End User Information System

Rangkuman Chapter 1

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1 .1

INTRODUCTION

Information technology is transforming how business and government enterprises operate and, as a result, how people work. Information is the critical raw material for decision making and the foundation for producing products and providing services. People create information; people use information; people control information. In an information age, knowledge and core competencies (the two or three things that an enterprise does best) are key organizational assets. Only recently, the value of a company was thought to reside primarily in its tangible assets: machinery, buildings, inventory, and real estate. More and more information today is stored, processed, and distributed in digital format. The Internet is having a profound influence, and The Next Generation Internet will provide greatly expanded capabilities for transmitting and displaying information in all formats. E-commerce and e-business are fundamentally changing the dynamics of the marketplace, opening many new possibilities for communicating, collaborating, and transacting business. A PC on the desktop is an expectation for the typical knowledge worker today. Most likely, the PC is connected to the company network, which provides access to e-mail, proprietary systems, and the Internet. In addition to individual productivity toolssuch as word processing, spreadsheets, graphics, and presentation softwarethe PC probably provides access to work group support such as Outlook or Lotus Notes. Through the application of information technologies, organizations continually are finding more effective ways for people to manage information and capture knowledge. The digital revolution has put millions of personal computers on the desks of employees who have little experience using them, connecting them to powerful communication networks, rearranging social relations in the office, changing reporting patterns, changing business processes, and redefining business goals. Chapter 1 provides an overview of end-user information systems and discusses the impact of information technology on individual and work group performance. 1.2 END-USER INFORMATION SYSTEMS End-user information systems (EUIS) is such a rapidly evolving field that defining it has been somewhat challenging. The field has changed noticeably in just 4 to 5 short years. 1.2.1 What Is End-User Information Systems? End-user information systems can be thought of as the application of information technology to support workplace performance. The focus is on providing systems that directly support individual, group, and departmental needs. It involves implementing, managing, and supporting computing in the workplace by non-IS technical specialists. This is a field of growing importance as workers at all levels of the organizational hierarchy have powerful PC platforms on their desktop and are increasingly savvy about using thema trend that has been greatly accelerated by the Internet. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. EUIS encompasses the following broad areas: Productivity tools for knowledge workers Work group computing End-user development End-user training End-user supportHelp Desk, information center

6. Knowledge management/performance support 7. Human factors and ergonomics 8. Business process and job (re)design 9. Change management 10. Project management Other sources define end-user computing simply as the use of computers by knowledge workers without the direct intervention of professional systems analysts and programmers. However, EUIS is more than special types of computer systems or software programs. EUIS, as a field of specialization, offers methods and models for conceptualizing the complex dynamics of work environmentswhich are increasingly anytime, anyplaceand applying them to information system design and implementation. 1.2.2 Where Does EUIS Fit into Enterprise Information Systems? Although you may find variance in the terms used by textbooks or other literature to describe them, the five classifications most commonly used are: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Transaction processing systems (TPS) Management information systems (MIS) Decision support systems (DSS) Executive information systems (EIS) End-user information systems (EUTS), or Knowledge work systems (KWS)

Although this classification may be useful for studying the design of information systems, it generally does not coincide with the way a typical information systems (IS) organization assigns roles and responsibilities. Until fairly recently, EUISmost likely under titles of office information systems and office automationwere operated as separate departments. Typical assignments for EUIS specialists may range from selecting a single software package to designing a complex local area network with customized software

Typical IS organization structure ENTERPRISE OPERATIONS AND NETWORKS Computer center operations Networks IS planning and architectures Data repositories Technical support IS APPLICATIONS DEVELOPMENT Enterprise applications Transaction processing systems (TPS) Management reporting systems End-user information systems Internet, Intranet, Extranet

Typical IS organizations are divided along lines of responsibility for managing and operating computer data centers and services versus applications development and maintenance

