CHAPTER III AGRICULTURAL CHANGES

Agricultural changes Agricultural here in this main occupation of the people of this area 1. The alluvial soil of the coastal strip is suitable for the cultivation of paddy and coconut. The prevailing soils of Kanyakumari District are predominantly red ones, poor in lime, potash and oxide2. Alluvial soil found in some parts of Nanchimadu is comparatively fertile with more organic contents than soil of Kalkulam and vilavancode on the whole, soil of this region is not rich . The eastern part of the District is suitable for the cultivation of dry crops. with the exception of southern most taluks, all parts of this division receive rain fall. Kothayar Irrigation project supplied water for 55,000 acres. Nanjanad comprises Thovala and Agasteeswaram taluks and Edanal comprising Kalkulam and Vilavancode Talks. The average size of an agricultural holding in the division ranges half an acre to three acres. For encouraging agriculturists to improve their holdings, Government have sanction ed the grant of loans to them with security. The Government allowed loans as each as per the advice of authorities of each taluk 3. The capital is also an important factor for production. The capital has been traditionally defined as all of reproduceable wealth or indirectly in the process of production. It may be segregated into financial capital which is not promising in the study area during the period under investigation

1 2 3

Second five year plan (1956-61) Madras, Government or Tamil Nadu p.10.

. Depart mental Annual Report for 1927 Agriculture (Trivandrum, Govt. of Travancore)1928 p.3 . Social changes in kanyakumari District (1900-1975), Sathyanesan, 1988, p.5 (A Thesis from Bharathidhasan iniversity, Trichy )

Owing to the oppressive land tenure, unreasonable Government share and seasonal fluctuations occurred. The tenant was always in severe distress. He had to look after cattle seeds and manure for their existence. when the next seaon comes virtually they are forced to submit the mercy of money lenders4. Food crops Paddy is mostly cultivated crop in the District. The other varieties are coconut, plantain, tea etc. Garden produce Mango, jack, and laurel are grown in the southern parts Agasteeswaram taluk. Palmyra palms, coconut palms, plantain are commom in the District.

Paddy cultivation
Paddy, is the major food gram of the District. It is mostly cultivated on Nanchinad. During the Kumba poo (April May) short term varieties are cultivated during August-September (kannippoo) season. The agriculture Department introduced next new seeds to the agriculturists. They established a paddy from at puliyara for the improvement of agriculture5. Occasionally on paddy varieties in some isolated farms following the second season, drop seed cultivation was completely absent. Agricultural typology on wet lands were almost uniform through the District, although obvious dissimilarities found in dry forming.

. T.B. perumal, Money lending in Nanchinadu, The Tracancore Economic J1. No.2 (Feb 1908)XIX p.109. . Travancore Administration Report 1935-36 p.17

Nanjinad cultivation
The taluks of Thovala and Agasteeswaram in south Travancore are commonly known as Nanjinad. lands up on which rice is grown are known as 'Nanjai'. They generally bear two crops, the tanks and water courses that irrigate them maintaining a constant moisture. The seed lings transplanted in October reach maturity in March. Another crop transplanted in April will be reaped at September. Nilamkrishi The cultivated lands scattered among the low hills and slopes occupying the space between lakes and ghats are termed 'elas' in the south. These arte generally narrow moisture in every way adopted to the cultivation of rice. After reaping some places they transplanted gingerly, plantain and tapioca6.

Malankrishi
This is cultivated on the hill side. They cultivated pepper, clave cinnamon etc. It also gives financial benefits.

Garden lands
Parambu was the designation originally given to the low slope of the hills. on which ordinary garden product were raised. These lands were known as 'purayidam'. It was irrigated through rivers and canals. In these places hoarse gram rice, tapioca and yam were cultivated7.

6 7

. Travancore state manual vol. III, Nagam Aiya..v, New Dehi, 1906 p.6 Ibid p.7

Ploughing
Before planting better class crops such as paddy betel Vine the land was ploughed repeatedly.

Seed collection
Seed is generally collected for it good qualities. Good seeds are not always available. Almost every former is an expert. He can tell what seed is good for sowing .

Sowing
There are three methods of sowing broad cast inlinely transplantations. All sowing is done in fields usually the sowing. in takes place in April and reaping done in October. New seeds (Paddy) Short duration varieties are introduced in Kanyakumari District by the agricultural office in 1995. The paddy seeds are giving good yield 8. In Triupatisaram a good variedly of seed is available. It gives tones per hectare.

