Exam 7 Expectations: Plant Exam

1. Define mycorrhizae. Mycorrhizae mutualistic association of plant roots and fungus. 2. Define radicle Radicle an embryonic root of a plant. 3. Define critical period. Critical period the minimal or required amount of time a plant must spend in or out of darkness continuously in order to flower, depending on whether it is a long-day or short-day plant. 4. Describe long day plants. Long day plants are plants that flower (usually in late spring or early summer) only when the light period is longer than a critical length (certain amount of hours). For example, spinach flowers when days are 14 hours or longer. Other examples are radishes, lettuce, irises and many cereal varieties. Long-day plants are actually short-night plants, but the older term was embedded already. A long-day plant grown on photoperiods (the relative lengths of night and day; and the environmental stimulus that plants use most often to detect the time of year) of long nights that would not normally induce flowering will flower if the period of continuous darkness is interrupted by a few minutes of light. We distinguish long-day from short-day plants not by an absolute night length but by whether the critical night length sets a maximum (long-day plants) or minimum (short-day plants) number of hours of darkness required for flowering. 5. State the equation for water potential. = S + P Water potential = solute potential (or osmotic potential) + pressure potential 6. State the conditions when water potential is zero. It is zero when the cell is in pure water and turgid. Adding solutes lowers water potential. If the positive pressure added or P turns out to be the same as S, then the is zero, because eventually there is no net water movement. Water potential is zero when the cell is turgid, or very firm. Its at osmotic equilibrium with its surroundings. For example, if an initial flaccid cell was placed into an environment with pure water, when = 0 MPa, that means because the cell contains solutes, it has a lower water potential than the water. Its initial condition: cellular < environmental . So water enters the cell by osmosis, causing it to become turgid. This tendency for water to enter is offset by the back

pressure of the elastic wall, and therefore, the water potentials are equal for the cell and its surroundings. 7. State the fate of the majority of water in a plant. Most of the water in a plant is lost through transpiration, the loss of water vapor from leaves and other aerial parts of the plant. On most days, the air outside the leaf is drier then inside the leaf, so the outside has a lower water potential than the air inside the leaf. Therefore, water vapor in the air spaces of a leaf diffuses down its water potential gradient and exits the leaf via the stomata (transpiration). 8. State the energy source for water transport in plants. The plant expends no energy to lift xylem sap by bulk flow. Instead, the absorption of sunlight drives most of transpiration by causing water to evaporate from the moist walls of mesophyll cells and by lowering the water potential in the air spaces within the leaf. Therefore, water transport is solar powered. 9. State the mineral most likely to be leached from soil after rain. Negatively charged ions (anions): Nitrate (NO3-), phosphate (H2PO4-), sulfate (SO42-) Most likely nitrate* 10. State the plant cell with the highest/lowest water potential. Highest: turgid cell Lowest: plasmolyzed cell 11. State the parts of bark. Bark includes all tissues external to the vascular cambium. In an outward direction, its main components are the secondary phloem (produced by vascular cambium), the most recent periderm, and all the older layers of periderm. 12. State the male/female gametophytes on a flowering plant. Male gametophyte: consists of 2 cells: generative cell and tube cell, with the spore cell makes a pollen grain. Female gametophyte: embryo sac 13. State the molecule most responsible for the dry weight of a plant. CO2 (carbon dioxide) 14. List structural features and functions of the following plant cells: parenchyma, collenchyma, sclerenchyma, xylem, phloem

Parenchyma: have primary walls that are relatively thin and flexible, and most lack secondary walls, generally have a large central vacuole. Perform most of the metabolic functions of the plant, synthesizing and storing various organic products. Most retain the ability to divide and differentiate into other types of plant cells under particular conditions like during wound repair.

Collenchyma: grouped in strands or cylinders. They have thicker primary walls than parenchyma cells, though the walls are unevenly thickened. Lack secondary walls, and the hardening agent lignin is absent from their primary walls so these cells provide flexible support without restraining growth. They are living and flexible when mature, and elongate with the stems and leaves they support. Help support young parts of the plant shoot. Sclerenchyma: have thick secondary walls that are usually strengthened by lignin, and are much more rigid than collenchyma cells. They also function as supporting elements in the plant. When theyre mature, they cannot elongate and they occur in regions of the plant that have stopped growing in length. They are so specialized for support that many are dead at functional maturity, but produce secondary walls before the protoplast (living part of the cell) dies. The rigid walls remain as a skeleton that supports the plant. Two types of cells; sclereids and fibers. They are specialized entirely for support and strengthening. Sclereids are shorter than fibers and irregular in shape, have very thick, lignified secondary walls. Fibers usually arrange in threads, are long, slender, and tapered. Xylem: two types of water-conducting cells; tracheids and vessel elements. They are tubular, elongated cells that are dead at functional maturity. Tracheids are found in the xylem of nearly all vascular plants. In addition to tracheids, most angiosperms, a few gymnosperms and a few seedless vascular plants, have vessel elements. When the living cellular contents of a tracheid or vessel element disintegrate, the cells thickened walls remain behind, forming a nonliving conduit through which water can flow. The secondary walls of them are interrupted by pits, thinner regions where only primary walls

