Metal Cutting

2
METAL CUTTING
Objectives
Understand the basic parameters in the metal cutting operation. Appreciate different types of chips formed in metal cutting and their relevance to manufacturing Calculate analytically the forces and other parameters associated with the orthogonal cutting Select the cutting tool material for a given application
(c) TMH New Delhi, Manufacturing Technology Vol 2,Metal Cutting and Machine Tools by P N Rao
October 26, 2008
Objectives
Understand the temperatures developed in metal cutting and the variables that control it Understand tool wear and tool life and the variables that control them Determine how the surface finish varies with the process parameters Know the various cutting fluids and their application methods Empirically determine the cutting forces Optimise the machining process to satisfy the required conditions
(c) TMH New Delhi, Manufacturing Technology Vol 2,Metal Cutting and Machine Tools by P N Rao 3
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Introduction
In US, more than $ 100 billions were spent annually on the machining and related operations. Typically a large majority (above 80%) of all the machine tools used in the manufacturing industry are metal cutting in nature. An estimate in 1957 showed that about 10 to 15% of all the metal produced in U.S.A. is converted into chips.
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Cutting Tool
Rake angle: It is the angle between the face of the tool called the rake face and the normal to the machining direction. Clearance angle: This is the angle between the machined surface and the underside of the tool called the flank face.
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Cutting Conditions
The cutting speed, V, is the speed with which the cutting tool moves through the work material. This is generally expressed in metres per second (ms-1). Feed rate, f, may be defined as the small relative movement per cycle (per revolution or per stroke) of the cutting tool in a direction usually normal to the cutting speed direction. Depth of cut, d, is the normal distance between the unmachined surface and the machined surface.
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Chip Formation
The metal in front of the tool rake face gets immediately compressed first elastically and then plastically. The actual separation of the metal starts as a yielding or fracture, depending upon the cutting conditions, starting from the cutting tool tip. The chip after sliding over the tool rake face would be lifted away from the tool, and the resultant curvature of the chip is termed as chip curl.
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Piispanen's Model
He considers the undeformed metal as a stack of cards which would slide over one another as the wedge shaped tools moves under these cards. A practical example is when paraffin is cut, block wise slip is clearly evident.
Chips
Discontinuous chip Continuous chip, and Continuous chip with BUE
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Discontinuous Chip
When brittle materials like cast iron are cut, the deformed material gets fractured very easily and thus the chip produced is in the form of discontinuous segments. Cutting force becomes unstable with the variation coinciding with the fracturing cycle. Higher depths of cut (large chip thickness), low cutting speeds and small rake angles are likely to produce discontinuous chips.
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Continuous Chip
Continuous chips are normally produced when machining steel or ductile metals at high cutting speeds. Continuous chip is possible because of the ductility of metal flows along the shear plane instead of rupture. Sharp cutting edge, small chip thickness (fine feed), large rake angle, high cutting speed, ductile work materials and less friction between chip tool interface through efficient lubrication.
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Continuous Chip with BUE
When the friction between tool and chip is high while machining ductile materials, some particles of chip adhere to the tool rake face near the tool tip. When such sizeable material piles up on the rake face, it is termed as built up edge (BUE). As the size of BUE grows larger, it becomes unstable and parts of it gets removed while cutting. The removed portions of BUE partly adheres to the chip underside and partly to the machined surface
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Shear Zone
Thin shear plane model

Easier for analysis
Thick shear plane model

More realistic
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Orthogonal Cutting
Oblique cutting is more practical while orthogonal cutting is convenient for analysis.
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Mechanics of Orthogonal Cutting

The current analysis is based on Merchant's thin shear plane model considering the minimum energy principle. This model would be applicable at very high cutting speeds, which are generally practised in production.
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Assumptions

The tool is perfectly sharp and no contact along the clearance face. The surface where shear is occurring is a plane. The cutting edge is a straight line extending perpendicular to the direction of motion and generates a plane surface as the work moves past it. The chip does not flow to either side or no side spread. Uncut chip thickness is constant. Width of the tool is greater than the width of the work. A continuous chip is produced without any BUE. Work moves with a uniform velocity. The stresses on the shear plane are uniformly distributed.
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Merchant's Analysis
FV Force perpendicular to the primary tool motion (thrust force) Fs Force along the shear plane Ns Force normal to the shear plane F Frictional force along the rake face N Normal force perpendicular to the rake face R = R'
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Shear Angle
Merchant considered that would have the value of the yield shear stress for the work material and that would have the usual value for any dry sliding friction. To determine he assumed that the minimum energy principle applied in metal cutting, so that the deformation process adjusted itself to a minimum energy condition
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Friction
It is found that determined in this way is exceptionally high in value and that it varies with tool geometry and other cutting conditions. But this is contrary to the sliding friction studies.
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Friction
In metal cutting, we have a sliding situation under conditions of high normal load and with a metal surface, which is chemically clean, having been recently exposed from the body of the parent metal. The cleanness of the metal surfaces can explain the high value of and high normal load can explain the departure from the usual laws of friction.
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Cutting Tool Materials