Manuaring
Special manures were used for special procedure which were referred to under different crops9. Green manure is unknown in Wet lands. The mango leaves, jack tree leaves and other dry leaves are good manure. During the second plan period 9 tones distributed through the District. The manure is made out of trees like Portia, margosa, and other leaves from the forest also is used for manure 10. The use of green manure to let
8 9 10

. Personal Interview with Jayaseelan, Agricultural officer, Nagarcoil, Dated 37-1-2011 Nagam Aiya. op.cit.p.9 . Second five year plan (1956-61) Govt. o Tamil Nadu, Madres p.190 p.11

lands gives better perfection in Nanjinadu. There are several stages in which green leaves were applied. First after ploughing the leaves were chopped and applied till the soil with earth and decay. The other stage was when the plants stage was when the plants have fairly grown up11. Cattle dung was the manure most extensively used by the farmers in paddy cultivation fields. The method or preparation is in different forms coal dung mix with the ashes and put for plants and fields. The plants wastages are also used as manure . The items like thatching root bits used as manure. Ashes are used for coconut trees, paddy field salt is used for coconut tress only12. Animal bones are also used as manure. Chemical fertilizers and pesticides : In this District phosphates 3453 tonnes potassium 3810 tennis area was used . 6792 tonnes in the year 2007-200813. In the year 2009 chemical fertilizers like potash 5262 tonnes were used through out the District. In 2009 350 tonnes pesticides were used14.

Reaping
Reaping was performed in various ways .The general rule was that the plants were cut close to ground. In certain case where the stalks are not specially useful or where owing to the constant supply of water much reaping was not possible. Paddy straw was care fully stacked for the fodder. straw is used food for cattle.
11 12 13 14

. Nagam Aiya Travancore state manual vol. III, 1906 p.11 Ibid p.14 w.w.w thagrisnet. tn. gov. in Personal interview with Jayaseelan dated Agriculture officer, Nagarcoil, Dated 31-1-2011

Threshing
Paddy sheaves generally are thereashed twice first by hand them by cattle. The thresher takes in a shed. There other finest and ripest seeds are selected from it. In the case of certain dry products the earn on the corn are stacked with straw for a few days. and then dried and three ashed. The ears on the corn with or without stalks are spread on the ground, and cattle tied together in three and four are mode to tread on them. so that after few hours threshing the grains drop. The practice of threshing is primitive15.

Cow and Bull

Cow is considered as a sacred animal. The farmers from village own it. Cow is supplied with straw, bran, tamarind seed, soaked water and coconut or gingelly, oil cake. A cow if properly feed 10 to 15 ibs green fodder, cottonseed oil cake and an ounce of salt. The quality of milk a cow is 7 liters. Bulls were used for vehicles and carts. It is imported from Mysore.

Buffaloes
Buffaloes is used for agricultural purposes. In fact they are better works than bulls especially in with land. She-buffaloes are used for agricultural purposes but only until they begin to bear. It is also producing milk. Its milk has high demand in the District. per each buffaloes gives milk for 6 to 7 months. It also helps in agricultural fields.

15

Nagam Aiya op.cit. Vol.III

Tractors and tillers

As a major portion of the cultivated area consists of very small holdings, the scope for mechanization is limited. A tractor can be operated economically in a from an area of not less than 10 hectares of irrigated lands where varieties of crops was undertaken. Block wise demand for purchase of tractors have been made on the basis of local condition and past experience finarcial . institutions. During the credit plan period they gave loan for purchasing 7 tractors through out the District16. The power tiller is economical to operale especially in small holdings . It is light and easy to operale. During the credit plan (1970-80) the government gave loan for 3 tillers for Rs. 50,00017.