IS traditionally has addressed well-defined, stable processes, such as those in accounting and manufacturing. Applications include transaction-oriented, numerical applications such as payroll, inventory, order entry, and accounts receivable and payable. Processing volumes must warrant the high cost of developing systems. Changes are expensive to implement, and systems are not always interactive. Some IS applications lend themselves to batch processing (hold and process together at one time). In contrast, EUIS applications are always highly interactive. They have evolved primarily in response to loosely structured text, data analysis, and communications requirements. EUIS addresses applications that require flexibility for handling exceptions and making changes. EUIS is appropriate for individual and departmental processing. It meets a need for quick response and offers cost-effective solutions for applications that do not have volumes high enough to warrant the expense of developing mainframe or other large-scale systems. Some of the key distinctions between IS and EUIS are summarized in Figure 1-3. However, the dividing lines are fuzzy, and the distinctions are often more a matter of emphasis and orientation than specific technologies. EUIS ANALYST Focus on individual and work group productivity Quick response Analyzes user requirements and work flows, evaluates hardware and software packages, recommends solutions Develops applications with software packages (Lotus 1-2-3, Excel, Access, etc.) or fourth-generation languages (FOCUS, SAS, etc.) Integrates tools into the work environment Assists people in using computers to perform their jobs Business tasks, people-oriented Flexible, less well-defined activities Nonprocedural Emphasis on ad hoc requirements User responsible for control and security procedures Practical for small applications Optimizes human productivity MIS ANALYST Focus on enterprise information systems, networks and online transaction processing systems Formal development cycle Analyzes user requirements and translates them into programming design specifications Develops (codes) complex business systems using computer languages (COBOL, C++, Java, FORTRAN) or CASE tools Ignores work flow/job issues Develops solutions (writes programs) for people Technical, production oriented Repetitive, well-defined processes Transaction oriented Emphasis on well-defined process Formal control and security procedures Practical for high-volume applications Optimizing processing speed/machine efficiency

Deals with hardware and software solutions

Usually concerned about writing (coding) software(hardware environment is a given; the responsibility of a separate computer operations department) Web-based programming and network configuration

Web page development

An additional area of critical importance to EUIS and IS is networking. Networking refers to the electronic transfer of data between computer devices. Networking might be accomplished through direct coaxial wiring, leased lines, modem devices, local area networks (LANs), wide area networks (WANs), or some combination of transmission devices. Enterprises can link their LANs and WANs to create networks that connect entire enterprises. These enterprise networks put more computer power on the desktop and can connect them to other organizations outside the firm and to the Internet. Moreover, the Internet has opened up exciting new possibilities for doing business that ara transforming organizations and the use of information systems in everyday life. It is creating a universal platform for connectivity. EUIS has grown in importance as an integral part of the total IS architecture as technologies have become increasingly integrated (see Figure 1-4). At the same time, information systems have come to play an ever-widening role in contemporary organizations. Interdependence is growing among business sfrateg~ rules, and processes on the one hand, and information systems hardware, software, databases, and networking on the other. As information systems have become more central to business operations, managers and knowledge workers have become more savvy about their use and more involved in their design, implementation, and management. The field of EUIS provides strategies and methodologies to encourage and support EUIS while ensuring adequate controls and fit with overall IS architecture.

1 .3

WORKPLACE ENVIRONMENTS IN AN INFORMATION AGE

EUIS specialists address the diverse information needs of knowledge workers in the changing workplace. Who are knowledge workers? What is the nature of knowledge work? How are workplaces changing? What is the role of the organization? What are the important issues that differentiate end-user applications from enterprise applications? These and other questions are addressed in this section. 1.3.1 Who Are Knowledge Workers? According to the U.S. Bureau of Labo? Statistics, the white-collar workforce constitutes 60 percent of adult employees in the United States (see Figure 1-5). About 70 percent of salaries and wages are paid to this white-collar workforce. The white-collar workforce generally is defined to include the following employment categories: 1. 2. 3. 4. Executive and managerial personnel Professional and technical knowledge workers Sales and marketing personnel Administrative support, including clerical

