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SESSION 2008-2012
SUBMITT ED BY:
As i f Al i E0 9 - 3 1 1
DEPARTMENT OF METALLURGY & MATERIALS ENGINEERING COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & EMERGING TECHNOLOGIES UNIVERSITY OF THE PUNJAB, LAHORE, PAKISTAN
BEND TESTING
If applied load tends to set-up tensile stresses in one side of the body and compression stresses in the other, such body or structural member is said to be under bending. Definition: The forming of a metal part, by pressure, into a curved or angular shape, or the stretching or flanging of it along a curved path.
BEND TESTING:
Introduction:
As the name implies, the bend test is used to evaluate the ability of a metal to undergo bending during forming operations to which it might be subjected. The test is conducted as Go No-Go test i.e. either the specimen meets the desired bending requirements or fractures. Definition: Bending tests are carried out to ensure that a metal has sufficient ductility to stand bending without fracturing. A standard specimen is bent through a specified arc and in the case of strip, the direction of grain flow is noted and whether the bend is with or across the grain.
PRINCIPLE:
The bend test is a ductility lest which is employed to evaluate the ability of metallic material to undergo plastic deformation in bending. The test consists of submitting a test piece of round, square, rectangular, or polygonal cross-section to plastic deformation by bending, without changing the direction of Loading, until a specified angle of bend is reached.
EXPLANATION:
Bend testing is common in springs and brittle materials whose failure behaviors are linear such as concretes, stones, woods, plastics, glasses and ceramics. Bend test is therefore suitable for evaluating strength of brittle materials where interpretation of tensile test result of the same material is difficult due to breaking of specimens around specimen gripping. The evaluation of the tensile result is therefore not valid since the failed areas are not included in the specimen gauge length. In bending note that stress varies through the depth of the beam in such a way that yielding first occurs in a thin surface layer this result in the load versus deflection curve not being sensitive to the very beginning of yielding. Also if stress this stress strain curve is not linear, as after yielding, the simple elastic bending analysis is not valid. Hence bending test is most meaningful for brittle materials that have approximately leaner stress strain behavior up to the point of fracture. For materials that do have approximately linear behavior, the fracture stress may be estimated from the failure load in the bending test using simple linear elastic beam analysis. =3PL/2bh2 (For a rectangular beam) Where P =Load in lbs. L =Span in inches h =Beam thickness or diameter b =beam width in inches =2.546PL/h2 (for a round beam)
TYPES OF BENDING:
There are four types of bending which are given below. A. B. C. D. Closed bend test. Angle bend test. 180o bend test. Reversed bend test.
APPARATUS:
The bend test should be carried out on a universal testing machine or press equipped with the following devices: I) bending device with two supported and a mandrel (figure 1) 2) Bending device with a V-block and a mandrel (figure 2) 3) Bending device with a clamp (figure 3)
TEST CONDITIONS:
Test Piece: Round, square, rectangular, or polygonal cross-sectional test pieces should be used in
the test. Any area of the material affected by shearing or flame cutting, and similar operations during the sampling test pieces should be removed. The edges of the rectangular test pieces should be rounded to a radius not exciding one-tenth of the thickness of the test pieces 'the rounding should be made to prevent the formulation of transverse burrs, scratches or marks, which may adversely affect the test results, the width of the test piece should be as follows: 1) The same as the product width, if the latter is equal to or less than 20 mm; and 2) When the width of a product is more than 20 mm: 20+-5 mm for products of thickness of Less than 3 mm, and between 20 mm and 50 mm for products of thickness equal to or greater than 3 mm.
(for a polygonal cross-section) does not exceed 50mm.When the diameter or the inscribed circle diameter of the test piece exceeds 30 mm up to and including 50 mm, it may be reduced to not less than 25 mm. When the diameter, or the inscribed circle diameter, of the test piece exceeds 50 mm, it should be reduced to not less than 25 mm. Note: During bending, the un-machined side should be on the tension side surface of the test piece. In the case of forgings, castings and semi-finished products, the dimensions of the test piece should be defined in the relevant standard. The length of a test piece depends on the thickness of the test piece and the test equipment used.
TEST PROCEDURE
The bend test should be carried out using one of the following methods specified in the relevant standard: 1) Guided Bend Test: Ensure that the length of the supports and the width of the mandrel are greater than the width or diameter of the test piece. Place the test piece on the supports and apply a continuously increasing bending force through the mandrel (Figure 1) in the middle of the test piece until a specified angle of bend is achieved or until failure occurs.
