivision of mathematicsintothestudyofquantity,structure,space,andchange(i.e., arithmetic, algebra, geometry, and analysis). In addition to these main concerns,therearealsosubdivisionsdedicatedtoexploringlinksfromthe heartofmathematicstootherfields:tologic,tosettheory(foundations)and totheempiricalmathematicsofthevarioussciences(appliedmathematics). The study of quantity starts with numbers, first the familiar natural numbers and integers and their arithmetical operations, which are characterized in arithmetic. The deeper properties of whole numbers are studiedinnumbertheory. The study of structure began with investigations of Pythagorean triples. NeolithicmonumentsontheBritishIslesareconstructedusingPythagorean triples.Eventually,thisledtotheinventionofmoreabstractnumbers,such asthesquarerootoftwo.Thedeeperstructuralpropertiesofnumbersare studiedinabstractalgebraandtheinvestigationofgroups,rings,fieldsand other abstract number systems. Included is the important concept of vectors,generalizedtovectorspacesandstudiedinlinearalgebra.Thestudy of vectors combines three of the fundamental areas of mathematics, quantity,structure,andspace. The study of space originates with geometry, beginning with Euclidean geometry. Trigonometry combinesspaceandnumber.Themodernstudyof spacegeneralizestheseideastoincludehigherdimensionalgeometry, non Euclidean geometries (which play a central role in general relativity) and topology. Quantity and space both play a role in analytic geometry, differential geometry, and algebraic geometry. Within differential geometry are the concepts of fiber bundles and calculus on manifolds. Within algebraicgeometryisthedescriptionofgeometricobjectsassolutionsetsof polynomial equations, combining theconcepts ofquantityandspace, and alsothestudyoftopologicalgroups,whichcombinestructureandspace.Lie groups areusedtostudyspace,structure,andchange. Topology inallits many ramifications may be the greatest growth area in 20th century mathematics. Understanding and describing change is a common theme in the natural sciences, and calculus was developed as a most useful tool. The central concept usedtodescribe achanging quantity isthatofa function.Many problemsleadquitenaturallytorelationsbetweenaquantityanditsrateof change, and the methods of differential equations. The numbers used to represent continuous quantities are the real numbers, and the detailed studyoftheirpropertiesandthepropertiesofrealvaluedfunctionsisknown 25

as real analysis. These have been generalized, with the inclusion of the squarerootofnegativeone,tothe complexnumbers,whicharestudiedin complexanalysis.Functionalanalysisfocusesattentionon(typicallyinfinite dimensional) spaces of functions. One of many applications of functional analysis is quantum mechanics. Many phenomena in nature can be described by dynamical systems; chaostheory makes precise the waysin which many of these systems exhibit unpredictable yet still deterministic behavior. Beyondquantity,structure,space,andchangeareareasofpuremathematics thatcanbeapproachedonlybydeductivereasoning.Inordertoclarifythe foundationsofmathematics,thefieldsofmathematicallogicandsettheory were developed. Mathematical logic, which divides into recursion theory, modeltheory,and prooftheory,isnowcloselylinkedto computerscience. Whenelectroniccomputerswerefirstconceived,severalessentialtheoretical concepts in computer science were shaped by mathematicians, leading to the fields of computability theory, computational complexity theory, and informationtheory.Manyofthosetopicsarenowinvestigatedintheoretical computerscience.Discretemathematicsisthecommonnameforthefields ofmathematicsmostgenerallyusefulincomputerscience. An important field in applied mathematics is statistics, which uses probability theory as a tool and allows the description, analysis, and prediction of phenomena where chance plays a role. It is used in all the sciences. (Many statisticians, however, do not consider themselves to be mathematicians, but rather part of an allied group.) Numerical analysis investigatescomputationalmethodsforefficientlysolvingabroadrangeof mathematical problems that are typically much too large for a human's capacity;itincludesthestudyofroundingerrorsorothersourcesoferrorin computation. 5.3.1.6Majorthemesinmathematics Analphabeticalandsubclassified listofmathematicsarticles isavailable. The following list of themes and links gives just one possible view. For a fullertreatment,seeareasofmathematicsorthelistofmathematicslists. 5.3.1.6.1Quantity

Quantitystartswithcountingandmeasurement.

Natural numbers

Integers

Rationalnumbers Realnumbers Complexnumbers

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Number Hypercomplex numbers Quaternions Octonions SedenionsHyperrealnumbersSurrealnumbersOrdinalnumbers Cardinal numbers p adic numbers Integer sequences MathematicalconstantsNumbernamesInfinityBase

5.3.1.6.2Structure Pinningdownideasofsize,symmetry,andmathematicalstructure.