Required
properties
Higher hardness Hot hardness Wear resistance Toughness Low friction Better thermal characteristics
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Carbon Tool Steels

These are essentially plain carbon steels with carbon percentages between 0.6 to 1.5% and some very small alloy additions such as Manganese, Silicon, Tungsten, Molybdenum, Chromium and Vanadium. Beyond 200 C they loose their hardness and cease to cut.
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High Speed Steel
This class of tool materials have significant quantities of tungsten, molybdenum, chromium and vanadium. The complex carbides of tungsten, molybdenum and chromium distributed through out the metal matrix provide very good hot hardness and abrasion resistance. For the same hardness, less amount of molybdenum needs to be added, however more care need to be exercised in hardening as decarburizing takes place in molybdenum steels.
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High Speed Steel

The main advantages of high speed steels is in their high hardness, hot hardness, good wear resistance, high toughness and reasonable cost. Toughness of high speed steels is highest among all the cutting tool materials.
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Cast Cobalt Alloys
These, termed as stellites, are normally produced by the powder metallurgy method, though casting is also used by some manufacturers. They retain their hardness even at elevated temperatures better than HSS and consequently these are used at cutting speeds higher (25% higher) than HSS. Because of their formability these are used for making form tools. They have higher toughness and higher stiffness.
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Cemented Carbides
Cemented carbides are produced by the cold compaction of the tungsten carbide powder in a binder such as cobalt, followed by liquid-phase sintering. High hot hardness. Higher Young's modulus. Carbides are more brittle and expensive
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Cemented Carbides
The usual composition of the straight grade carbides is 6 wt% Co and 94 wt% WC with the cobalt composition ranging from 5 to 12 wt%. Addition of titanium carbide (TiC) increases the hot hardness, wear resistance, and resistance to thermal deformation, but decreases the strength. The usual composition is about 525 wt%.
Cemented Carbides
Choose a grade with the lowest cobalt content and the finest grain size consistent with adequate strength to eliminate chipping. Use straight WC grades if cratering, seizure or galling are not experienced in case of work materials other than steels. To reduce cratering and abrasive wear when machining steel, use grades containing TiC. For heavy cuts in steel where high temperature and high pressure use a multi-carbide grade containing W-Ti-Ta and/or lower binder content.
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Cemented Carbides
Cemented carbides being expensive are available in insert form in different shapes such as triangle, square, diamond, and round. Each of the edge would act as a cutting edge. As seen from the Fig 2.26, the tool bit is made of tungsten carbide, while the tool holder shank is made from alloy steel to provide the necessary strength and reduce the total cost.
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Coated Carbides
Thus several coatings and coating methods have been developed for cutting tools. Since late 60's thin (about 5 m) coating of TiN has been used on cemented carbide tools. Ceramic coatings used are hard materials and therefore provide a good abrasion resistance. They also have excellent high temperature properties such as high resistance to diffusion wear, superior oxidation wear resistance, and high hot hardness.
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Ceramics
Ceramics are essentially alumina (Al2O3) based high refractory materials introduced specifically for high speed machining of difficult to machine materials and cast iron. These can withstand very high temperatures, chemically more stable and have higher wear resistance than the other cutting tool materials. The main problems of ceramic tools are their low strength, poor thermal characteristics and the tendency to chipping.
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Diamond
Diamond is the hardest known (Knoop hardness ~ 8000 kg/mm2) material that can be used as a cutting tool material. It has most of the desirable properties of a cutting tool material such as high hardness, good thermal conductivity, low friction, non-adherence to most materials, and good wear resistance. Artificial diamonds which are basically polycrystalline (PCD) in nature. These are extensively used in industrial application because they can be formed for any given shape with a substrate of cemented carbide. (c) TMH New Delhi, Manufacturing
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Cubic Boron Nitride (CBN)
Cubic Boron Nitride (CBN) next in hardness only to diamond (Knoop hardness ~ 4700 kg/mm2). It is not a natural material but produced in the laboratory using a high temperature/ high pressure process similar to the making of artificial diamond. These are more expensive than cemented carbides but in view of the higher accuracy and productivity possible for difficult to machine materials, they are used in special applications.
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Carbon steels Low strength, softer materials, non ferrous alloys, plastics Low cutting speeds, low strength materials
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HSS
All materials of low and medium strength and hardness
Low to medium cutting speeds, low to medium strength materials
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HSS
All materials of low and medium strength and hardness All materials upto medium strength and hardness
Low to medium cutting speeds, low to medium strength materials Not suitable for low speed application
Cemented carbides
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HSS
All materials of low and medium strength and hardness
Low to medium cutting speeds, low to medium strength materials
Cemented carbides Ceramics
All materials upto medium Not suitable for low speed strength and hardness application Cast iron, Ni-base super alloys, non ferrous alloys, plastics Not for low speed operation or interrupted cutting. Not for machining Al, Ti alloys.
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Thermal Aspects
Most of the work done is converted into heat In the shear plane where the heat is generated because of internal friction, and this accounts for a majority of the heat of the order of 65 to 75% of the total heat generated, The friction at the chip tool interface which causes a heat of the order of 15 to 25%, and The friction at the tool work interface which causes a heat of the order of 10%.
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Tool Wear and Tool Life
Crater wear: The crater is on the rake face and is more or less circular.
The crater does not always extend to the tool tip, but may end at a distance from the tool tip. It increases the cutting forces, modifies the tool geometry and softens the tool tip.
Flank wear: Flank wear or wear land is on the clearance surface of the tool.
The wear land can be characterised by the length of wear land, w. It modifies the tool geometry and changes the cutting parameters (depth of cut).
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Tool Wear
Cutting tool are subjected to extremely severe cutting conditions