are present. Water migrates laterally between neighboring cells through pits. Tracheids are long, thin, with tapered ends. Water moves through pits, where it does not have to cross thick secondary walls. The secondary walls of tracheids are hardened with lignin so it prevents collapse under the tensions of water transport and provides support. Vessel elements are wider, shorter, thin walled, and less tapered than the tracheids. They are aligned from end to end, forming long micropipes called vessels. The end walls of the vessel elements have perforation plates that enable water to flow freely through vessels. Phloem: the sugar-conducting cells of the phloem are alive at functional maturity. In seedless vascular plants and gymnosperms, sugars & other organic nutrients are transported through long, narrow cells called sieve cells. In the phloem of angiosperms, these nutrients are transported through sieve tubes, which consist of chains of cells called sieve-tube elements, or sieve-tube members. Sieve-tube elements are alive but lack a nucleus, ribosomes, a distinct vacuole, and cytoskeletal elements. This reduction in cell contents enables nutrients to pass more easily through the cell. The end walls of sieve-tube elements are called sieve plates, which have pores that facilitate the flow of fluid from cell to cell along the sieve tube. Alongside each sieve-tube element is a nonconducting cell called companion cell, which is connected to it by numerous channels, plasmodesmata. It has the nucleus and ribosomes and the companion serves as not only the cell itself but also adjacent sieve-tube element. In some plants, companion cells in leaves help load sugars into the sieve-tube elements, which then transport sugars to other parts of the plant. 15. List factors that might alter ethylene's effect on a plant. Ethylene plays a role in the speed of fruit ripening. You may be able to speed ripening by storing green fruits in a paper bag, allowing ethylene to accumulate. Ethylene is a gas, so the signal to ripen spreads from fruit to fruit once ethylene triggers ripening and ripening triggers more ethylene production. Circulating the air prevents ethylene from accumulating, and carbon dioxide inhibits synthesis of new ethylene. It affects and lowers the concentration of ethylene. This is why apples can be picked in autumn and can still be shipped to grocery stores the following summer, if they are stored in bins flushed with carbon dioxide. The concentration of ethylene is very important. In order to ripen fruit, low concentrations are used, because too high of concentration will lead faster to rotting.

Ethylenes effects on a plant not only depend on its concentration, but also depend on the site of action within the plant, developmental (growth) stage of the plant, readiness of cell membrane receptors for the ethylene, and ratios of other hormones. 16. List processes in plants that rely on proton gradients. Stomatal opening and closing

Cation uptake Cotransport of an anion with H+ Cotransport of a neutral solute with H+ Acid growth hypothesis Loading of sucrose into phloem 17. List reasons for angiosperms' evolutionary success. - Reduced gametophytes - Seeds enclosed in fruit - Fruits help dispersal of seeds - Pollinators, ex. Animals, wind, water - Highly efficient xylem 18. List the stages/events in alternation of generations. Plants and some species of algae exhibit a second type of life cycle called alternation of generations. It includes both diploid and haploid stages that are multicellular. The multicellular stage is called the sporophyte. Meiosis in the sporophyte produces haploid cells called spores. Unlike a gamete, a haploid spore doesnt fuse with another cell but divides mitotically,

generating a multicellular haploid stage called the gametophyte. Cells of the gametophyte give rise to gametes by mitosis. Fusion of two haploid gametes at fertilization results in a diploid zygote, which develops into the next sporophyte generation. Thus, the sporophyte generation produces a gametophyte as its offspring, and the gametophyte generation produces the next sporophyte generation. 19. Outline the transport of minerals from soil to leaves. Water and minerals are absorbed by root cells, transported through the endodermis, released into the vessels and tracheids of the xylem, and carried to the tops of plants by the bulk flow driven by transpiration. Review the transpiration-cohesion-tension mechanism.

20. Outline the role of nitrogenase. Nitrogenase is the enzyme complex that catalyzes the entire, complex, multistep reaction sequence (the conversion of N2 to NH3 or nitrogen fixation). The reactants and products are summarized as follows: N2 + 8 e- + 8 H+ + 16 ATP 2 NH3 + H2 + 16 ADP + 16 Pi Nitrogenase reduces N2 to NH3 by adding electrons and H+. Because the process of nitrogen fixation requires eight ATP molecules for each NH3 synthesized, nitrogen-fixing bacteria require a rich supply of carbohydrates from decaying material, root secretions, or (in the case of Rhizobium) the vascular tissue of roots. 21. Outline apical dominance. Apical dominance is the concentration of growth at the tip of a plant shoot, where an apical bud (terminal bud) partially inhibits axillary bud growth. By concentrating resources on elongation, the evolutionary adaptation of apical dominance increases the plants exposure to light. If an animal eats the end of the shoot, or if shading results in the light being more intense to the side of a plant than directly above, axillary buds break dormancy, meaning they start growing. A growing axillary bud gives rise to a lateral shoot, complete with its own apical bud, leaves, and axillary buds. Removing the apical bud