Arithmetic

Number theory

Abstract algebra

Grouptheory Ordertheory

Monoids Rings Fields Linear algebra Algebraic geometry Universalalgebra 5.3.1.6.3Space Amorevisualapproachtomathematics.

Geometry

Differential Fractal Topology geometry geometry AlgebraicgeometryDifferentialtopologyAlgebraictopologyLinear algebraCombinatorialgeometryManifolds Trigonometry

5.3.1.6.4Change

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Waystoexpressandhandlechangeinmathematicalfunctions,andchanges betweennumbers.

Calculus

Vector calculus

Differential equations

Dynamical systems

Chaostheory

Analysis Realanalysis Complexanalysis Functionalanalysis Specialfunctions Measuretheory Fourieranalysis Calculusof variations 5.3.1.6.5Foundationsandmethods Approachestounderstandingthenatureofmathematics.

Mathematicallogic

Settheory

Categorytheory

Foundationsofmathematics Philosophy ofmathematics Intuitionism ConstructivismProoftheoryModeltheoryReversemathematics 5.3.1.6.6Discretemathematics Discretemathematicsinvolvestechniquesthatapplytoobjectsthatcanonly takeonspecific,separatedvalues.

Combinatorics

Theory computation

of Cryptography

Graphtheory

Computability theory Computational complexity theory Information theory

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5.3.1.6.7Appliedmathematics Appliedmathematics aimstodevelopnewmathematicstohelpsolvereal worldproblems. MathematicalphysicsMechanicsFluidmechanicsNumericalanalysis OptimizationProbabilityStatisticsMathematicaleconomicsFinancial mathematics Game theory Mathematical biology Cryptography MathematicsandarchitectureMathematicsofmusicalscales 5.3.1.6.7Importanttheorems These theorems have interested mathematicians and nonmathematicians alike. Seelistoftheoremsformore Pythagorean theorem Fermat's last theorem Gdel's incompleteness theorems Fundamentaltheoremofarithmetic Fundamentaltheoremof algebraFundamentaltheoremofcalculusCantor'sdiagonalargument Four color theorem Zorn's lemma Euler's identity classification theorems of surfaces GaussBonnet theorem Quadratic reciprocity RiemannRochtheorem. 5.3.1.6.7Importantconjectures Seelistofconjecturesformore Thesearesomeofthemajorunsolvedproblemsinmathematics. Goldbach's conjecture Twin Prime Conjecture Riemann hypothesis PoincarconjectureCollatzconjectureP=NP?openHilbertproblems. 5.3.1.7Historyandtheworldofmathematicians Seealsolistofmathematicshistorytopics HistoryofmathematicsTimelineofmathematicsMathematiciansFields medal Abel Prize Millennium Prize Problems (Clay Math Prize) International Mathematical Union Mathematics competitions Lateral thinking Mathematics education Mathematical abilities and gender issues 5.3.1.8Commonmisconceptions Mathematics is not a closed intellectual system, in which everything has alreadybeenworkedout.Thereisnoshortageofopenproblems. Pseudomathematics is a form of mathematicslike activity undertaken outside academia,andoccasionallybymathematiciansthemselves.Itoften 29

consists of determined attacks on famous questions, consisting of proof attempts made in an isolated way (that is, long papers not supported by previously published theory). The relationship to generallyaccepted mathematicsissimilartothatbetweenpseudoscienceandrealscience.The misconceptionsinvolvedarenormallybasedon:

misunderstandingoftheimplicationsofmathematicalrigor; attempts to circumvent the usual criteria for publication of mathematicalpapers ina learnedjournal after peer review,oftenin thebeliefthatthejournalisbiasedagainsttheauthor; lackoffamiliaritywith,andthereforeunderestimationof,theexisting literature.

