SPOTLIGHT: UPDATING OUR,AGENDAS

The Built Environment's Effect on Learning: Applying Current Research

By James A. Dyck he importance of the learning environment in the Montessori approach _T..whas been and will continue to be thoroughly defined and expressed in terms of the "prepared environment." According to Dr. Kevin Rathunde: The teacher must pay more attention to the learning environment than in traditional approaches, and the enviromment is tailored to the child (e.g. the entire physical environment is "child-sized"). The environmzent is perceived as the medium through which the teacherhelps the child to engage attention and concentrate. Just

examining distant objects and include the eyes, ears, and nose. Immediate receptors are used to examine the world up close and include the skin, membranes, and muscles. The first sense developed in a newborn is that of the tactile system. Sight, the most specialized sense to be developed by humans, is the last sense developed. Hall suggests that the visual and tactile spatial experiences are "so interwoven that the two cannot be separated" (p. 57). Similarly, visual and kinesthetic spatial experiences are often inseparable. Montessori teachers know how important movement and multisensory reinforcements are to a learning experience. Hall's notion of spatial experience seems to support our notion of a prepared environment.

Environmentto eachmustbe everything thatis not me, saidAFuller.

Research Issues and Limitations

The main limitation with environmental research is in the very nature of academic disciplines. Academic research tends to ask academic questions specific to a particular discipline and often is not directly applicable to design issues. For example, geographers tend to focus on cognitive mapping and understanding of space, anthropologists on personal space and cultural influences, sociologists on social dimensions of context, psychologists on the perception of the environment, and so on, while neglecting the other points of view. The opposite extreme, however, is that studies can be too vague, not showing any isolation of environmental variables. For example, studies of old versus new buildings do not attempt to define and control for specific environmental aspects. Quantitative studies also can be difficult, in that they can show correlations but not necessarily prove causal relationships. Another critical limitation is found in the definitions of desirable learning outcomes and their measurement. In recent years, educators have begun to question the value of standardized test scores and redefine educational outcomes. They also are struggling with measurement of more holistic and abstract outcomes. For example, it is considered unrealistic to attempt to measure and quantify skills relating to abstract thinking, human interaction, or creativity. Unfortunately, environmental research still relies heavily on comparative standardized test scores even though they might measure a very narrow scope of learning or intelligence. We are left to decide to what extent test scores measure the effectiveness of the prepared environment in terms of facilitating concentration and flow.

as a positive biological niche contains the necessary elements that seize upon an organism's true nature and innate capacities. a prepared school environment must seize upon the essence of the child-the intrinsic motivation for spontaneous activity (Rathunde, 2001, pp. 29-30) Rathunde (p.28) poses the question, "how can adults prepare an environment for children that facilitates deep concentration and flow, and is thereby consistent with our normal, inborn capacities?" He definesflow as a natural period of deep concentration where the subject appears to be unaware of the surroundings or the passage of time. Rathunde continues: "Montessori's answer to the above question is clear-the context of optimal experience is the prepared environment" (p.28). As Montessori teachers, we understand that thepreparedenvironmentplays akeyroleinthe teaching and learning experience and continually pursue additional guidance with respect to developing it. We prepare the built environment through involvement with Montessori materials and related activities to facilitate optimal learning experiences. This article focuses on six physical attributes of the prepared environment that I believe should be addressed in environmental design: aesthetics, spatial factors, light, noise, color, and temperature (thermal factors). In this article I review and apply current literature and my own observations to understandbetterhowthesesix attributes affect learning from the context of the Montessori prepared environment.
Environment

Buckrninster Fuller, architect, inventor, and philosopher, put it simply: environment to each must be everything that is not me. Daniel Duke (1998, p. 6), director of the Thomas Jefferson Center for Educational Design, suggests: "A learning environment represents the physical, social and cultural context in which learning occurs." While it is important to acknowledge the role of the social and cultural context in a learning setting, the significance of the physical context has captured the attention of researchers, educators, and others in recent decades. Following World War II, when Winston Churchill argued for the restoration of the bomb-damaged House of Commons to its original historical design, he said, "We shape our buildings and thereafter our buildings shape us" (Dudley, 1994, p. 8). This statement is very popular among supporters of environmental psychology. Fuller tells us to stop trying to reform people: reform the environment and people will reform themselves. Although many might argue that this proclamation is somewhat overstated, it supports Churchill's supposition. Educator Dr. Anne Taylor, a strong supporter of the importance of the built environment and of Montessori education, suggests the following: Human infants and children leam more rapidly in stimulating and varied physical environments which meet basic human
needs .... The architectural settings can