usually stimulates the growth of axillary buds, resulting in more lateral shoots. This is why pruning trees and shrubs and pinching back houseplants will make them bushier. 22. Outline the activation of nitrogenase in a root nodule. Nitrogenase catalyzes the entire reaction sequence of nitrogen fixation, which reduces N2 to NH3 by adding electrons and H+. The location of bacteroids inside living, nonphotosynthetic cells is conducive to nitrogen fixation, which needs an anaerobic environment.

23. Outline the major events in flowering plant reproduction.

24. Outline carpellate flowers. Carpellate flowers lack stamens. Seeds are developing from ovules while the ovary of the flower is developing into a fruit, which protects the enclosed seeds and when mature, aids in their dispersal by wind or animals. Fertilization triggers hormonal changes that cause the ovary to begin its transformation into a fruit. If a flower has not been pollinated, fruit typically does not develop, and the entire flower withers and falls away.

Most fruits are derived from a single carpel or several fused carpels; they are called simple fruits. An aggregate fruit results from a single flower that has more than one separate carpel, each forming a small fruit. These fruitlets are clustered together on a single receptacle. A multiple fruit develops from many carpels of the many flowers that form an inflorescence, a group of flowers tightly clustered together. The walls of many ovaries thicken and fuse together to become incorporated into one fruit. An accessory fruit develops largely from tissues other than the ovary. 25. Outline the following plant hormones: ABA, GA, IAA, gibbereric acid, salicylic acid, 2,4-D, ethylene, cytokinins Hormone Location Function Auxin (IAA: Shoot apical meristems and Stimulates stem elongation (low conc indoleacetic acid) young leaves only); promotes lateral and adventitious root formation; regulates development of fruit; enhances apical dominance; functions in phototropism & gravitropism; promotes vascular differentiation; retards leaf abscission. Also used as herbicides In cell elongation, it plays a role by stimulating proton pumps, instigating a loosening of cell wall fibers, increasing vacuole size, and permitting an increase in turgor pressure. Regulate cell division in shoots and roots; modify apical dominance and promote lateral bud growth; promote movement of nutrients into sink tissues; stimulate seed germination; delay leaf senescence. Has anti-aging effects Stimulate stem elongation, pollen development, pollen tube growth, fruit growth, and seed development and germination; regulate sex determination and the transition from juvenile to adult phases.

Cytokinins

Synthesized in roots and transported to other organs

Gibberellins (GA)

Meristems of apical buds and roots, young leaves, and developing seeds

Abscisic Acid (ABA)

Almost all plant cells can synthesize ABA

Ethylene

Can be produced by almost all parts of the plant

Breaks seed dormancy Effects of stem elongation are evidently shown with dwarf (mutant) plants when they grow tall with GA. Also supports growth of cereal seedlings by stimulating synthesis of digestive enzymes like -amylase that mobilize stored nutrients. Inhibits growth; promotes stomatal closure during drought stress; promotes seed dormancy and inhibits early germination; promotes leaf senescence; promotes desiccation tolerance. Promotes ripening of many fruits, leaf abscission, triple response in seedlings (inhibition of stem elongation, promotion of lateral expansion, and horizontal growth); enhances the rate of senescence; promotes root and root hair formation; promotes flowering in pineapple family.

Salicyclic Acid 2,4-D

2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid; a synthetic auxin used as a herbicide. Monocots can rapidly inactivate synthetic auxins, however, eudicots cannot and die from hormonal overdose. Spraying cereal fields or turf with 2,4-D eliminates eudicot (broadleaf) weeds.

Gibberellic Acid 26. Outline the pros and cons of fungicidal use. Pros: destroys fungi that can be harmful to plants Cons: some fungicides are slightly toxic and the accumulation of the toxins can be harmful to the soil, and the fungicides can runoff into local streams and rivers, causing eutrophication. 27. Outline active transport. Active transport is the pumping of a solute across a membrane against its electrochemical gradient. It is called active because the cell must expend energy, usually in the form of ATP, to transport a solute counter to the net direction in which the solute diffuses. In active

transport in plant cells, the most important transport proteins are proton pumps, which use energy from ATP to pump protons (H+) out of the cell. This movement results in an H+ gradient, with a higher H+ concentration outside the cell than inside. The gradient across the membrane is a form of potential energy, and the flow of the protons back into the cell can be harnessed to do work. 28. Outline the importance of adhesion and cohesion in water transport. The transpirational pull on xylem sap is transmitted all the way from the leaves to the root tips and even into the soil solution. Cohesion and adhesion facilitate this long-distance by bulk flow. The cohesion of water due to hydrogen bonding makes it possible to pull a column of xylem sap from above without the water molecules separating. Water molecules exiting the xylem in the leaf tug on adjacent water molecules, and then this pull is relayed, molecule by molecule, down the entire column of water in the xylem. And then meanwhile, the strong adhesion of water molecules by hydrogen bonds to the hydrophilic walls of xylem cells helps offset the downward force of gravity.