ThecaseofKurtHeegner'sworkshowsthatthemathematicalestablishment isneitherinfallible,norunwillingtoadmiterrorinassessing'amateur'work. Andlikeastronomy,mathematicsowesmuchtoamateurcontributorssuch asFermatandMersenne. 5.3.1.9Relationshipbetweenmathematicsandphysicalreality Mathematicalconceptsandtheoremsneednotcorrespondtoanythinginthe physical world. Insofar as a correspondence does exist, while mathematiciansandphysicistsmayselectaxiomsandpostulatesthatseem reasonableandintuitive,itisnotnecessaryforthebasicassumptionswithin anaxiomaticsystemtobetrueinanempiricalorphysicalsense.Thisleads to confusion on the part of those who assume that where mathematical concepts are named after or ostensibly correspond with aspects of reality (physics,economics,etc),theyhavearigorousrelationshipwithit.Suchis simplynotthecase,andempiricaltestingofmathematicalpredictionsisnot amathematicalundertaking(seeIsMathematicsAScienceabove). Thuswhilemostsystemsofaxiomsarederived from ourperceptionsand experiments, they are not dependent on them. Nevertheless, mathematics remains extremely useful for solving realworld problems. This fact led Eugene Wigner to write an essay on The Unreasonable Effectiveness of MathematicsintheNaturalSciences.Theeffectivenessherecanbethought of as "unreasonable" in much the same way as Newtonian physics is unreasonable,sinceouruniverseistodayknownnottobe Newtonian.The laws which empirical tests show actually govern the universe, either at a verysmall(quantummechanical)orverylarge(relativistic)levelconflictwith Newton's Laws. Yet for many everyday, and even scientific and industrial applications,Newtonianphysicsremains"unreasonably"effective. 5.3.1.10Whatmathematicsisnot Mathematics is not about unrestricted theorem proving, any more than literature is about the construction of grammatically correct sentences. However, theorems are elements of formal theories, and in some cases 30

computerscangenerateproofsofthesetheoremsmoreorlessautomatically, by means of automated theorem provers. These techniques have proven useful in formal verification of programs and hardware designs. However, theyareunlikelytogenerate(inthenearterm,atleast)mathematicswith anywidelyrecognizedaestheticvalue. Mathematicsisnotaccountancy.Althougharithmeticcomputationiscrucial toaccountants,theirmainconcernistoverifythatcomputationsarecorrect throughasystemofdoublechecks.Advancesinabstractmathematicsare mostlyirrelevant totheefficiency ofconcrete bookkeeping, buttheuseof computersclearlydoesmatter. Mathematics is not numerology. Numerology uses modular arithmetic to reducenamesanddatesdowntonumbers,butassignsemotionsortraitsto thesenumbersintuitivelyoronthebasisoftraditions.

Notes
1. ^ Wolfgang Sartorius von Waltershausen: Gauss zum Gedchtniss, 1856.(GausszumGedchtnis 1965reprintbySndigReprintVerlag H.R.Wohlwend:ISBN3253017028,ASIN:B0000BN5SQ). [edit]

References

Kline, Morris , Mathematical Thought from Ancient to Modern Times, Oxford University Press, USA; Paperback edition (March 1, 1990). ISBN0195061357

5.3.2Computerscience
Computerscienceisthestudyofthetheoreticalfoundationsofinformation and computation and their implementation and application in computer systems.[1]Manydiversefieldsexistwithinthebroaderdisciplineofcomputer science; some emphasize the computation of specific results (such as computergraphics),whileothers(suchascomputationalcomplexitytheory) relate to properties of computational problems. Still others focus on the challenges in implementing computations. For example, programming language theory studies approaches to describing a computation, while computer programming applies specific programming languages to craft a solutiontosomeconcretecomputationalproblem. 5.3.2.1History Mainarticle:historyofcomputerscience Thehistoryofcomputersciencepredatestheinventionofthemoderndigital computer.Priortothe1920s,theterm computer referredtoahumanclerk

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who performed calculations. Early researchers in what came to be called computer science, such as Kurt Gdel, Alonzo Church, and Alan Turing, were interested in the question of computability: what things can be computedbyahumanclerkwhosimplyfollowsalistofinstructionswith paperandpencil,foraslongasnecessary,andwithoutingenuityorinsight? Part of the motivation for this work was the desire to develop computing machines thatcouldautomatetheoftentediousanderrorproneworkofa humancomputer. Duringthe1940s,asnewerandmorepowerfulcomputingmachineswere developed,thetermcomputercametorefertothemachinesratherthantheir humanpredecessors.Asitbecameclearthatcomputerscouldbeusedfor more than just mathematical calculations the field of computer science broadenedtostudy computation ingeneral.Computersciencebegantobe establishedasadistinctacademicdisciplineinthe1960s,withthecreation ofthefirstcomputersciencedepartmentsanddegreeprograms[2]. 5.3.2.2Majorachievements Thissectionisastub.Youcanhelpbyaddingtoit. Despiteitsrelativelyshorthistoryasaformalacademicdiscipline,computer science has made a number of fundamental contributions to science and society.Theseinclude:

Aformaldefinitionof computation and computability,andproofthat therearecomputationallyunsolvableandintractableproblems[3]. The concept of a programming language, a tool for the precise expression of methodological information at various levels of abstraction[4] Revolutionary technologies such as generalpurpose computers, the Internet,digitalsignatures, electroniccommerce,andsearchengines; theenablingnewtypesofscientificresearch,suchascomputational physicsandcomputationalchemistry[5].