Crops of the District

Tapioca Tapioca is the second impotent food crop in the District. It is cultivated in 33,500 acres. Tapioca brought from south America by Portuguese, was extensively cultivated under rain-fed conditions. Tapioca is the food of common people. So it has high demand in the market. It is a substitute for rice. Almost in wet land tapioca is planted by the farmers. It is an annual season between March and May, After maturity the tuber collected, cleaned dried and stored for consumption during the month of June to August Banana cultivation (Plantain)

16 17

. Creditplan, Government of Tamil Nadu, Madrass, 1978 p.58 Ibid

In this District plantain is cultivated especially in vilavancode and kalkulam taluk. plantain is also cultivated along with the betel vine, coconut grooves on the margin of water course and tank-bunds. people extended plantain even in paddy fields18. It is largely cultivated in the District. It is also called 'Yettan' a Well known variety in the District. This banana is rich in starch 1. Montan 2. Padatti 3. Palayam Kodan

4. Koompila Annan 5. Kadali 6. Tuluvan 7. Kappa (Red plantain) 8. Perumpadatti

Of these Montan large verity is one of the common cooking fruits padatti, palayam Kodan are also used as vegetables for curry stuff Padatti Verity considered valuable fruit. kappa (Red plantain) is also high valuable.
Duration of the cultivation of this plantain from planting loreapirg in 10-12 months and also manured once in two weeks. 500 plantains can be planted in one acre. plain cultivation is profitable one.

18

D.Peter 'Economics of cropping pattern of kanya kumari District (A thesis from Madars Kamaraj University) 1979 p.9

Many of the farmers took land for their livelihood. The thread of the plantain is used in fiber industry. It is used for weaving and other industries19.

Coconut tree
The area under coconut cultivation is about 34,000 acres. During the second five year plan (1956-61) they established a nursery at Thuckalai. It is cultivated mostly on rivers sides, It is a garden crop. It is also grown in low-lands and midlands. Its manures are ash cowdurg and salt. For the first five years manuring is needed. It will yield for a period of 24 to40 years. Under favorable climate coconut saplings give yielding after five years. Most of the families grow at least few trees for their own consumption20. Surplus products will be sold in the Weekly market. However absence of considerable number of coir and copra industries discouraged extensive farming of coconut trees.

Pulses
Inter cropping was widely practiced in all taluks of kanya kumari District. In the dry as well as garden lands a variety of fruit trees like mango, jack, laurel, tamarind trees are grown. Cashew tree was introduced by the Portuguese from the west Indies. It is also grown in all taluks of District. Horse gram, black gram are grown in the soils containing lime. Such soil is found in Agasteeswaram and Thovala. Horse gram is cultivated in open space on hill topes and also inter space between the trees and compounds. The mode of cultivation of pulses is really good. The ground is ploughed and manured for black gram. For all horse gram and green gram crowding is mostly used.
19 20

. Nagam Aiya op. cit p.56 . Census of India 1931, Travancore I Report p.2

This cultivation is not in need of much water. A kind of weed oppears in soil and hinders the growth of plant which must be carefully removed. Horse gram is also cultivated in the District. Makaram (January -February) black gram and green gram sowing. In the man soon only it is harvested. Green gram is grown in different places. When it is ripe the pods become bealen and seed threshed out. The cost of cultivation is not very high21. There are 34 varieties of grams vin the District. Some of them are the following 1. Karinjotta 2. vadakkan payar 3. Nadavu payar The birds squirrels and fowls damage the pulses. this can be avoided by sprinkling pesticides over the crops.

Turmeric (manjal) It can be cultivated in black loam soil. Usual it is sown in April and riped on October. Its root is a common ingredient in curries. It is also for medicine to cure stomach ache, bruise. It is also used for skin disease.

Ginger
It is cultivated in Vila van code and kalkulam. There is great need for this cultivation. It is cultivated in May and Harvested in December.
21

Nagam Aiya .op. cit vol III. P. 34

10

Ginger is mainly used for coking and for medical purpose.

Pepper
pepper is one of the most useful medicines. In Europe it has a great demand. A large quantity is exported in these countries.

Betel vine
It is cultivated through out the District. It is used as medicine. one year needed. for its harvest

Chilies
It is cultivated in home and vegetable gardens. It is grows with other vegetables. It is widely used by the people.

Tamarind
This is a very useful tree grown and cultivated in the District. It will give yield after 12 years Its fruit is used for curries and its seed is given for cattle. It has a high demand through out the District.

Palm tree
One can see palm trees through out the District. It gives employment opportunities to the palm climbers. Mango This is abundant in all over the District. It plays an important role in economy f the agriculturists. During season (April, May) Mangoes are flooded the market for sale.