1.3.2 The Role of Organization Whenever two or more people work together to accomplish specific objectives, some form of organization is necessary. Organization is required to coordinate the efforts of the various people so that each individual and each group contributes to the overall goals. To be purposeful and personally satisfying, work must contribute to an enterprises goals. Organization also brings other necessary resources such as materials, equipment, capital, and markets together in a practical format to accomplish enterprise goals. 1.3.3 Changing Organizational Structures Coordination and control of an organization are responsibilities of management. In many enterprises, management is becoming less authoritarian and more participative. Traditionally, planning and decision making were done at the top of the organization structure. Today, however, authority is frequently accorded by expertise as well as by position. Information technologies allow managers to oversee and control more workers spread over greater distances, which has led to pushing responsibility down the organizational hierarchy, empowering workers. 1.3.4 The Changing Nature of Knovviedge Work Much more is known about what kinds of tasks are performed by knowledge workers than is known about how workers perform these tasks. Yet the questions about how work is performed are crucial to efforts to improve productivity. When systems analysts deliver a tool, it quickly falls into disuse when it does not match the task that needs to be performed. For example, a follow-up or tracking system that does not allow staff to look up information in all the ways needed would lead them to keep and use their old manual system as a cross-reference. In all likelihood, maintaining two separate systems soon would become cumbersome, and the new, automated tracking system would fall into disuse. It has become apparent that the developers of EUIS must understand more about the nature of work performed at all levels of an organization if technology is to serve information-processing needs at those levels effectively.

1.3.5 A Shift in Focus to Business Process and Work Group Support Much of the focus of EUIS has shifted recently from individuals to departmental and work group computing. In the 1980s, the major application of information technology in the office environment was to support the automation of clerical tasks. As PCs grew more powerful and easier to use, the emphasis shifted to supporting knowledge workers and managers at all levels of responsibility. However, the emphasis was still primarily on individual performance. Today, information technology is being used increasingly to support group processes and to coordinate activities in addition to individual tasks. Improving individual performance does not necessarily add up to increased effectiveness, reduced cost, or improved performance for the organization as a whole. Saved time, for example, may not necessarily be spent on more productive activities. Bottlenecks may be shifted. Incremental improvements do not necessarily lead to significant productivity improvements in an overall process. Eliminating inefficiencies in one part of a process may even compound problems somewhere else. To bring gains to the bottom line, enterprises must address individual productivity within the larger picture of the work group and the overall business process. 1.3.6 Characteristics of the Knowledge Work Environment Tailoring information systems for work groups or individuals involves a different set of considerations than designing systems on an enterprise level. User interface issues and flexibility for example, become much more important, and 1.3.7.1 Variability The EUIS specialist will find that work varies considerably from one department to the next. Even for similar functions, procedures for doing work may vary considerably 1.3.7.2 Work styles Personal work styles are an important influence on the acceptance and use of hardware and software. End users may demand workstations that are customized to their needs. 1.3.7.3 Departmentalization Although all business units and departments contribute to organizational objectives, not all activities are corporate in nature. Much of the work that goes on in separate departments is unique to their particular operation, with only specific products or services that move to other departments or up the organizational hierarchy. EUIS specialists are likely to find that different departments operate fairly autonomously. Even the culture may vary from department to department in large enterprises, depending on the management style of the unit head. 1.3.7.4 Dispersed Todays anytime/anyplace office may be a hotel room, a car, a plane, a room at home, a temporary site at another company or in another country or almost anywhere. Even

within the office operations per Se, people may be scattered in various buildings and locations.

1.3.7.5 Specializations The work of professional, managerial, and technical knowledge workers varies considerably depending upon the business function in which they work. The workdays for accountants, engineers, actuaries, human resource personnel, and salespeople, for example, all differ significantly, even though they work for the same company and are located in the same office building. 1.3.7.6 Nonproductive activities A significant percentage of office work activities could be termed nonproductive. These activities may include incomplete telephone calls, waiting time, poorly run meetings, false starts, misunderstood assignments, searching for information, following up on activities or requests, rework, work scrapped due to changing priorities, duplication of effort, and moving from location to location due to restructuring, among others. These areas represent opportunities for significant productivity improvement with information techno1og~ 1.3.7.7 Soft information Much of the information dealt with in the office environment might be termed soft information. It is loosely structured, anecdotal, variable, and specific to the task at hand. This is in sharp contrast to the type of information handled by typical TPS, which can be precisely defined, calculated, and coded. For example, consider names, ID numbers, addresses, product names, prices, and quantities in contrast to telephone inquires from clients, complaints, problems, tax laws, government regulations, special requests, and analyses of marketing data. 1.3.7.8 Deadline pressures The business of end users is business, not computers. When pressured by deadlines, end users have little tolerance for learning complex software or putting up with hardware problems. 1.3.7.9 Project versus production environments Needs and solutions vary based on whether the business environment is production or project oriented. A production environment (underwriting, accounting, sales, claims processing) is characterized by structured work flow, repetitive or cyclical work, procedural orientation, and little discretionary time. In contrast, professional or project environments (legal services, research and development, engineering, information systems) have less structured work flows. They tend to be deadline oriented; involve analysis, research, and creative-type activities; and allow personnel more discretion in allocating time to tasks. 1 .4 WORKPLACE PERFORMANCE: THE IMPACT OF EUIS ON WORK