5.3.2.3Relationshipwithotherfields Mainarticle:Diversityofcomputerscience Wikiquotehasacollectionofquotationsrelatedto: EdsgerDijkstra Despiteitsname,computersciencerarelyinvolvesthestudyofcomputers themselves.Infact,therenownedcomputerscientistEdsgerDijkstraisoften quoted as saying, "Computer science is no more about computers than astronomyisabouttelescopes."Thedesignanddeploymentofcomputersand computersystemsisgenerallyconsideredtheprovinceofdisciplinesother than computer science. For example, the study of computer hardware is

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usually considered part of computer engineering, while the study of commercial computer systems and their deployment is often called information technology or information systems. Computer science is sometimescriticizedasbeinginsufficientlyscientific,aviewespousedinthe statement "Scienceistocomputerscienceashydrodynamicsistoplumbing" [6] creditedto StanKellyBootle andothers.However,therehasbeenmuch crossfertilizationofideasbetweenthevariouscomputerrelateddisciplines. Computer science research has also often crossed into other disciplines, such as artificial intelligence, cognitive science, physics (see quantum computing),andlinguistics. Computerscienceisconsideredbysometohaveamuchcloserrelationship withmathematicsthanmanyscientificdisciplines [7].Earlycomputerscience wasstronglyinfluencedbytheworkofmathematicianssuchasKurtGdel and AlanTuring,andtherecontinuestobeausefulinterchangeofideas betweenthetwofieldsinareassuchasmathematicallogic,categorytheory, domaintheory,andalgebra. The relationship between computer science and software engineering is a contentiousissue,whichisfurthermuddiedbydisputesoverwhattheterm "softwareengineering"means,andhow computerscienceisdefined.Some people believe that software engineering is a subset of computer science. Others, takingacuefromtherelationshipbetweenother engineering and sciencedisciplines,believethattheprinciple focusofcomputerscienceis studyingthepropertiesofcomputationingeneral,whiletheprinciplefocus of software engineering is the design of specific computations to achieve practicalgoals,makingthemdifferentdisciplines.Thisviewispromulgated [8] by(amongothers)DavidParnas .Stillothersmaintainthatsoftwarecannot beengineeredatall. 5.3.2.4Fieldsofcomputerscience Thissectionisastub.Youcanhelpbyaddingtoit. 5.3.2..1Mathematicalfoundations Cryptography Algorithmsforprotectingprivatedata,includingencryption. Graphtheory Foundationsfordatastructuresandsearchingalgorithms. Mathematicallogic Booleanlogicandotherwaysofmodelinglogicalqueries. TypeTheory Formal analysis of the types of data, and the use of these types to understandpropertiesofprogramsespeciallyprogramsafety.

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5.3.2..2Theoryofcomputation Mainarticle:Theoryofcomputation Automatatheory Differentlogicalstructuresforsolvingproblems. Computabilitytheory What is calculable with the current models of computers. Proofs developed by Alan Turing and others provide insight into the possibilitiesofwhatmaybecomputedandwhatmaynot. Computationalcomplexitytheory Fundamentalbounds(especiallytimeandstoragespace)onclassesof computations. 5.3.2.3Algorithmsanddatastructures Analysisofalgorithms Timeandspacecomplexityofalgorithms. Algorithms Formallogicalprocessesusedforcomputation,andtheefficiency of theseprocesses. Datastructures Theorganizationofandrulesforthemanipulationofdata. Geneticalgorithms A genetic algorithm is a search technique to find approximate solutionstooptimizationandsearchproblems. 5.3.2.4Programminglanguagesandcompilers Compilers Ways of translating computer programs, usually from higher level languagestolowerlevelones.Basedheavilyonmathematicallogic. Programminglanguages Formal language paradigms for expressing algorithms, and the propertiesoftheselanguages(EG:whatproblemstheyaresuitedto solve). 5.3.2.5Databases Datamining Study of algorithms for searching and processing information in documentsanddatabases;closelyrelatedtoinformationretrieval.