Metal to metal contact with work and chip Very high stress Very high temperature Virgin metal Very high temperature gradients Very high stress gradients
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Tool Life
Tool life represents the useful life of the tool, expressed generally in time units from the start of a cut to some end point defined by a failure criterion. The tool life can be specified by any of the following measurable quantities:
Actual cutting time to failure Length of work cut to failure Volume of metal removed to failure Number of components produced Cutting speed for a given time to failure.
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Tool Life
Tool failure criteria Based on tool wear:

Chipping or fine cracks developing at the cutting edge. wear land size Crater depth, width or other parameters a combination of the above two Volume or weight of material worn off the tool Total destruction of the tool
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Tool Life
Tool failure criteria Based on consequences of worn tool

Limiting value of surface finish Limiting value of change in component size Fixed increase in cutting force or power required to perform a cut
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Tool Life Equation
Taylor thought that there is an optimum cutting speed for best productivity. V Tn = C T is the tool life in minutes V is the cutting speed, m/min, and C and n are constants. Extended Taylors tool life equation V Tn fn1 dn2 = C
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Machinability
Machinability is the characteristic of the work material expressing its ease of machining. Hard work materials are difficult to machine. The variables that affect tool life are:
Cutting conditions, Tool geometry, Tool material, Work material, and Cutting fluid
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Surface Finish
Ideal surface finish, which is a result of the geometry of the manufacturing process, which can be determined by considering the geometry of the machining operation. Natural component, which is a result of a number of the uncontrollable factors in machining, which is difficult to predict.
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Ideal Surface Finish in Turning
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Surface Finish
The cutting process parameters, speed, feed and depth of cut The geometry of the cutting tool Application of cutting fluid Work and tool material characteristics Rigidity of the machine tool and the consequent vibrations
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Cutting Fluids
To cool the tool and workpiece To reduce the friction To protect the work against rusting To improve the surface finish To prevent the formation of built up edge To wash away the chips from the cutting zone
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Cutting Fluids
Cooling action: Originally it was assumed that cutting fluid improves the cutting performance by its cooling properties alone. Since most of the tool wear mechanisms are thermally activated, cooling the chip tool interface helps in retaining the original properties of the tool and hence prolongs its life.
Cutting Fluids
Lubricating action: The best improvement in cutting performance can be achieved by the lubricating action since this reduces the heat generated, thus reducing the energy input to the metal cutting operation.
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Cutting Fluids
There are three possible directions through which cutting fluid could be applied.
On the back of the chip Along the rake crevice between the chip and rake face of the tool Along the clearance crevice between the finished work surface and clearance face of the tool
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Cutting Fluids
In each of these three locations, the cutting fluid can be applied in any of the following methods.
Flooding Jet application Mist application
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Types of Cutting Fluids