Workplace performance, discussed in part IV, is a measure of the quantity and quality of work. The idea of using technology to improve performance is far from new, of course. In fact, history shows that people constantly strive to improve their ability to get things done by using technology. They strive to do more work faster and better with less effort; in short, to be more productive. 1.4.1 EUIS and Business Value Assessing the value of information technology has drawn increased attention in recent years. As budgets for information systems have skyrocketed, executives have demanded better justification and more accountability for results. The value of information technology usually is assessed in relation to its ability to reduce costs or increase revenues. The ratio of costs to revenues generally is defined as productivity~ In order to assess the value of information technology, an EUIS specialist must understand how to improve productivity and measure results. 1.4.2 EUIS and Human Factors Concern about productivity as well as the health, safety, and comfort of workers in the workplace has led to increased interest in human factorsthe application of information about physical and psychological characteristics to the design of devices and systems for human use. The term human factors generally is used synonymously with the term ergonomics, which is the study of the natural laws of work. Ideally, knowledge workers should be in an environment that fosters good work habits, combining design and usability principles that balance technology procedures, and human needs. 1.4.3 EUIS and Job/Business Process Design In reality worker performance is a result of the inter dynamics of several factors. These factors include management practices, skill variety, task significance, task identity, autonomy, and feedback on the job. Understanding the nature of job performance is important to successful implementation of EUIS. If one is to improve performance, which is the prime objective, one must first understand what factors contribute to performance. 1.4.4 EUIS and Organizational Change The organizational learning curve for assimilating new technology often is underestimated. The typical pattern can be characterized by a series of stages. Attempts to solve a problem often lead to invention or application of technology in new ways. However, the technology tends to be adapted to old ways of doing things and is often slow to catch on. As technology is used, it slowly generates new ideas or insights, which, in turn, lead to improvements, modifications, or new technologies. This can be a slow process when left to chance. Progression through the stages of technological innovation is not automatic. Organizations can accelerate the assimilation process with intervention strategies. 1 .5 PLANNING AND IMPLEMENTING EUIS The complexity of introducing EUIS increases with the size and complexity or the organization. Just attempting to stay informed about technological changes and the wide range of available alternatives is almost overwhelming. To be manageable, EUIS solutions must address specific needs and solve specific business problems. questions

such as which technology is best, which software should be used, and what capabilities are most important can be answered only in relation to the specific objectives one wants to accomplish. This section provides a brief overview of EUIS planning and implementation. These topics are covered in detail in part V. End-User Information Systems Project Management. 1.5.1 Strategic Planning: Linking EUIS to Business Needs

To achieve maximum benefit from EUIS, organizations need to link their systems planning to business plans. All too often, acquisition and implementation of technologies are disjointed and unmanaged. In such cases, the potential for substantial benefits is unrealized. While specific applications may be effective, the overall impact of EUIS in the organization may be short changed. Achieving substantial gains in productivity, as well as information processing support, requires more than simply building and installing computer-based systems The steps for EUIS project management are described briefly in this section. It involves a number of specific steps and procedures (See Figure 1-10) that are generally followed to initiate and carry out projects. If you are familiar already with traditional IS systems development life cycle (SDLC) methodologies, you will notice many parallels, although significant differences also can be found. In general, EUIS project management is less rigid and less formal because of the variability in types of projects. 1.5.2.1 Defining Project Scope The first step is to define the project scope. This step involves defining the business problem or opportunity and identifying the business objectives, issues to be addressed, and project deliverables. The description of project scope basically becomes the contract between the business sponsor and the EUIS specialist or team. Step 1. Define the projects scope DELIVERABLES Business objectives Expected results Time frames Budget

