Rural Housing in India

An Overview
Lily Pozzetti Holt

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Contents
1. Introduction .................................................................................................................................. 2 2. Disaster Types Common in India .................................................................................................... 2 2.1 Flood ....................................................................................................................................... 2 2.2 Cyclone .................................................................................................................................... 2 2.3 Earthquake .............................................................................................................................. 2 3. Disaster Prone Areas...................................................................................................................... 3 4. Traditional Rural Dwellings in Disaster Prone Areas ....................................................................... 5 5. Modern Techniques in Rural Dwellings .......................................................................................... 8 5.1 Typical Modifications Made by Rural Inhabitants ..................................................................... 8 5.2 Typical Modifications Made by Engineering Professionals ........................................................ 9 6. Possible Disaster Prevention Solutions From Outside of India ...................................................... 11 6.1 Temporary Flood Defences .................................................................................................... 11 7. Works Cited ................................................................................................................................. 12

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1. Introduction
India is a vast land mass with several climate zones. Different regions adapt their dwellings to suit their local climate, resulting in a varied output of domestic structures. This is especially so in rural dwellings, because materials from outside the locality are hard to get, and expensive. Rural communities are typically more impoverished than the general urban population and their dwellings represent hundreds of years of traditional skills, working at the lowest possible costs.

2. Disaster Types Common in India

2.1 Flood
Flood risk is prevalent all over India; however, it is particularly noticeable in the tropical areas, where the monsoon is heavy and infrastructure lacking. Other areas at risk of flood are areas which border bodies of water. The heat makes the ground hard, making permeation into the ground difficult and encouraging a build-up in surface water, which leads to floods. Risks associated with floods (RIBA, 2013): Harm caused to people, both physical and mental. The displacement of people from their homes. Damage to existing infrastructure. Contamination from hazardous human, chemical or solid waste. Damage to property.

2.2 Cyclone
The East Coast and South of India is subject to cyclones. These are particularly destructive in these areas as dwellings tend not to be sufficiently founded in to the ground and are typically built by unskilled local craftsmen. Risks associated with cyclones (James M. Shultz, 2005): Harm caused to people. Heavy rain can cause flooding. (sec.2.1) Sea surges can flood land and fresh water sources with salt water. Dwellings can be damaged or destroyed by water or wind. Elevated levels of disease. Damage to existing infrastructure.

2.3 Earthquake
India sits on its own tectonic plate, which has converging boundaries at every side (Plate Tectonics , 2010). This means that there is a build-up of energy, particularly in the Himalayan region, where the fault lines have moved 10m in the last century (Spotts, 2011). There have been ten earthquakes in the last 10 years, measuring between 4.2 and 9.3 on the Richter scale (US Geology Survey, 2013). Gujarat is particularly prone to earthquakes, although it lies outside the Himalayan region: in 2001 an earthquake resulted in over 20,000 deaths, 166,836 injuries, and around 339,000 buildings destroyed (Multidisciplinary Center for Earthquake Engineering Research , 2010).

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Risks associated with earthquakes (Nelson, 2012): Harm caused by collapsing structures. Destruction of existing infrastructure.

It has been put forward that Earthquakes do not kill people, buildings do (Nelson, 2012) highlighting the importance of appropriate structural design for earthquakes.

3. Disaster Prone Areas

Figure 1: Map showing areas from to climatic disaster in India (Saravask, 2007)

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Figure 2: Map showing areas of India prone to Earthquakes (Ganesh, 2007)

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4. Traditional Rural Dwellings in Disaster Prone Areas

Dhajji Dewari

Region Natural Hazards Construction Summary Successes

Failures

Western Himalayas Earthquakes Roof of timber truss formation, not aligned with primary uprights. Timber braced frame with rubble infill and mud mortar. Foundations composed of rubble strip footing, or packed earth Resists earthquakes well, lateral movement is resisted by friction in the infill and timber works as elastic retainer, resisting cracks. Timber enables wall to be thin, light and flexible. Foundation and superstructure often not connected sufficiently to ensure walking does not occur. Roof trusses should be positioned over primary upright posts. If timber is subjected to long term moisture, rot can cause weakness in structural members. Bhonga

Table i: (Earthquake Engineering Research Institute, 2002)

Region Natural Hazards Construction Summary

Successes Failures

Gujarat Earthquakes Roof of conical timber or bamboo slat formation, with thatch. This is supported on the walls and on a centre spanning joist with a central king post. Walls are of masonry with mud, lime or concrete mortar. Masonry can be adobe or bricks. Foundations composed of 1m deep embedment of walls. Resists earthquakes well. Works as shell shear wall to resist lateral loads. Roof is light and flexible. Often mortar is not concrete and does not provide sufficient bondage. Singular joist concentrates load, creating potential for failure when subjected to further stress.