The word environmentcarries many different meanings. It has usually been associated with the "natural" environment and environmental preservation and restoration. Webster gives us this definition: "the aggregate of surrounding things, conditions orinfluences."

facilitate the transmission of cultural values, stimulate or subdue, aid creativity or slow mental perception, and cause fear or joy....There cannot be separation between the learning process and the physical environment-they are integral parts of each other. (Taylor & Gousie 1988, p. 23) Edward T. Hall (1966) proposes: "Man's sense of space is closely related to his sense of self which is in an intimate transaction with his environment" (p. 60). Environment is perceived by sensory receptors. Distance receptors are those that are utilized when

Research Suggests Guidelines

Taylor and Gousie (1988) examined several environmental factors in a learning setting: long-term noise, full-spectrum light, and color's effect on blood pressure and behavior, discovering that all affect learning performance. GlenEarthman andLindaLemaster(1996) found that school building age, thermal facMontessori LIFE
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tors, visual factors (lighting), color and interior painting, hearing factors, building maintenance, availability of special instructional facilities (science), and size of school all affect learning performance. The following survey of research literature addresses the effects of environmental attributes.

The AestheticAttribute
After examining the effects of a "rich" environment versus a "poor" one, Jasnoski (1992) states, "a diversity of locales and features have demonstrated an impact upon mood, cognitive performance, and health for different populations" (p. 139). She outlines a "Mood Scale" thatincludestension, depression,hostility, vigor, fatigue, confusion, relaxation, anger, resourcefulness, friendliness, negative mood, and positive mood. Cognitive performance was also assessed. According to Jasnoski, A poor environment decreased vigor as well as increased fatigue relative to the rich environment... .In apoorenvironment, al'of those with SADS [seasonal affective disorder], irrespective of absorption level, decreasedinresourcefulness.ThosewithSADS appearedtoplum-netinresourcefulnesswhen in a stimulus-poor milieu for just half an hour.....In a rich environment. absorption mediated tension... .In sum, physical enviromment by itself affects mood variables related to activity level. (pp. 139 - 140) When Boyers and Burkett (1989) compared two high schools in Eastern Tennessee, one old and one new, they found that the students in the modern building still scored significantly higher in all three areas [listening, language, and mathematics] than did students who were at similar socioeconomic levels in the olderfacility.. ..Incidents of disciplinary action and absences were noticeably less than in the olderfacility.... Self-concepts of students in the modern building were significantly higher than in the older facility. (p. 29) In a study of the Washington, DC, public school system, researchers found a 10.9% average difference in achievement test scores between an "excellent" and a "poor" facility (Berner, 1993). Carol Cash (1993) reports similarfindings from astudy of ruralhigh schools inVirginia: student achievement scores were as much as 5 percentile points higher in buildirigs that .received higher quality ratings. In a 1992 interview, Jonathan Kozol was asked,> "What do'you consider the noire serious problems [in American schools]?" Kozol replied, the aesthetic consequences of disrepair. The ugliness of a building in disrepair conveys a very clear message to a child that we don't value that child very highly.. ..It's virtually impossible to raise their self-esteem if we place them in a building that tells them that we hold them in very low self-esteem. (Kozol, 1992, p.39) In addition, Hansen (1993) calls attentionto the "Schoolhouse in the Red" research that 54
Montessorti LIFE *Winter 2002