2. Plan the project 3. Assess the requirements Economic, technical and operational issues Evaluate alternatives Identify impact/interface with other systems Prototype Requirements, costs, user input, outside assistance

4. . Design: Describe the solution in detail 5. Select or develop the solution 6. Convert and implement

Purchase externally Buy and customize, build, document, user interface, programming the Detailed plan identifies tasks, dates,

solution

7. Evaluate the results

responsibilities Phased, parallel, or direct conversion Trial/pilot period Train users Modify work flow Redesign job Measure results against defined objectives Incorporate insights from new learning Correct problems; modify to improve results Reinforce and reward desired behaviors Provide advanced training Align other organizational operations with new system

8. Institutionalize the results

1.5.2.2 Plan the Project Generally, a project will have a project sponsor, usually a senior business manager of a business unit, and an EUIS project manager who is responsible for planning and carrying out all project activities. 1.5.2.3 Assess Requirements The requirements study involves investigating the economic, technical, and operational issues. EUIS analysts must determine who will be affected by the proposed system, including the primary users and anyone who will be impacted. To start, it is important to understand the basic purpose and structure of the current system or proposed new system. Analysts identify basic business requirements for a new system and identify possible alternatives for achieving them. A rough estimate is then made of the costs and benefits of the various alternatives. 1.5.2.4 Describe the Solution in Detail If approval is granted to proceed with the project, analysts then begin the detailed analysis stage. This stage begins with documenting the structure and purpose of the current system. Then, system requirements for the new system are defined in detail. This step may involve significant process redesign. Next, analysts evaluate alternative solutions and develop a detailed proposal for the recommended solution. The proposed development plan, budget, and hardware and software to be acquired are submitted to management for approval. 1.5.2.5 Select or Develop Proposed Solution If the project budget is approved, analysts proceed to evaluate and select application software that is to be acquired, evaluate and select hardware and system software, develop application software or customize purchased software, and develop business applications. 1.5.2.6 Convert and Implement Solution The conversion from existing systems must be planned and managed carefully. Detailed plans must be developed to identify tasks, dates, and responsibilities. Analysts must develop and deliver documentation, implementation procedures, and training materials and programs. 1.5.2.7 Evaluate Results

After a new system has been implemented and all users have been fully trained, results of the new system are measured against defined business objectives. Problems are corrected. Modifications and follow-up training are provided to improve results. Strategies are needed to take advantage of insights from new learning. 1.5.2.8 Institutionalize Results The final stage is critical to achieving benefits of information technology Specific strategies are needed to align business processes and sustain workplace changes. A project plan, whether brief or detailed, is critical to ensure that there is agreement on objectives, the process for achieving them, and who will be responsible for what by when. The plan serves to keep everyone informed about what is going on and what is expected of them. 1.6 How ENTERPRISES STAFF AND MANAGE EUIS Every enterprise must staff and manage the activities required to plan, implement, operate, and support information systems needed to produce and deliver their products and services. This is generally the role of an IS organization. This section describes typical approaches and explains how EUIS fit into the picture. 1.6.1 Who Is Responsible for EUIS? Who is responsible for EUIS in enterprises? The answer to this questions depends on the enterprise. EUIS can be found with many names, roles, and responsibilities. Most enterprises .have integrated EUIS with IS to varying degrees. Integration may range from fairly autonomous departments within IS to almost total merger with other IS operations. For example, a large insurance company in the Northeast assigns EUIS analysts, called business analysts, to the IS teams that support each business unit. PC/LAN, minicomputer, and mainframe technical support all operate as specializations within the same support department. 1.6.2 IS Organizations The increased integration of computer and communications technologies seems to be driving most enterprises toward merging IS, EUIS, and Networking (or Telecommunications) under one IS organization. As indicated in the previous section, the degree of integration varies considerably. It may occur only at a high level, creating a sort of IS umbrella over all systems-related activities, or the integration may go deep into the IS organization. Clearly, enterprises are struggling to find the most effective ways to meet the demands for information technologies in a constantly changing world. 1.6.3 Information Technology Architecture Information technology architecture refers to the specific design that information technology (IT) takes in a specific organization to achieve selected goals or functions. 2 It encompasses the IT infrastructure or platform and the business system applications they support. The IT infrastructure consists of hardware; software; data storage; digital networks; and the technical specialists to build, operate, and maintain them. The business system applications include the wide range of solutions for which computers are used, including end-user information systems.