29. Describe the adaptations associated with plants living in arid conditions.

C4 plants are named because they preface the Calvin cycle with an alternate mode of carbon fixation that forms a four-carbon compound as its first product. Some examples are

sugarcane and corn. There are two distinct types of photosynthetic cells; bundle-sheath cell and mesophyll cells. Bundle-sheath cells are arranged into tightly packed sheaths around the veins of the leaf. Between the bundle sheath and the leaf surface are the more loosely arranged mesophyll cells. The Calvin cycle is confined to the chloroplasts of the bundlesheath cells. However, the cycle is preceded by incorporation of CO2 into organic compounds in the mesophyll cells. 1) The first step is carried out by PEP carboxylase, an enzyme in only mesophyll cells. This enzyme adds CO2 to phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP). PEP carboxylase has a much higher affinity for CO2 than does rubisco and no affinity for O2. Therefore, PEP carboxylase can fix carbon efficiently when rubisco cant when it is hot and dry and stomata are partially closed, causing CO2 concentration in the leaf to fall and O2 to rise. 2) After the C4 plant fixes carbon from CO2, the mesophyll cells export their four-carbon products (for ex, malate) to bundle-sheath cells through plasmodesmata. 3) Within the bundle-sheath cells, the four-carbon compounds release CO2, which is reassimilated into organic material by rubisco and the Calvin cycle. The same reaction regenerates pyruvate, which is transported to mesophyll cells. There, ATP converts pyruvate to PEP, allowing the reaction cycle to continue; this ATP can be thought of as the price of concentrating CO2 in the bundle-sheath cells. To generate this extra ATP, bundle-sheath cells carry out cyclic electron flow. These cells contain PS I but no PS II, so cyclic electron flow is their only photosynthetic mode of generating ATP. In effect, the mesophyll cells of a C4 plant pump CO2 into the bundle sheath, keeping the CO2 concentration in the bundle-sheath cells high enough for rubisco to bind carbon dioxide rather than oxygen. The cyclic series of reactions involving PEP carboxylase and the regeneration of PEP can be thought of as a CO2-concentrating pump that is powered by ATP. This way, C4 photosynthesis minimizes photorespiration and enhances sugar production. This adaptation is advantageous in hot regions with intense sunlight and when stomata partially close during the day. The mode of carbon fixation called CAM, crassulacean acid metabolism, is when CAM plants open their stomata during the night and close them during the day, the reverse of how other plants behave. Closing stomata during the day helps desert plants conserve water, but it also prevents CO2 from entering the leaves so during the night, when their stomata are open, these take up CO2 and incorporate it into a variety of organic acids. The mesophyll cells of CAM plants store the organic acids they make during the night in their vacuoles until morning, when the stomata close. During the day, when the light reactions can supply ATP and NADPH for the Calvin cycle, CO2 is released from the organic acids made the night before to become incorporated into sugar in the chloroplasts.

The similarity between C4 and CAM pathways is that carbon dioxide is first incorporated into organic intermediates before it enters the Calvin cycle. The difference is that in C4, the initial steps of carbon fixation are separated structurally from the Calvin cycle, whereas in CAM plants, the two steps occur at separate times but within the same cell. They both eventually use the Calvin cycle to make sugar from carbon dioxide, like C3 plants.

30. Describe the movement of water through a plant (soil to atmosphere). Water can be moved through a plant either by root pressure (pushing xylem sap) or the transpiration-cohesion-tension mechanism (pulling xylem sap) At night, when there is almost no transpiration, root cells continue pumping mineral ions into the xylem of the stele. The resulting accumulation of minerals lowers the water potential within the stele. Water flows in from the root cortex, generating root pressure, a push of xylem sap. The root pressure sometimes causes more water to enter the leaves than is transpired, resulting in guttation. In bulk flow, the movement of fluid is driven by a water potential difference at opposite ends of the xylem tissue. The water potential difference is created at the leaf end of the xylem by the evaporation of water from leaf cells. Evaporation lowers the water potential at the airwater interface, thereby generating the negation pressure (tension) that pulls water through the xylem. Bulk flow is driven by differences in pressure potential, and not solute potential. The plant uses no energy to use bulk flow. 31. Describe phototropism. Phototropism is the growth of a shoot toward light or away from it. Positive phototropism is when the shoot grows toward light, and negative phototropism is when the shoot grows away