found 12% of ournation's public schools tobe "inadequate," with most of the buildings unhealthy, unsafe, and even structurally unsound. The most telling piece of information that the "Schoolhouse in the Red" research revealed was the work done in 1992 by Maureen Edwards at Georgetown University. Working with architects and engineers who evaluated the condition of some Washington, DC, schools, Edwards found that the condition of the building made a predictable difference in student achievement. Using standardized achievement scores and statistically removing other variables known to affect the scores, such as the student's socioeconomic status, Edwards found the following: * Students assigned to schools in poor condition can be expected to fall 5.5 percentage points below those in schools in fair condition. * Students assigned to schools in poor condition can be expected to fall 10.9 percentage points below those in buildings in excellent condition. Morethanoneattomey,havingread"Schqolhouse in the Red," has called me and in essence asked "Since the courts have established education as a privilege, do these findings mean that school administrators are denying students in 'poor' or even 'fair' buildings their educational rights under the law?" And, "Morethanone studenthasbeen kept out of college by 11 percentage points on their standardized test, does this mean the condition of school facilities is preventing some students from attending a university? What is the impact on the quality of their lives, theirlife's work,theireamingpower?" Tough questions we are apt to hear in court if we don't take a look at what we are doing to our school buildings-and our students. (Hansen, 1993, pp.31-32) InMontessori classrooms aesthetics isparticularly valued in the visual appeal of the learning materials. Cleanliness and order are seen as important aesthetic attributes for learning. Montessorians understand that the environment must be worthy of respect if we expect the children to respect it. This respect, whichbegins with interpersonal relationships, should naturally apply to life in general and the classroom environment specifically.

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Children
- - an exhibit interest in
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or special
sensitivity >~to spatial qualities and take delight in spatial experiences.

The Spatial Attribute

It may be suggested that children's interests exist for the purpose ofmeeting specific developmentalneeds. As ateacherofyoungchildren, I have observed children's special interests in language, sensory experimentation, creative play, and motor activities. There are numerous theories of child development which attempt to explain relationships between these activities and children's developmental needs. Dr. Montessori recognized children's sensitive periods for order, language development. etc. However, there has been very little written to date regarding the sensitivity of children to space and the role of spatial experience in meeting developmental needs (Dick [Dyck], 1977).

In the spring of 1973, during my Montessori training at MECA-Seton, our class was asked by a teacher trainer to relate some early childhood memories. The purpose was to find out what activities orpersonshadbeenimportantto us as children. As these memories were being related, it occurred to me that in nearly every instance, a spatial context prevailed. I recalled my own early memories: a dirt place at the end oftheporchcompletelycoveredoverbybushes, anigloothatwasbuiltannuallyonanarrowstrip between the sidewalk and the driveway, and a small climbing tree with a canopy of heavy foliage in an empty lot next door. Kohl (1969) relates a similar incident, which occurred during a teachers' seminar he was conducting: During one session we all tried to think back to our own earliest experiences in school and to recreate them in writing or through drawing. Most of our memories went backto kindergarten orthe first grade, and an unusual number of them were spatial. I remember my first-grade classroom and how confined and box-like it felt. The tables were placed in rows and their tops were hard and rectangular. I was afraid that I would move things from their properplace and walked cautiously whenever I left my seat. For the most part I tried to disappear into my chair, hide from the teacher, and let my imagination invest the room with wild and secret places. The drawings [of the teachers attending the seminar] were full of boxes representing our rooms, papers, books, tables, buildings-our memories of school were predominately closed and rectangular. (p.34) John Holt (1974) also tells of an interesting experience when he was a classroomteacher. I once taught at a small elementary school where each year we would have an all-day school outing and picnic. On one such outing we drove up to a new place that none of us had seen before. There was a flat, grassy field, the usual picnic tables and fireplaces, and beyond, a broad, gentle hillside, covered in knee-high grass. The children, as if pulled by magnets went to and up that hill, each one making his own path, running this way and that-drunk on space. Thatspacebeckoned, demanded to be used, explored, filled up and occupied. This hillside was just the right size-big enough to be inviting and exciting, not so big as to be