1.6.4 Help Desks and Information Centers A rapidly growing area of end-user support is the Help Desk. Formerly called an information center, this user support function has evolved with the rapid growth of computers at the desktop. Originally, information centers provided training, consulting, and user assistance. Through these information centers, users obtained the necessary skills and guidance to manipulate and analyze mainframe data, create and modify their own reports, produce graphs, and make ad hoc inquiries. Originally limited to use of mainframe tools, information centers evolved to support PCs as well, and often played a key role in managing end-user information systems. 1.6.5 The Role of the Chief Information Officer (ClO) The concept of a chief information officer (CIO) has caught on in recent years. The CIO is defined as the highest ranking executive at the corporate, business unit, or functional division level with primary responsibility for information systems. 3 Perspectives on what has led to the emergence of this new executive role vary. John P. Imlay, Jr., chairman and CEO of Management Science America, Inc., writing in FE: The Magazine for Financial Executives, linked the rise of the CIO to the growing importance of information technology: 1.6.6 Career Opportunities in EUIS The job market for individuals with a high level of computer competency, but not necessarily programming languages, is growing rapidly. Skills in Web development, knowledge management, desktop publishing, multimedia, and Help Desk operations, for example, are in high demand. Careers in EUIS include PC application developers, systems analysts or business analysts, network administrators, Help Desk managers, EUIS project managers, Web developers, and a variety of others. Careers in EUIS require a combination of training and experience in computer skills, systems analysis, organizational development, and business knowledge. Courses appropriate for the student pursuing a career in EUIS include the following:

PC productivity tools (spreadsheets, graphics, database, project management, word processing) Multimedia software Web development tools such as HTML, scripting, etc. Introduction to information systems Programming languages such as Visual Basic, C++, and Java Fourth-generation languages, such as FOCUS, Statistical Analysis System (SAS), APL, SQL, RPG-III, Nomad2, and others Telecommunications and networking Systems analysis Project management Business management Organizational development and change management Business communications End-user information systems Ergonomics or human factors (including user interface design) Training and instructional design

Chapter 1 provides an introduction to the field of end-user information systems (EUIS) and sets the stage for the rest of the text. Information is crucial to the operation of business and government enterprises. The hub of the enterprise that processes and provides that essential information is the business office. EUIS provide new ways to manage information and support business processes. Without these advanced systems, enterprises could not provide the diversity of products and services todays complex society demands. As computers have become more. Powerful, less expensive, and easier to use, they have moved out of backroom technical environments into the workplace and onto desktops. The evolution of end-user information systems provides an excellent exam-pie of how technology evolves in response to specific needs to resolve problems. At the same time, people and organizations adapt and change in response to new technology. To take full advantage of new information technologies, organizations must change old ways of doing things. Change must be a learning process that enables individuals to assimilate new technologies. Change disturbs the way people work and disrupts accustomed behavior patterns. New opportunities associated with technology often are not immediately evident. EUIS is defined as the application of information technologies that support business processes and individual performance with the objective of improving overall organizational effectiveness in direct support of business goals and objectives. Todays end-user information systems make it possible to eliminate or integrate routine tasks, formerly delegated to support personnel, with other business activities. It introduces many new possibilities for helping individuals and groups effectively manage and use information. End-user, or knowledge work, environments are characterized by variability specialization, deadline pressures, widely dispersed operations, autonomy, customization, and loosely structured activities. The nature of information processing performed by professional, technical, and managerial personnel is aligned closely to the functional areas in which they work. EUIS technologies should not be viewed as a magic answer to improving productivity. The potential offered by these tools may be realized only when EUIS technologies are implemented as part of a carefully planned program for increased productivity Adequate attention must be given to business requirements, work processes, and job design in addition to technology~ In and of itself, technology does not make people more productive.