Table ii: (Earthquake Engineering Research Institute, 2002)

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Timber Framed Brick House

Region Natural Hazards Construction Summary

Successes

Failures

All Over India Earthquakes, cyclones, flooding Roof of timber truss formation, with board and tiles or profiled steel, asbestos or plastic sheeting. Roof spans on to timber posts and masonry walls. Walls are of masonry with mud, lime or concrete mortar. Masonry can be adobe or bricks or concrete infill or rubble. Often walls are a combination of these. Foundations composed of rubble and mud mortar strip footing. Creates large internal space. Timber is flexible when subjected to lateral forces. Heavy roof and sturdy structure resist winds and protect from harsh weather. Connectivity between timber and masonry often unsatisfactory. Poor workmanship gives a varied collapse rate when subjected to earthquake. Timber is prone to rot when exposed to moisture and flood. Earthen House

Table iii: (Earthquake Engineering Research Institute, 2002)

Region Natural Hazards Construction Summary

Successes Failures

All Over India apart from North East Earthquakes, cyclones, flooding Roof of profiled steel, asbestos or plastic sheeting. Ridge beam spans on to mud walls. Walls are of packed mud mixed with wheat husk. Timber posts may be used. Foundations composed of rubble strip at 1m below ground level. Very cheap Connectivity between timber roof beams and masonry often unsatisfactory giving no lateral bracing. Structure is brittle, leading to cracking and walls coming apart when subject to lateral loads. Mud is poor in water logged conditions

Table iv: (Earthquake Engineering Research Institute, 2002)

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Stilted Houses

Region Natural Hazards Construction Summary

Successes Failures

Assam Earthquakes, flooding Roof of bamboo of timber truss members with thatch. Walls are of bamboo frame with woven reeds or bamboo strips. Foundations composed of bamboo posts, extended below ground service, much like a pile. Keeps living space above flood level. Allows for ventilation and shade. Structure is vulnerable in earthquakes due to lack of bracing and reliance of floor diaphragm to provide resistance again lateral loading. The structure can twist and the stilts fail. Dressed Masonry Houses

Table v: (Los Angeles Times, 1997) (Charman, 2013)

Region Natural Hazards Construction Summary Successes Failures

Gujarat Earthquakes Roof of timber truss construction with clay tiles. Walls are of sandstone masonry blocks bound with mud or cement mortar. Foundation composed of rubble strip footing. Cement mortar shows a better resistance to lateral loading. Thick walls control heat inside dwelling. Structure is vulnerable in earthquakes. Lack of knowledge of masonry results in the leaves of the walls not being properly bonded using header stones: this gives an inherent weakness in shear. Roof loads directly on to walls, without a ring beams so spreading of walls is possible.

Table vi: (Earthquake Engineering Research Institute, 2002)

Regionally there is a variation in building materials, but nationally, the lack of skilled input often can lead to catastrophic. The use of timber to provide a flexible braced frame yields good results, however, in some regions there is a shortage of timber, which renders these designs unfeasible. A key failure of many of these designs is the lack of connectivity between structural members and ridged decks or roofs, which take lateral loads. Without the rigidity the structure cracks and elements separate, causing structural weakness or collapse. [7]

5. Modern Techniques in Rural Dwellings

The builds in rural areas have been traditionally build since the time the area was first inhabited, however, with the availability of new technologies, variations from the traditional have become common. In some cases, this has led to an improvement but in others it has led to a bastardisation of new and old techniques resulting in a lack of structural integrity.

5.1 Typical Modifications Made by Rural Inhabitants

Concrete, being more readily available now, can be seen in some structures as the base for mortar, as opposed to the traditional mud or lime. It has been recorded that in an earthquake scenario, structures using concrete mortar are less likely to collapse (Earthquake Engineering Research Institute, 2002). This is most likely to be because of the strength of the bond. Lime mortar should be kept cool and damp whilst it cures, which in some regions is near impossible. The use of concrete in hot weather can lead to cracking due to the accelerated evaporation of the water. The best way to counter this is to cover the concrete with a white impervious sheet (Cemex, 2012). So long as steps to ensure proper curing are undertaken, cement should give a stronger bond. An associated problem of incorporating less porous cementitious mortars is that they can cause accelerated decay of the masonry as the impermeable surface increases water flow over the stones below, which erodes the blocks. However, in desert states, where rain in uncommon, the use of concrete mortar could greatly enhance performance under earthquakes.