Figure: 1 Guided bend test: Bending device with two supports and a mandrel
Key: a = Diameter or thickness of the test piece D = Diameter of the mandrel L = Length of the test piece I = Distance between supports = Angle of the bend 2) Semi-Guided Bend Test: Place the test piece on the V-block and apply a continuously increasing bending force in the middle (Figure: 2) until a specified angle of bend is achieved or until failure occurs.
Figure2: Semi-guided bend test - Bending device with a V-block and a mandrel
Key: a = Diameter or thickness of the test piece D = Diameter of the mandrel = Angle of the bend
Alternatively, securely clamp the test piece and the mandrel in a vise and apply a bending force (see Fig. 3) with a hand-operated lever or hammer the test piece over the rounded edge of the bending die with a plastic or rawhide mallet until a specified angle of bend is achieved or until failure occurs. Do not strike the test piece in an area that will form part of the bend. 3) Free Bend Test: Give a preliminary bend to the test piece in a bending fixture (see Fig, 1), and then position the test piece vertically between the parallel plates of the press.
Key: a = Diameter thickness of the test piece D = Diameter of the mandrel Press directly on the ends of the legs of the test piece [Fig. 4(a) l to obtain parallelism of the legs (Fig. 4(b)]. Carry out the test with or without insert. The thickness of the insert should be defined in the product standard. If specified, bend the test piece further between the parallel plates of the press, by applying a continuously increasing force, to obtain direct contact between the legs of the test piece [Fig. 4(c)].
Observations:
1. Measure the dimensions of the specimen 2. Take readings of deflection and load.
Calculations:
Draw a graph between load and deflection. From this load deflection diagram compute Youngs modulus and modulus of rupture.
TORSION TESTING
In torsion testing the material is subjected to twisting or tensional load. The behavior of the material under torsion load is of greater importance since the shaft is used intensively to tensional torque. The stress varies continuously throughout the section of the shaft being a maximum at the surface.
For a simple circular shaft plane sections perpendicular to the axis remain plane throughout the deformation but this is not true for plane shafting with other cross-sections and the analysis of these is much more difficult.
Bauschinger Effect:
The lowering of yield stress when deformation in one direction is followed by deformation in the opposite direction is called Bauschinger effect. Almost all metals exhibit this effect.
APPARATUS:
Torsional testing machine Troptometer
micrometer Specimen
PRINCIPLE:
The simple torsion test is the ductility test which is employed to evaluate the ability of the specimen to be tested to undergo plastic deformation during simple torsion in one direction. The test
consist of twisting test piece around its own axis in one direction until the test piece breaks or till the specified number of twists are obtained.
PROCEDURE:
Specimen is gripped between the chuck jaws of the torsion machine. Torque arm is adjusted and leveled with the help of spirit level till it is horizontal.
Load scale and protector scales are adjusted to zero. The specimen is rotated in torsion beyond the yield point and into the plastic region and noting the value of the rotations and torque at frequent intervals. The direction of rotation is reversed until the specimen begins to yield in the reverse direction.
LIMITATIONS:
1. Test should be done very carefully 2. Material thickness should be considered very carefully. 3. The stress gradient across the diameter of a bar should be avoided. 4. The test machine should consist of a pair of grips. 5. The grips should be placed in such a way that during testing they remain on same axis. 6. One of the grips should be capable of rotating around the axis of the test piece while the other should be fixed. 7. It should be possible to adjust the distance between the grips for different test lengths.
SHEAR TESTING
When forces are parallel to imaginary plane at a point, these are called shearing forces. In other words, shearing is the cutting of the metal piece by two cutting blades.
EXPLANATION:
A shear force acts parallel to a plane, as distinguish from tensile and compressive stresses, which act normal to the plane. It can be seen that the shear is equivalent to the state of stress produced by tension in one direction and an equal compression in perpendicular direction.
In some tests, only one surface is subjected to shear. This situation is referred as single shear. When two surfaces subjected to shear simultaneously, the condition is called Double shear. The clearance between blades is also an important variable in shearing separation. Proper clearance gives a clean fracture surface, with insufficient will produce ragged fracture surface and also more energy to shear the metal is needed. With excessive clearance there is a possibility of distortion of the edge and more energy is required to cut the metal. With too large a clearance, sharp projections are formed on the shear edge.
LIMITATIONS:
1. Dont perform the test on edges of the specimen. 2. Upper and lower jigs should be aligned. 3. Apply the load gradually. 4. Zero error of the machine should be removed. 5. Mean diameter of the specimen should be taken. 6. Zero error of the vernier caliper should be removed.