11

Cashew nut tree

It is a Brazilian tree it is brought by the Dutch. It is a profitable tree in the District. It is a fast growing tree. It is grown 35 to 39 feet height. There are almost 84 Cashewnut factories. in the District.

Jack
It is largely grown in the District. It is planted widely and after six at seven years it gives yielding. It is a delicious fruit. The jack tree furnishes very valuable timber which has wide market. Its timber is used for doors and windows, shelters and furniture Chena (elephant yam) It is one of the oldest cultivations in the District. Yam is used in curries. So it has high demand in the market.

Chempu or EgyptainArum
There are several varieties in this chempu. It is cultivated for selling and it is used for making curries.

Kachil
It is also cultivated as root. It is cultivated for food and has a market during seasons. Arrow root This grows almost in wild area abundantly but its economic uses are not get fully appreciated. It is used in cakes and puddings and has a good market.

12

Vegetables
The important vegetables in the District are chilies brinjals, bitter ground and pumpkin which are grown here in plenty for daily use brinjal, beans, cucumber, drumstick and pumpkin are grown in compounds or in special garden. special local varieties of pumpkin are known as 'mattan' elavan and neikumpalam are also cultivated in the District. In some parts of the District water melon is also cultivated.

Oil crops
Gingerlly, ground nut, laurel are the important oil crops in the District. After ploughing the seeds oil are sown. The rain will be for then growth. Automatically it is ready for riping. These is also economic crops of the District.

Ground nut
This is an oil producing seed It is cultivated almost 980 acres through out the District. During the credit plan period government of Tamil Nadu took a measure to extend ground nut cultivation in Agasteeswaram taluk22.

Laurel oil
It takes laurel seeds. This oil is used for burning lamps. This oil is in dark green colour. This oil has demand in International market per once 17$. This laurel tree is very rare in the District.

Agriculture society schemes

It is the main objectives aimed to make economic development. It gives a plan for agriculturists for the agricultural improvements. The agricultural co-operative
22

Credit plan, Government for Tamil Nadu 1978, Madras p.12

13

societies help to individual cultivators by supply of selected seeds, implements, bullocks etc. Many directly take up cultivation of paddy and other similar crops on a scientific methods. coconut cultivators will find such societies very helpful like mango, banana, pine apple etc. They are taken directly by the agriculture societies23.

Horticulture
There is a fruit from at knaya kumari in change of a manager. The form is under the administrative control of a Deputy director of Agriculture Madurai and under the technical control of Horticultural specialist in coimbatorrc. The from comprises on area of 17 acres and was originally started in 1922. The object of farm is explained to the public. Mango and other grafts particularly off season mangoes guava and grapes vine cutting are at reasonable price. The chief crop is reasonable price. The chief crop is mango, More than 24 varieties are available. The other crops are guava, supporta, grape vine etc. From 1936-31 to 1956-57 years 46,194 seed lings and cutting of several fruit plants distributed to the public. Under the second five year plan it is proposed to set up production of superior varieties of fruits etc. and bring an additional area of 1300 acres under fruit cultivation in the District24.

Irrigation
When the prevailing water supply proved unsatisfactory, the Government was left with the option of constructing new storage dams and water courses. kothayar Irrigation project.

23 24

Socio-Economic Reconstruction of Travancode, Achutha Mennon, Tvm, 1921 p.75 Second five year plan (1956-61) Govt of Tamil Nadu, Madras p.12

14

Kodayar Irrigation Project

The kodayar irrigation project included 26,404 acres for irrigation. It is the largest river. It is composed of 24,558 acres as dry lands 1643 acres tank fed areas 25. Under kothayar irrigation system before constriction or dram these area use 1000 tanks for the irrigation purpose26. The proposal of constructing dam across kodayar river in 1837. The scheme was prepared Hoarsely27. In1852 Travacore Government allowed half lakh rupees. The kodayar project construction of pechippara dam is the main work. As originally suggested, A.H. Jacob, Pechippoaradam is to be 505 feet in length with maximum height 7.5 feet and an average height of 55 feet. The Reservoir was expected to store water in an area of 3 square miles with an average is 15 feet28. The kothayar irrigation project facilitated the extension of cultivated area. Before kothayar project the total wet area under the major distributive system was only 17417 acres. But 1952 it increased crops cultivated after irrigation facilities. Irrigation Resulted we the increase of production of 11% at also increased employment

opportunities to the coolies29. During the peak season villagers of west migrated to Nanchinadu. Through the dam and canal gave money to the laboures from the lower class. It had initiated beginning or economic freedom to Tovala, Agasleswaram, Eranial and kalkulam due to the hilly nature of the country. Horsely did not anticipate fresh
25