Figure 3: Decay of sandstone when cementitious mortar is used (Frew, 2013)

A social shift in the family dynamic has seen a move towards more enclosed internal spaces, rather than one large open-plan space (Earthquake Engineering Research Institute, 2002). This is generally beneficial to the structure in earthquake scenarios as the rigidity is increased and lateral load paths are created. This additional stability discourages collapse by supporting long spans of masonry and providing shear resistance. However, the connectivity between these partition walls and the external walls must be sufficient to allow transfer of loads throughout the structure, without a full bond at the joint; these internal walls add nothing but interior design. Often walls are constructed from several building materials, rather than uniformly. This can lead to weak pockets and areas where wall sections are not sufficiently bonded. Building in a traditional manor but using blocks of a different mass and density can lead to weakness in the lower areas of masonry. Using stronger materials, i.e. bricks rather than adobe, in a uniform fashion, can lead to an increased strength in the structure. To reduce the effects of ground vibration, some rural dwellings are built on short timber stilts that give a pinned-pinned connection when vibrated. It has been reported that under extreme earthquakes this can lead to the structure falling off the stilts. It has been suggested that adding an independent plinth just below the height of the stilts may work as a safety device in extreme scenarios. (BIS, 2008) [8]

5.2 Typical Modifications Made by Engineering Professionals

Seismic belts can be built in to the courses of the masonry or they can be retro fitted around the outside of the structure. Most commonly, when constructing a new build, reinforced concrete bands will be installed at ceiling and lintel level, and around openings. Reinforcement is key at joints and works to hold the structure together, and keep it rigid under lateral cyclical loading. Upright reinforcement is also installed to give dowel action and reinforce joints. This can be in the form of a steel rod which penetrates all the courses of masonry, or as a reinforced concrete column. Steel mesh between courses can also improve connectivity at joints.

Figure 4: Reinforcement Detail for Concrete Seismic Band (BIS, 2008)

When retro fitting for seismic stability, seismic bands can be attached to the outer walls to stop spreading and increase stability. An alternative to reinforced concrete are bands made from timber or bamboo, or simple steel straps which anchor joints. The effectiveness of the alternative is less so than the reinforced concrete structural band, however, costs are considerably lower and transportation easier. The installation of straps is easy and can be performed by unskilled workers, and the bamboo construction poses less of a treat to the decay of the masonry around it. These two methods are also considerably cheaper in regards to transportation, and lighter, given than in rural settings infrastructure may be poor.

Figure 5 : Timber Seismic Band, A Light Weight Alternative (BIS, 2008)

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Post tensioning is an effective earthquake damage prevention method. Existing masonry is cored and threaded with a steel rod. The rod is then pulled to give tension and fixed, holding walls together. This is effective in large concrete structures; however, in some of the common rural structures it is unlikely that they will have the structural integrity not to collapse under the tension in the rod. Damp proof course installation or retrofit damp proof membrane is an effective way to ensure the strength of the masonry is not compromised by rising damp. In addition to this the drainage in the immediate area should be assess to avoid waterlogging. Adding new foundations is an expensive and technical procedure. An easier way to stabilise at foundation level is to extend the existing foundation using reinforced concrete beams.

Figure 7: Cross-Section Detailing Modifications to Footing (BIS, 2008)

Figure 6: Suggested Post to Footing Connection using Epoxy Anchor

To ensure full connectivity between the superstructure and the substructure the structural frame must be strapped down and connected to the footing using epoxy anchor plugs. In new builds the friction between the foundation slab and the soil can be reduced by inserting 2 sheets of plastic under the slab so that they slide against each other, rather than the soil. This can reduce cracking due to the earth shifting. The foundation must be deep, to avoid damage and provide strength to remain as one in an earthquake. If pad footings are used, the independent movement of each footing may introduce torsion and lead to collapse, therefore, a slab is preferable.

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6. Possible Disaster Prevention Solutions From Outside of India

6.1 Temporary Flood Defences
Rather than designing a dwelling to resist flooding, temporary, demountable flood defences are common solutions.