from light. Plants which are grown in a partially dark environment will grow toward light (positive). In a crowded environment, phototropism directs growing seedlings toward the sunlight that powers photosynthesis. It is learned from studies of grass seedlings, particularly oats. The shoot of a sprouting grass seedling is enclosed in a sheath called the coleoptile, which grows straight upward if the seedling is kept in the dark or if it is illuminated uniformly from all sides. If the growing coleoptile is illuminated from one side, it grows toward the light. This response results from a differential growth of cells on opposite sides of the coleoptile; the cells on the darker side elongate fast than the cells on the brighter side. Charles Darwin and his son Francis observed that a grass seedling could bend toward light only if the tip of the coleoptile was present. If the tip (includes apical meristem) was removed, the coleoptile did not curve. It was concluded that the tip was responsible for sensing light. They also noted that the differential growth response that led to the curvature of the coleoptile occurred some distance below the tip, so that means some signal was transmitted downward from the tip to the elongating region of the coleoptile. Peter Boysen-Jensen demonstrated that the signal was a mobile chemical substance. He separated the tip from the remainder of the coleoptile by a cube of gelatin, which prevented cellular contact but allowed chemicals to pass. These seedlings responded normally, bending toward light. But if the tip was experimentally separated from the lower coleoptile by an impermeable barrier, no phototropic response occurred. Frits Went extracted the chemical messenger by modifying experiments of Jensen. He removed the coleoptile tip and placed a cube of agar, gelatinous material, on it. The agar block that was centered on top of the coleoptile caused the stem to grow straight upward. But when the block was placed off center, the coleoptile began to bend away from the side with the agar block, as though growing toward light. Went concluded the block contained a chemical produced in the tip, and that this chemical stimulated growth as it passed down the coleoptile, and it curved toward light because of a higher concentration of the growthpromoting chemical on the darker side of the coleoptile. This chemical messenger is Auxin, or IAA, indoleacetic acid. It does cause a growth increase on one side of the stem but it does not causes a decrease in growth on the side of the stem exposed to light since there is no evidence. There is however, asymmetrical distribution of certain substances that may act as growth inhibitors, and these substances are more concentrated on the lighted side of a stem. 32. Describe germination. Germination depends on imbibition, the uptake of water due to the low water potential of the dry seed. Imbibing water causes the seed to expand and rupture its coat and also triggers metabolic changes in the embryo that enable it to resume growth. Following hydration, enzymes begin digesting the storage materials of the endosperm or cotyledons, and the nutrients are transferred to the growing regions of the embryo.

The first organ that emerges from the germinating seed is the radicle, the embryonic root. Next, the shoot tip breaks through the soil surface. In garden beans and other eudicots, a hook forms in the hypocotyl, and growth pushes the hook above ground. Stimulated by light, the hypocotyl straightens, raising the cotyledons and epicotyl. Then the delicate shoot tip and bulky cotyledons are pulled upward rather than being pushed tip-first through the abrasive soil. The epicotyl now spreads it first foliage leaves, which are true leaves, as distinguished from the cotyledons, or seed leaves. The foliage leaves expand, become green, and begin making food by photosynthesis. The cotyledons shrivel and fall away from the seedling, their food reserves having been exhausted by the germinating embryo. Some monocots, like maize and other grasses, have a different method for breaking ground when germinating. The coleoptile, the sheath enclosing and protecting the embryonic shoot, pushes upward through the soil and into the air. The shoot tip then grows straight up through the tunnel provided by the tubular coleoptile and eventually breaks through the coleoptiles tip. 33. Describe root hairs. In most plants, the absorption of water and minerals occurs primarily near the tips of roots, where vast numbers of tiny root hairs increase the surface area of the root enormously. Root hairs are short-lived and constantly replaced. A root hair is a thin, tubular extension of a root epidermal cell. It should not be confused with a lateral root, which is a multicellular organ. Despite their great surface area, root hairs, unlike lateral roots, contribute little to plant anchorage. Their main function is absorption. All living plant cells absorb nutrients across their plasma membranes, but the cells near the tips of roots are particularly important because most of the water and mineral absorption occurs there. In this region, epidermal cells are permeable to water, and many are differentiated into root hairs, modified cells that account for much of the absorption of water by roots. The root hairs absorb the soil solution, which consists of water molecules and dissolved mineral ions that are not bound tightly to soil particles. 34. Compare long day and short day plants. Long-day Plants (Short-night) Requires a light period longer than a critical length in order to flower Generally flower in late spring or early summer. Ex. Spinach, radishes, lettuce, irises, many cereal varieties

Short-day Plants (Long-night) Requires a light period shorter than a critical length in order to flower Generally flower in late summer, fall or winter. Ex. Chrysanthemums, poinsettias, some soybean varieties, Maryland Mammoth

(mutant variety of tobacco) Red light is the most effective color in interrupting the nighttime portion of the photoperiod. Action spectra and photoreversibility experiments show that phytochrome is the pigment that detects the red light. For example, if a flash of red (R) light during the dark period is followed by a flash of far-red (FR) light, then the plant detects no interruption of night length. A flash of red (R) light interrupts and shortens the dark period, turning one long night into two short nights. However, a subsequent flash of far-red (FR) light cancels the red flashs effect.