overwhelming. The children responded. We all respond to space, but most adults so seldom see aspace that they want to and can respond to that we lose much of this sense. Our surroundings are often so ugly that to protect ourselves we shut them out. Children on the whole, have not learned how to do this. Children respond to many other kinds of space, not only big space, open space, but small spaces, cozy spaces, especially hidden private places. (p.667) He suggests that "wasted" and "unusable" spaces, such as stairs, stair landings, little corridors, closets, bathrooms, and tiny rooms too small to use for any recognizable school purpose can have educational value. Anyone who has observed a child running jubilantly along the expanse of a long beach or has seen some children huddled in the hollow of a large bush would probably agree that children exhibit an interest in or special sensitivity to spatial qualities and take delight in spatial experiences. As an architect, I think that spatial qualities are significant environmental factors and that the "enhancement" of spatial experience is a vital design criterion. A second experience during myMontessori training initiated my interest in the importance of shape or spatial qualities. My instructor for environmental design. Lillian Kroenke, had recently completed a new school building project. BecauseI'm an architect, she thought I might be interestedin an observation she had abouthernewclassroom. Theroom was square with a sunken square in the center. She observed that no matter where two children wereintheclassroom, theyperceivedthatthey were close enough to have a conversation. The result of this was that the noise level was higher than she wanted. The busy hum became a loud roar. She believed that an elongated shape would have been better. During the next few years I was able to work with Montessori schools on several small projects. In consideration ofKroenke's observation, I developed the "L" shaped classroom (Dyck, 1994). This shape combines several desirable qualities: * it has the longest actual diagonal distance, * it has the most pronounced inside corners, and * it is asymmetrical. The diagonal distance provides the greatest actual separation within a given room size, while the interior corner creates a sense of discovery where every part of the room is not necessarily visible. I intuitively believed that asymmetry created amorenatural "wondering" environment and that the nonlinearity would discourage running. Symmetrical spaces tend to be center focused, while asymmetrical spaces create more interest in the perimeter. Hall (1992) credits Humphrey Osmond, a physician, with the
terms sociopetaland sociofitgal. Sociopetal

asymmetrical spaces are more sociofugal and that sociofugal spaces are better suited for learning settings where multiple and diverse activities are occurring (e.g., a Montessori classroom). TheL-shaped classroomhas been incorporated in Montessori schools and public schools (elementary and secondary). One school has won a national design award for "Impact on Leaming" from SchoolPlanning and ManagementMagazine.

bright. Increasing the brightness of the surroundings, decreasing the brightness of the light sources, orboth, can control most glare. Reflective glare occurs when direct light sources are above 45 degrees from the horizontal. Therefore, teachers should avoid placing activities under or near light fixtures.
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e I-my
Cross L Rectangle Square T Day lighting also affects student performance. TheHeschongMahone Group (1999) conducted a study that examined student performance data from three elementary school districts and looked for a correlation to the amount of daylight provided by each student's classroom environment. They analyzed score results from 21,000 second through fifth-grade students in three states. Each classroom was assigned a series of codes on a 0-to-5 scale, indicating the size and tint of its windows, the presence and type of any sky lighting, and the overall amount of daylight expected. Their results follow. * Capistano School District, Orange County, CA: In a 1-year study, students with the most daylight progressed 20% faster on math tests and 26% faster on reading tests. Students in classrooms with large windows progressed 15% and 23% faster, respectively. * Seattle, WA, and Fort Collins, CO: Only final test scores were available. Students in classrooms with the most day lighting were found to have 7 to 18% higher scores than those in classrooms with the least. A Swedish study of 90 elementary schools tracked student behavior, health, and cortisol (stress hormone) levels over the course of a year in four classrooms with varying day lighting levels. The results indicate that "work in classrooms without daylight may upset the basic hormone pattern and this in turn may influence children's ability to concentrate or cooperate, and also eventually have an impact on annual body growth and absenteeism" (Plympton, Conway, & Epstein, 2000, p. 3). Another study in Alberta, Canada, reported by the same authors, compared children attending elementary schools with fullspectrum lighting with children in schools with conventional lighting over a 2-year period. The results showed that students in fullspectrum lighted classrooms had'3.2 days fewerabsencesperyearand9times less tooth decay; they grew 3/4 inch more than students in classrooms with conventional lighting. The effect of full-spectrum artificial lighting might be less significant in a Montessori classroom, where children move around inside and outside more freely and more often. However, if a primary goal is to eliminate all possible
Montessori LIFE *Winter 2002 55