5.3.2.6 Concurrent, parallel, and distributed systems

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Concurrency Thetheoryandpracticeofsimultaneouscomputation;datasafetyin anymultitaskingormultithreadedenvironment. Distributedcomputing Computing using multiple computing devices over a network to accomplishacommonobjectiveortask. Networking Algorithms and protocols for reliably communicating data across differentsharedordedicatedmedia,oftenincludingerrorcorrection. Parallelcomputing Computingusingmultipleconcurrentthreadsofexecution. 5.3.2.7Computerarchitecture Computerarchitecture Thedesign,organization,optimizationandverificationofacomputersystem, mostlyaboutCPUsandMemorysubsystem(andthebusconnectingthem). Operatingsystems Systems for managing computer programs and providing the basis of a useablesystem. 5.3.2.7Softwareengineering Computerprogramming Theactofwritingalgorithmsinaprogramminglanguage. Formalmethods Mathematicalapproachesfordescribingandreasoningaboutsoftware designs. Softwareengineering The principles and practice of designing, developing, and testing programs,aswellasproperengineeringpractices. 5.3.2.8Artificialintelligence Artificialintelligence Theimplementationandstudyofsystemsthatexhibitanautonomous intelligenceorbehaviouroftheirown. Automatedreasoning Solving engines, such as used in Prolog, which produce steps to a resultgivenaqueryonafactandruledatabase. Robotics Algorithmsforcontrollingthebehaviorofrobots. Computervision Algorithms for identifying three dimensional objects from a two dimensionalpicture. MachineLearning Automatedcreationofasetofrulesandaxiomsbasedoninput. 35

5.3.2.9Computergraphics Computergraphics Algorithms both for generating visual images synthetically, and for integratingoralteringvisualandspatialinformationsampledfromthe realworld. Imageprocessing Determininginformationfromanimagethroughcomputation. Humancomputerinteraction Thestudyanddesignofcomputerinterfacesthatpeopleuse.

5.3.2.10Scientificcomputing Bioinformatics Theuseofcomputersciencetomaintain,analyse,storebiologicaldata andtoassistinsolvingbiologicalproblemssuchasproteinfolding. 5.3.2.11 Computer science education Some universities teach computer science as a theoretical study of computation and algorithmic reasoning. These programs often feature the theoryofcomputation,analysisofalgorithms,formalmethods,concurrency theory, databases, computergraphics and systemsanalysis,amongothers. Theytypicallyalsoteachcomputerprogramming,buttreatitasavesselfor thesupportofotherfieldsofcomputerscienceratherthanacentralfocusof highlevelstudy. Othercollegesanduniversities,aswellassecondaryschoolsandvocational programsthatteachcomputerscience,emphasizethepracticeofadvanced computer programming rather than the theory of algorithms and computation in their computer science curricula. Such curricula tend to focus on those skills that are important to workers entering the software industry.Thepracticalaspectsofcomputerprogrammingareoftenreferred toassoftwareengineering.However,thereisalotofdisagreementoverwhat theterm"softwareengineering"actuallymeans,andwhetheritisthesame thingasprogramming.

Seealso

Computing Listofbasiccomputersciencetopics Listofcomputerscienceconferences Listofopenproblemsincomputerscience Listofpublicationsincomputerscience Listofprominentpioneersincomputerscience Listofsoftwareengineeringtopics

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References
1. ^ "Computer science is the study of information " Department of Computer and Information Science, Guttenberg Information Technologies o "Computer science is the study of computation." Computer Science Department, College of Saint Benedict, Saint John's University o "Computer Science is the study of all aspects of computer systems, from the theoretical foundations to the very practical aspectsofmanaginglargesoftwareprojects."MasseyUniversity ^ Denning, P.J. (2000). "Computer science:the discipline". EncyclopediaofComputerScience. ^ Constable,R.L.(March2000)." ComputerScience :Achievementsand Challengescirca2000". ^ Abelson, H. (1996). Structure and Interpretation of Computer Programs, 2nd Ed., MIT Press. ISBN 0262011530.The computer revolution is a revolution in the way we think and in the way we expresswhatwethink.Theessenceofthischangeistheemergenceof whatmightbestbecalledproceduralepistemology thestudyofthe structureofknowledgefromanimperativepointofview,asopposedto the more declarative point of view taken by classical mathematical subjects. ^ Constable,R.L.(1997)."NatureoftheInformationSciences". ^ ComputerLanguage,Oct1990 ^ Denning, P.J. (2000). "Computer science:the discipline". EncyclopediaofComputerScience. ^ Parnas,DavidL.(1998)."SoftwareEngineeringProgrammesarenot Computer Science Programmes". Annals of Software Engineering 6: 1937.,p.19:"Ratherthantreatsoftwareengineeringasasubfieldof computerscience,Itreatitasanelementoftheset,{CivilEngineering, Mechanical Engineering, Chemical Engineering, Electrical Engineering,....}."
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