35. Compare hypocotyls and epicotyls. Hypocotyl In an angiosperm embryo, the embryonic axis below the point of attachment of the cotyledon(s) and above the radicle (embryonic root).

Epicotyl In an angiosperm embryo, the embryonic axis above the point of attachment of the cotyledon(s) and below the first pair of miniature leaves.

36. Compare herbaceous and woody plants. Herbaceous Plant The entire plant is mainly just the primary plant body, or the results of only primary growth.

Woody Plant Secondary growth, the growth in thickness produced by lateral meristems, occurs in stems and roots of woody plants, but rarely in leaves. All gymnosperms and many eudicots have secondary growth, rare in monocots. The secondary plant body consists of the tissues produced by the vascular cambium and cork cambium. The vascular cambium adds secondary xylem (wood) and secondary phloem, increasing vascular flow and support for shoot system. Cork cambium produces a tough thick covering. In the stem, the vascular cambium consists of a continuous cylinder of undifferentiated parenchyma cells, located outside the pith and primary xylem and to the inside of the cortex and primary phloem. In the root, the vascular cambium forms to the exterior of the primary xylem and interior to the primary phloem and pericycle. If you walk from the center of the stem that has been through primary and secondary growth, you will go through the pith, primary xylem, secondary xylem, vascular cambium, secondary phloem, primary phloem, and the periderm (mainly cork cambia and cork). The bark consists of all tissues exterior to the vascular cambium, mostly secondary phloem and periderm.

37. Compare monocots and dicots. Monocot Specie with one cotyledon (seed leaf)

Dicot Specie with two cotyledons

The organization of primary tissues in young roots is with parenchyma in the center; the stele (vascular tissue) of the root is a vascular cylinder with a core of parenchyma surrounded by a ring of xylem and a ring of phloem In young stems, the organization of primary tissues is with scattered vascular bundles. Ground tissue not partitioned into pith and cortex. Also see #35 for differences

Eudicots: the organization of primary tissues in young roots is with xylem and phloem in the center; the stele is a vascular cylinder consisting of a lobed core of xylem with phloem between the lobes In young stems, the organization of primary tissues is with vascular bundles forming a ring. Ground tissue toward the inside is pith, and ground tissue toward the outside is cortex.

Organization of primary tissues in young roots: Eudicot:

Monocot:

Organization of primary tissues in young stems: Eudicots: Monocot:

38. Compare plant hormones and animal hormones. Plant Hormones Animal Hormones

39. Compare perfect and complete flowers. Perfect Flower Has both stamen and carpel Fertile, but may be either complete or incomplete (lacks one of the basic floral organs)

Complete Flower Has all four basic floral organs; sepal, petal, stamen, and carpel

40. Compare monoecious and dioecious plants. Monoecious Plant Dioecious Plant

Has staminate and carpellate flowers at separate locations but on the same individual plant.

Plants cannot self-fertilize because different individuals have either staminate flowers (lacking carpels) or carpellate flowers (lacking stamens). Its one of the mechanisms that prevent self-fertilization that contribute to genetic variety by ensuring sperm and eggs come from different parents.

41. Compare the anatomy of roots and leaves. Roots Consist of dermal, vascular, and ground tissue Does not have cuticle

Leaves Consist of dermal, vascular, and ground tissue In leaves and most stem, the cuticle, a waxy coating on the epidermal surface, helps prevent water loss.

42. Compare tap roots and fibrous roots. Tap Roots A taproot system consists of one main vertical root, the taproot, that develops from an embryonic root. The taproot gives rise to lateral roots, also called branch roots. Most eudicots and gymnosperms have this. In many angiosperms, the taproot stores sugars and starches that the plant will consume during flowering and fruit production. Because of this, root crops like carrots, turnips, and beets are harvested before they flower. Taproot systems generally penetrate deeply and are therefore well adapted to deep soils where the groundwater is not close to the surface.

Fibrous Roots A fibrous root system is a mat of generally thin roots spreading out below the soil surface, with no root functioning as the main one. Most monocots and seedless vascular plants have this. The embryonic root dies and does not give rise to a main root, so instead, many small roots grow from the stem. They are adventitious, describing a plant organ that grows in an unusual location, such as roots arising from stems or leaves. Each small root forms its own lateral roots. They usually do not penetrate deeply and are therefore best adapted to shallow soils or regions where rainfall is light and does not moisten the soil much below the surface