Although spatial attributes have not been the focus of extensive empirical research, the literature on crowding appears to offer related insights. Crowvding is defmedas apsychological condition that is measured in terms ofstress which results from one's awareness of others in a space. The level ofthis stress is dependent not only on the density of people within a space, but on many other factors, as well. Research has shown that temperature, noise level, lighting, room shape, partitions, aesthetics, richness ofresources, andthe number of doors affect crowding. All of these are significant because of their effect on one's tolerance for the presence of other people. Researchers suggest that quiet areas for solitary activities are important to learners because they provide the opportunity to reduce social stimulation. It is interesting to note that in reference to shape, the worst shape was the square. Many desirable environmental factors appear to lower the stress of crowding. The Lighting Attribute Lighting in a classroom is extremely important. According to the AIA Center for Building Performance, quality lighting improves students' feelings, behavior, concentration, and therefore, their learning. Achieving lighting quality means supporting comfort, good color, uniformity and balance, brightness, andrelationships (HaydenMcKay Lighting Design &Lindsley Consultants Inc.). Effects relevant to light have been reported by Hathaway (1994). * Full spectrum fluorescent lamps with ultraviolet enhancement (T8 bulbs in parabolic fixtures) correlated with fewer dental cavities, better attendance, achievement, and growth and development. * Light has therapeutic effects, including Vitamin D synthesis, control of infantilejaundice, control of Rickets and control of psoriasis and leukemia through light-drug interactions. * Uniformly lit spaces, including lighted walls and ceilings, result in greater eye comfort and less eyestrain. * Light-colored walls and ceilings reflect light and increase efficiency. It is also important to avoid glare. Glare occurs when bright light sources interfere with the viewing of objects that are less

refers to spaces that encourage social interaction, while socioffi gal refers to spaces that discourage social interaction. It follows that

Researchi resuiltsindicate that chzildren in classrooms wvith the most daylight fare better in

bothi healthi and performiance. distracttons from concentration, then consideration of lighting quality mright be relevant.

The Acoustical Attribute Taylor and Gousie (1988) found that research on the effects ofnoise has not demonstrated clear negative effects on learning over short periods of time. However, the long-term effects demonstrate the need for more careful attention to noise levels. Noisy environments tend to result in "poorer auditory discrimination and less tolerance for frustration by children" (p. 24). Also, high noise levels adversely affect teaching time. InMontessori classrooms we arevery aware of the noise level and its effect on learning. Sound-absorbing materials can enhance the quality of the learning experience.

Conclusion
In Montessori learning environments and some other settings where active learning is practiced, the learner-environment relationship is dynamic. In this type of setting, children interact with each other and the physical environment. Although environmental influences on learning behavior are now widely seen to be significant, it is easy to conclude that these factors are even more influential in a dynamic interactive learning setting. The interactive effects ofphysical attributes can significantly enhance or impede learning. For example, colors that increase blood pressure can affectthenoiselevel in the classroom. The literature on crowding suggests that the resultant higher stress levels can b,e mitigated by multiple environmental attributes. The shape of a classroom can lower one's awareness of others in that space, which could lower noise levels that result from social interaction. A thermally uncomfortable environment can lower thresholds for frustration that can adversely affect the acoustical environment. Good design that considers all six of the physical environmental attributes will result in a learning setting that is more likely to support flow and concentration. Although research and resulting literature continue to evolve, there is a need for more rigorous research that isolates and documents condition and effect. We do notbegin to have all ofthe answers. We have noteven formulated all of the questions. However, it is becoming increasingly clear that the built environmpnt influences learning behavior and, in a broader context, it significantly affects our quality of life. Environment is an inclusive term; understanding its impact on our lives is important. JAMES A. DYCK is president of The ArchiLincoln,NE, and afoundtectz ralPartnership, ing board member of PrairieHill Learning Center, Roca, wvhere his wife, Lyn, is director. References
Berner, M. M. (1993, April). Building conditions, parental involvement, and student achievement in the District of Columbia public school system. Urban Education, 28(1). pp. 6-29. Bowers, J. H., & Burkett, C. W. (1989, January/ February). Effects of physical and school envi-

Color
Color has an influence on blood pressure andbehavior: warm colors increasetheblood pressure and muscular activity, while cool colors lower both (Taylor & Gousie, 1988). Studies also have shown that use of nature's colors, such as blues, greens, and browns, creates a comfortable relaxed environment (Hathaway, 1987). Color schemes in classrooms should be light and natural. Bright reds, yellows, and oranges should be limited, though they can be used effectively in learning materials to providemore interest. Generally, bright colors are best used with learning materials and art. White walls allow all colors to be seen without the bias of a colored background. Large areas of warm colors such as red, yellow, or orange should be avoided.