Economic developments under Srimulam Tirunal, Sugetha (1989) P.99 ( A Thesis from Kerala

university)
26

27 28

History of Economic Development in Travancore (1800- 1947) Jasletbai 1992 P 53 (A Thesis from kerala university) Kothayar project I, Horseley's letter to the Resident Dated 20-20-1837. Journal or kerala studies, Early Irrigation system in Nanchi Nadu Araja Thank am, Edited by sobhaean,(1999-2002) p.23 Journal or Kerala studies (1988) Irrigation, Economic growth is south Travancore, sathyanesan p.79

29

15

conversion. In his recommendation. Resident callen presumed that the schemes would provide never failing water supply to the whole of Nanchinadu and guarantee against future crop failuares. The Dewan was confident that this scheme would prevent the loss sustained annually and enforced a new cultivation to mere dry lands30. The original kodayor project was proposed to construct a reservoir at on river kodayar and two conveyance channels on the right and left banks. The left Bank canal was proposed to supply 23,000acres wet lands under critical condition of Nanchiradu. The proposed area irrigation under the R.B.C. was 16780 acres of new lands. Partly under rain tall conditions to be converted. The main dam was opened for irrigation on June 190731. The catchments area or reseryior is 80 square miles. Extersion of protected Irrigation Irrigation means the scientific application of available out put per unit land. It includes such techniques as drainage, flood control and efficient water management 32. Scientifically executed irrigation works provide increasing rent to land lord to the cultivator, move employment opportunities and desirable freedom from the famine and draught. To the forming population perfect irrigation guarantees secured supply improved crop quality assured seasonal cultivations increasing fertilizer efficiency and established from income33. Further successful water application assures production favours intensive cropping and improves water efficiency. Factors that limit the extension irrigation area
30

Social change in kanya kumari District (1900-1975) v.sathyansam 1988, p.93 (A tress from Bharathi dason university p.93) Census or India, District census Hand Book, Kanya kumari IX p.39 A.M Michal, Irrigation theory and practise (New Delhi) Vikas, 1985 P.334 Schavlwh Bahes and others. Element any soil and water Engineering 2nded. (Newyork) (John willey and sons 1921) p.241.

31 32 33

16

are the geographical and seasonal distribution of rain fall, topography type of soil of channel system, transit distance, distribution pattern and irrigation structures34. Rain-fed and channel-fed-tank regulated irrigation is predominant in this major parts of the country35. For tanks tiny nature storage, capacity was very poor, maintanance was in adequate and most of the man soon participation was left un exploited. The capacity of these tanks were substantially reduced due to faulty regulations seepage evaporation, silatation and the enrichments 36. Small streams and rivulets irrigated a microscopic portion of let cultivable area but since most of them drainage streams usable. However for the wet cultivation its impact was only marginal. The various nature put an imposing obstacle to the farming activities and agriculture operations second to be a gambling in the mansion. System of Distribution The kodayar project incorporated both old and new distributory systems under its command. The pandian canal was very ancient and it under went suitable modifications from growing demand. The pazhayar branch taking off from the Anandanar head woks collects the entire area of the valley. It irrigates substantial portion of Nanchinad. It irrigates 50,000 acres or land. Through its own separate system 37. It has many as eleven diversion weirs with destine distributory channels , the most important which is the Nanchinadu

34 35

Report of Indian Irrigation commission, 1901-1903 (Calcutta Govt. press 1903)p.14 Principle and practice of minor irrigation in India (New Delhi) Ministry of community Development pp 72-73 Report on India. Tank modernization project, Tamil Nadu (Madras, Govt or Tamil Nadu 1978)p.26 Travancore Directory, 1939 TVM, Govt of Travancore 1940 p.432