layer. Most grasses have shallow roots, concentrated in the upper few centimeters of the soil. Because these shallow roots hold the topsoil in place, grass makes excellent ground cover for preventing erosion. 43. Suggest advantages of sexual reproduction. Water can be moved through a plant either by root pressure (pushing xylem sap) or the transpiration-cohesion-tension mechanism (pulling xylem sap) At night, when there is almost no transpiration, root cells continue pumping mineral ions into the xylem of the stele. The resulting accumulation of minerals lowers the water potential within the stele. Water flows in from the root cortex, generating root pressure, a push of xylem sap. The root pressure sometimes causes more water to enter the leaves than is transpired, resulting in guttation. In bulk flow, the movement of fluid is driven by a water potential difference at opposite ends of the xylem tissue. The water potential difference is created at the leaf end of the xylem by the evaporation of water from leaf cells. Evaporation lowers the water potential at the airwater interface, thereby generating the negation pressure (tension) that pulls water through the xylem. Bulk flow is driven by differences in pressure potential, and not solute potential. The plant uses no energy to use bulk flow. 44. Suggest how apical dominance might be stopped. Cytokinins, auxin (IAA), and other factors interact in the control of apical dominance, the ability of the apical bud to suppress the development of axillary buds. The direct inhibition hypothesis proposed that auxin and cytokinins act antagonistically in regulating axillary bud growth. Auxin transported down the shoot from the apical bud directly inhibits axillary buds from growing, causing a shoot to lengthen and not the lateral branches. Meanwhile, cytokinins entering the shoot system from the roots counter auxin by telling the axillary buds to grow. If the apical bud, the primary source of auxin, is removed, the inhibition of axillary buds is removed and the plant becomes bushier. 45. Discuss the regulation of guard cells. When guard cells take in water from neighboring cells by osmosis, they become more turgid. The changes in turgor pressure results primarily from the reversible absorption and loss of K+. Stomata open when guard cells actively accumulate K+ from nearby epidermal cells. The flow of K+ across the plasma membrane of the guard cell is coupled to the generation of a membrane potential by proton pumps, so stomatal opening correlates with active transport of H+ out of the guard cell. The resulting voltage (membrane potential) drives K+ into the

cell through membrane channels. The absorption of K+ causes the water potential to become more negative within the guard cells, and the cells become more turgid as water enters by osmosis. Losing K+ from guard cells to neighboring cells leads to loss of water and stomatal closing. See #16 for a picture. 46. Discuss the use of water potential calculations in botany. Water potential is important in regarding the movement of water (water moves from regions of higher water potential to regions of lower water potential). Water potential is also important in how it affects absorption and loss of water by a living plant cell.

47. Explain the movement of sugar through phloem. The phloem transports the products of photosynthesis to other parts of the cell, specifically the sinks. In contrast to the unidirectional transport of xylem sap from roots to leaves, phloem sap moves from sites of sugar production to sites of sugar use or storage. Sugar must be transported, or loaded, into sieve-tube elements before being exported to sugar sinks. Sugar can move from mesophyll cells to sieve-tube elements via the symplast, passing through plasmodesmamta. Or, it can move by symplastic and apoplastic pathways. Much of it then moves into the apoplast and is accumulated by nearby sieve-tube elements, either directly or through companion cells.

Phloem sap moves through a sieve tube by bulk flow driven by positive pressure, known as pressure flow. The building of pressure at the source end and reduction of that pressure at the sink end cause water to flow from source to sink, carrying the sugar along.

48. Explain how various climatic conditions can affect the rate of transpiration. Transpiration is greatest on a day that is sunny, warm, dry, and windy because these environmental factors increase evaporation as long as stomata are open. If transpiration cannot pull sufficient water to the leaves, the shoot becomes slightly wilted as cells lose turgor pressure. Even with closing stomata, plants still lose some water by evaporation. One problem plants face when the temperature of the environment falls is a change in the fluidity of cell membranes. Plants respond to cold stress by altering the lipid composition of their membranes. At freezing temperatures, the plant cells increase the amount of solutes in the cytoplasm so even lower temperatures are needed to freeze the cell completely. 49. Explain nitrogen fixation.

Nitrogen fixation is the conversion of atmospheric nitrogen (N2) to ammonia (NH3). Biological nitrogen fixation is carried out by certain prokaryotes, some of which have mutualistic relationships with plants. Ammonifying bacteria, which are usually decomposers living in humus-rich soil, release ammonia (NH3) by breaking down proteins and other organic compounds in humus. Nitrogen-fixing bacteria convert gaseous nitrogen (N2) into NH3. The NH3 produced picks up another H+ in the soil to form NH4+, which plants can absorb. Plants acquire nitrogen mainly in the form of NO3-, and it is largely formed by nitrification, which consists of the oxidation of NH3 to nitrite (NO2-), followed by oxidation of nitrite to nitrate (NO3-). Nitrifying bacteria mediate each step. After the root absorbs NO3-, a plant enzyme reduces it back to NH4+. Most plant species export nitrogen from roots to shoots via the xylem as NO3or organic compounds synthesized in the roots. Some soil nitrogen is lost when denitrifying bacteria convert NO3- to N2, which diffuses into the atmosphere. See #22 for a picture. 50. Explain primary growth in roots and shoots. Primary growth is growth in length produced by apical meristems. The results of this growth are called the primary plant body. In herbaceous plants, it is usually the entire plant while in woody plants, its only the youngest parts. The tip of the root is covered by a root cap, which protects the delicate apical meristem as the root pushes through the abrasive soil during primary growth. It also secretes a polysaccharide slime that lubricates the soil around the tip of the plant. Growth occurs behind the tip in three different zones; the zone of cell division, zone of elongation, and zone of differentiation. The zone of cell division includes the root apical meristem and its derivatives. In this region, new root cells are produced including the root cap. In the zone of elongation, root cells elongate, sometimes to more than ten times their original length. Cell elongation pushes the tip farther into the soil while the root apical meristem keeps adding cells to the younger end of the zone of elongation. Before the root cells finish lengthening, many just begin specializing in structure and function. In the zone of differentiation, or zone of maturation, cells complete their differentiation and become distinct cell types.