The Thermal Attribute

Harer (1h974) has explored relationships between air temperature and student performance in reading and mathematics. Reading speed and reading comprehension appear to be the most affected by increased temperature. The research shows that a significant reduction in reading speed andreading comprehension occurs between the temperatures ofo73.4 and 80.6 Fahrenheit... The

ideal air temperature range for reading appears to be 68 to 73.4 degrees Fahrenheit. ...
Mathematicaloperationssuchasmultiplicaion, addition,aandfactoringhavebeenshown tobesignificantlyreducedayan airtemperaproe ofr77 degrees Fahrenheit. The reduction in performance began above 74 degrees Fahrenheit....rnathematical operations are perfosred best in a temperature range of 68 to 74 degrees Fahrenheit. (p. 4) Harer also concluded that "under ideal thermal conditions, students worked faster and produced a figher percentage of correct an-

swersin the moring" (p.5). An airtemperature of 68 to 74 degrees Fahrenheit was found to be ideal for most leaning situations. The thermal environent also affectedtheretentionnoflearing: not only do students lean more, but also they retain the knowledge longer when it is nent. learmed in an ideal thermal enviroF

ronment on students and faculty. The Educational Facility Planner,26 (1), pp. 28-29. Cash, C. (1992).A study of the relationshipbenveen school buildinzg condition and student achievemenit and behavior. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg. Dick (Dyck), J. A. (1977).A studyofspatial experience with preschool aged children in a designed environment. Unpublished master's project, University of Illionois, Chicago. Dudley, G. A. (1994). A workshop for peace: Designing UnitedNationsheadquarters.Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Duke, D. L. (1998). Does it matter where our clildren learn? A policy perspectivespaper. Richmond, VA: The Thomas Jefferson Center for Educational Design, University of Virginia. Dyck, J. A. (1994, November). The case for the Lshaped classroom: Does the shape of a classroom affect the quality of the learning that goes on inside it? Principal, pp. 41-45. Dyck, J. A. (1997). The learner-centered environment: Using the "Fat L" shaped classroom. Lincoln, NE: The Architectural Partnership. Earthman, G. I., &Lemasters. L. (1996, October 8). Review of researchon the relationshipbetiveen school buildings, student achievement, and student behavior. Tarpon Springs, FL: Council of Educational Facility Planners International. Hall, E. T. (1992). The hidden dimension. New York: Peter Smith. Hansen, S. J. (1993, October). The schools children are forced to attend. The Journalof School Business Management, 5(4), pp. 30-36. Harner, D. P. (1974). Effects of thermal environment on learning skills. Educational Facility 4 6 Planner,12(2), pp. - . Hathaway, W. E. (1994).Non-visual effects ofclassroom lighting on children. Education Canada, 33(4), pp. 34-40. Hathaway, W. E. (1987, March/April). Effects of light and color on pupil achievement, behavior and physiology, EducationalFacility Planner,25(2). Hayden McKay Lighting Design &Lindsley Consul tants, Inc. (2001, January). Classroom lighting knowhow, In Lighting Design, IESNA Lighting Handbook (9 h ed.). New York: Illuminating Engineering Society of North America. Heschong Mahone Group. (1999, August 20). Daylighting in schools: An investigation into the relationslhipbetiveendaylightingandhumanperformance. Fair Oaks, CA: Pacific Gas &Electric Co. Holt, J. (1974, August). Children are sensitive to space. School Review, 83(4), p. 667. Jasnoski, M. B. (1992). The physical environment affects quality of life based upon environmental sensitivity. Joumral of Applied Developmental Psychology, 13, pp. 139-142. Kohl, H. R. (1969). The open classroom. New York: Random House. Kozol, J. (1992, February). Facilities impact on learning. American School and UniversityMagazine, pp. 39-43. Moore, D. P. (1999, January), Where children learn. 62 School Plarning and Management, 38(1), p. . June K. (2000, Plympton, P., Conway, S., &Epstein, 16). Daylightintg in schools: Improving studenit performance and health at a price schools can afford. Paper presented at the American Solar Energy Society Conference, Madison, WI. Rathunde, K. (2001, Winter). Montessori educational optimal experience: A framework for new research. NAMTA Journal, 26(1), pp. 10-43. Taylor, A., &Gousie, G. (1988). The ecology of learning environments for children. Educational 2 3 28 FacilityPlanner, 26(4), pp. - .

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