Water based emulsions Straight Mineral oils Mineral oils with additives (Neat oils)
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Cutting fluid selection

Workpiece material Machining operation Cutting tool material, and Other ancillary factors
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Selection of cutting fluid based on work material

Material Characteristic Cutting fluid to be used
Grey Cast iron
Grey cast iron could be machined dry since the graphite flakes act as solid lubricants in cutting.
Soluble oils and thinner neat oils are satisfactory for flushing swarf and metal dust.
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Copper alloys
Better machinability. Some could be machined dry.
Water based fluids could be conveniently used. Tougher alloys a neat oil blended with fatty or inactive EP additive is used.
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Material Characteristic
They are generally ductile and can be machined dry. However in combination with steel they have a high friction coefficient. Generally BUE forms on the tool and prevents the chip flowing smoothly away from the work.
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Cutting fluid to be used

It is necessary to have the tool surface highly polished. Generally a soluble oil to which an oiliness agent has been added. For more difficult application straight neat oil or fatty oil or kerosene could be used.
Aluminum alloys
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Mild steel and low to medium carbon steels
Easiest to machine. Low carbon steels have lower tensile strength and hence may create problems because of their easy tearing.
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Milky type soluble oil or mild EP neat cutting oil could be used.
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High carbon steels
They are tough and pressures and temperatures in the cutting zone are higher.
EP cutting oil is used. In some applications milky soluble can be used.
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Alloy steels Particularly with chromium and nickel, the steels are tough. They are similar to high carbon steels.
EP cutting oil is used. In some applications milky soluble can be used.
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Material Characteristic
They have great toughness, corrosion resistance and pronounced work hardening. Very difficult to machine. Because of their toughness they create very high pressure in the work area.
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Cutting fluid to be used

Use high performance neat oils with high concentration of chlorinated additives. Sulphur additives are to be avoided. Some high performance EP soluble oils may some times be useful.
Stainless steels and heat resistant alloys
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Economics
Manpower cost, Cl which is measured in Rs per unit time, generally hour that operator is employed Machine tool operating (overhead) cost, Cm which includes machine depreciation, and other costs associated with the running of the machine tool such as power consumed, maintenance overheads, consumables such as oils, etc.
Economics
Job handling cost, which arises because of the time spent in loading and unloading of the job in which time the machine tool is kept idle, and also requires the operator to attend to the job. Tool cost, Ct which is the cost of the cutting tool for the given operation.
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Economics
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Economics
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Economics
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Economics
For minimum cost, the above equation could be differentiated with respect to cutting speed V, considering the fact that all other conditions such as feed and depth of cut could be maintained constant, we get
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Economics
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Constraints
Maximum cutting power, Maximum cutting force permissible, Surface finish and diametral tolerance on the machined surface Limits on speed, feed and depth of cut. Maximum permissible cutting temperature, Maximum permissible chatter, Maximum permissible work piece static and dynamic instability
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Summary

A cutting tool performance is significantly affected by its geometric parameters such as rake angle and clearance angle. Cutting takes place due to the shear ahead of the cutting edge, and different types of chips such as discontinuous, continuous and continuous with BUE are formed during this process. Merchants thin shear plane model predicts the performance of orthogonal cutting and based on this theory it is possible to predict the performance of the process. Shear angle plays a very important role in metal cutting, and a large number of efforts were put to develop a simple equation.
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Summary

High speed steel and cemented carbides are the most widely used cutting tool materials. Ceramics, CBN and diamond tools are selectively used for specific applications. Cutting temperature is affected to a great extent by cutting speed and to a lesser extent by the other parameters. Tool wear is predominantly of two types crater wear and flank wear. There are a number of tool life criteria that are used in metal cutting. Tool life is controlled in a majority of situations by the flank wear due to processing requirements.
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Summary
Surface finish is controlled by the feed rate used and the tool nose radius. Different types of cutting fluids such as water soluble, mineral oils and mineral oils with additives are used in metal cutting operations. There are a number of ways the cutting fluids can be applied. It is possible to optimise a metal cutting operation based on a number of constraints that need to be satisfied along with the necessary optimal criterion.
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Metal Cutting

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Continuous Chip with BUE

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Thin shear plane model

Thick shear plane model

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Mechanics of Orthogonal Cutting

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Cutting Tool Materials

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Carbon Tool Steels

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High Speed Steel

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High Speed Steel

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Cast Cobalt Alloys

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