The primary growth of a root produces its epidermis, ground tissue, and vascular tissue. Root hairs account for the most of the water and mineral absorption from the soil. It enhances the absorption process by increasing the surface area of epidermal cells. Water and minerals absorbed from the soil must enter through the roots epidermis. The stele is a vascular cylinder or a solid core of xylem and phloem. In most eudicot roots, xylem has a starlike appearance and phloem occupies the indentations between the arms of the xylem star. In monocot roots, the vascular tissue consists of a central core of parenchyma cells which are surrounded by a ring of xylem and a ring of phloem. The central region is called a pith. This is different from the stem pith, which is a ground tissue. The ground tissue of roots consists mostly of parenchyma cells. It fills the cortex, the region between the vascular cylinder and epidermis. Cells within the ground tissue store carbohydrates and their plasma membranes absorb water and minerals from the soil. The innermost layer of the cortex is the endodermis, a cylinder one cell thick that forms the boundary with the vascular cylinder. The endodermis is also a selective barrier that regulates passage of substances from the soil into the vascular cylinder. Lateral roots arise from the pericycle, the outermost cell layer in the vascular cylinder which is adjacent to and just inside the endodermis. A lateral root pushes through the cortex and epidermis until it emerges from the established root. A lateral root cannot originate near the roots surface because its vascular system must be continuous with the vascular cylinder at the center of the established root. A shoot apical meristem is a dome-shaped mass of dividing cells at the shoot tip. Leaves are developed from leaf primordial, which are finger-like projections along the sides of the apical meristem. Axillary buds develop from islands of meristematic cells left by the apical meristem at the bases of the leaf primordial. Within a bud, leaf primordia are spaced close together because the internodes are very short. Most shoot elongation is due to the lengthening of internode cells below the shoot tip. Some plants produce leaf cells in areas of meristematic tissue separated from the apical meristem. These areas are intercalary meristems, which remain at the base of leaf blades and stem internodes. An example is grass, and it is why grasses tolerate grazing because the elevated part of the leaf blade can be removed without stopping growth.

The epidermis covers stems as part of the continuous dermal tissue system. Vascular tissue runs the length of a stem in vascular bundles. Unlike lateral roots which arise from vascular tissue deep within a root and disrupt the vascular cambium, cortex, and epidermis as they emerge, lateral shoots develop from axillary bud meristems on the stems surface and disrupts no other tissues. The vascular bundles of the stem converge with the roots vascular cylinder in a zone of transition located near the soil surface. In eudicots, the vascular tissue consists of vascular bundles arranged in a ring. The xylem in each vascular bundle is adjacent to the pith, and the phloem in each bundle is adjacent to the cortex. In monocots, the vascular bundles are scattered throughout the ground tissue. In the stems of both eudicots and monocots, the ground tissue consist mostly of parenchyma cells. Collenchyma beneath the epidermis strengthen many stems and sclerenchyma provide support in those no longer elongating parts of the stems. The epidermal barrier is interrupted by stomata, which allow gas exchange between the surrounding air and the photosynthetic cells inside the leaf. Stoma refers to the entire stomatal complex consisting of a pore flanked by two guard cells. The ground tissue of a leaf, a region called the mesophyll, is between the upper and lower epidermal layers. Mesophyll consists mainly of parenchyma cells specialized for photosynthesis. The leaves of eudicots have two distinct areas: palisade mesophyll and spongy mesophyll. Palisade mesophyll consists of one or more layers of elongated parenchyma cells on the upper part of the leaf. Spongy mesophyll is below the palisade mesophyll. The vascular tissue of each leaf is continuous with the vascular tissue of the stem. Leaf traces are connections from vascular bundles in the stem, which pass through petioles and into leaves. Veins are the leafs vascular bundles, which subdivide repeatedly and branch throughout the mesophyll. Each vein is enclosed by a protective bundle sheath, consisting of mainly one of more layers of parenchyma cells. Unlike stems and roots, leaves rarely undergo secondary growth. 51. Explain secondary growth in woody plants. 52. Analyze graphs.