Figure 8: FLOODSTOP modular flood barrier (Fluvial Innovations, 2013)

Figure 9: BoxBarrier modular flood barrier (BAM, 2013)

The UK experiences regular fluvial, pluvial and coastal flooding due to the high level of rain fall. A common solution in this scenario is to erect water filled flood defences. These are brought to the site empty, so have a light weight and can be stacked. They are then rapidly filled with water and connected with rubber links. The weight of these flood walls is enough to resist the oncoming water and they can be built up to 0.9m high.

Figure 11: Caro WaterWall flood barrier (Caro, 2013)

Figure 10: Flood Control International Demountable Flood Barrier

Alternatively flood barriers of light aluminium are used. These are more expensive, but take up less space than the water filled systems, and can be built to be higher at 4m. They are constructed of panels with a slot and groove connection, which stops water permeating.

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7. Works Cited
BAM, 2013. BoxBarrier. [Online] Available at: http://www.boxbarrier.com/upload/documents/tinymce/Losse-pagina-s-Engels.pdf [Accessed 28th May 2013]. BIS, 2008. IMPROVING EARTHQUAKE RESISTANCE OF LOW STRENGTH MASONRY BUILDINGS GUIDELINES, New Delhi: BIS. Caro, 2013. WaterWall Barrier. [Online] Available at: http://www.caro.co.uk/downloadlibrary/carofds.pdf [Accessed 28th May 2013]. Cemex, 2012. Using Concrete in Hot Weather. [Online] Available at: http://cemexliterature.co.uk/pdf/Concrete_HotWeatherConc.pdf [Accessed 29th May 2013]. Charman, B., 2013. Mishing Villiage, Assam, India. [Online] Available at: http://www.bretcharmanphotography.com/1/post/2011/04/mishing-village-assamindia-150311.html [Accessed 28th May 2013]. Earthquake Engineering Research Institute, 2002. Housing Report, India: World Housing Encyclopedia. Fluvial Innovations, 2013. FLOODSTOP. [Online] Available at: http://www.fluvial-innovations.co.uk/case-studies.html [Accessed 28th May 2013]. Frew, C., 2013. Pointing with Lime. [Online] Available at: http://www.buildingconservation.com/articles/pointing/lime-pointing.htm [Accessed 29th May 2013]. Ganesh, A., 2007. Map of Earthquake areas in India. [Online] Available at: http://www.mapsofindia.com/maps/india/majorearthquake.htm [Accessed 28th May 2013]. James M. Shultz, J. R. a. Z. E., 2005. Epidemiology of Tropical Cyclones: The Dynamics of Disaster, Disease, and Development. Oxford Journals, 27(1), pp. 21-35. Los Angeles Times, 1997. Owners of Stilt Houses Live Above It All. [Online] Available at: http://articles.latimes.com/1997-03-17/news/mn-39250_1_stilt-houses [Accessed 28th May 2013]. Multidisciplinary Center for Earthquake Engineering Research , 2010. Major Indian Earthquakes of the 20th Century. [Online] Available at: http://mceer.buffalo.edu/infoservice/reference_services/major_indian_earthquake.asp [Accessed 28th May 2013].

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Nelson, S. A., 2012. Earthquake Hazards and Risks. [Online] Available at: http://www.tulane.edu/~sanelson/Natural_Disasters/eqhazards%26risks.htm [Accessed 28th May 2013]. Plate Tectonics , 2010. Plate Tectonics. [Online] Available at: http://www.platetectonics.com/book/page_2.asp [Accessed 28th May 2013]. RIBA, 2013. Flooding Explained. [Online] Available at: http://www.architecture.com/FindOutAbout/Sustainabilityandclimatechange/Flooding/FloodingExpl ained.aspx#.UaQ1KrWG0Z4 [Accessed 28th May 2013]. Saravask, 2007. Natural Hazard Map. [Online] Available at: http://www.mapsofindia.com/maps/india/natural-hazard-map.jpg [Accessed 28th May 2013]. Spotts, P., 2011. Why do India, Himalayan region get so many earthquakes?. [Online] Available at: http://www.alaskadispatch.com/article/why-do-india-himalayan-region-get-so-manyearthquakes [Accessed 28th May 2013]. US Geology Survey, 2013. Earthquake Hazards Program. [Online] Available at: http://earthquake.usgs.gov/earthquakes/eqinthenews/2004/us2004slav/ [Accessed 28th May 2013].

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