36

37

17

putnanar chasmal, Taking off from the chattuputhur dam irrigates a sizable portion or Nanchinadu The head sluice or the padamanabhapuram puthan channel consists or five vents 5X6 1\4 starting from the left or the puthan dam it towards South and reaches Adayamadai. It was constructed Srimulam Tirur it is divided into Erattakkarai channel and Thiruvithamcode channel. The Thiruvithamcode channel has some major distributive like Eranial, Neyyoor distributory colechal branch some major and miner channels take off from Eranial branch. It irrigated 8010 acres or land. The work completed in 190938. Improvement works and their results Improvement works carried on as part or the design of protective irrigation simultaneously with extension works. The Anandanar channel improvement works were completed in 1909. In 1915 Nanchinad puthanar was remodeled. So they carry more water to face the increasing need , reducting the Seepage of losses and minimizing the charges of branches . The pandian canal was also greatly useful for more efficient distribution. Irrigation projects executed between 1948 and 1971 Perunchani Scheme (1948-1952) Government proposed two Supplementary projects, the Perunchani and Chatter schemes public opinion and Government inclined more favours Perunchani as

38

Important papers relating to the kodayar irrigation project 1(0)IV (From the irrigation map of the Thiruviathancode channel.

18

suitable substitute before the implementation of the British engineers suggested Perunchani schemes. Forced by repeated crop failures and pressurized by situation the Government ordered to investigale the Perunchani scheme. Construction work was started in 1948. The Dam was opened for irrigation in 1953. A pick up weir at Thirparappn was also constructed.

Vilathura lift Irrigation The kodayar Extersion project Perunchani was designed to stabilise the existing ayacut under I.B.C and fresh conversion of 6000 acres. In vilavancode taluk only 142 acres were irrigated the pachippara project39. Dissatisfaction prevailed neglect of its due share. It was claimed that Vilavancode had every right to kadayar water, as the dam is situated with in the taluk limit For the cultivation they had to depend on rain-fed tank regulated irrigation which was a serious obstacle to their cultivation. uneven precipitation of mansoon poor size and prolonged neglect of the tenants aggrevated miseries, siltation seepages,

breaches and fertile maintanance reduced the capacity of tanks and government was blamed for this deplorable state affair40. Through vilathura lift irrigation scheme Government of Tamil Nadu constructed reservoir near Kuzhithurai river, the few tanks contained water pumping

39 40

Census of Travancore-cochin 1951 District census Handbook (Tvm)p.6 Social change in Kanya kumari District (1900-1975) V. sathyanesan ,1988 p.106 (A this from Bharathidason university)

19

season in December, January, August and September. The scheme was commissioned in 1960 and was started in 1961. Estimate cost of project Rs. 949 lakhs. Neyyar Bank canal system (1959-1963) After formation of kanya kumari District, it has four taluks Vilavancode, Agasteeswaram, Kalkulam and Thovala. In Vilavancode no facility for irrigation. Tamil Nadu government requested water from Neyyar with Kerala Government. However the Kerala Government was not positive in response as they faced shortage or water. Subsequently agreement between the government were reached on the quantum of supply, point and Kerala ayacut area which comes under Kanya Kumari branch. Construction work started in February 1959 and was completed 25-4-196341. The length of the channel is 34 miles, out of 15 miles run in Kanya Kumari District. Water let out irrigation 5th June 1964. A total of six branches cover 28 miles and irrigates 9200 acres of hazardous tracts in Vilavancode. The cost of the construction of this scheme was 9.3 lakhs. Chittar-pattanamkal project(1905-1971) This project was opened in 1905. Chittar and pattanamkal canals joined the kodayar just below the pachippara dam. The revised scheme for using level of pachippara reservoirs by six feet and construction of two earthen dam I II. Both the dams interconnected with channel 42. with major distributories. Marthandam, karingal, Thengappattanam, branches, The project was designed to irrigate 15,000 acres of double crops in Kanya Kumari District. Water is drawn from the kothayar L.B.C. at mile 6/4 by the newly constructed pattanan channel.
41 42

Neyyar second stage scheme Report(Nager coil P.W.D)p.15 Scheme Report chittar-pattanam 1905,p.5

20

The main channel completed in 1971 directly irrigates 4790 acres through its 34 sluices and rest is fed by the major distributaries. The existing channel system. under Thripparappu R.B.C and L.B.C also improved and extended to irrigate 5000 acres of old wet and converted lands43.

Miner Irrigation works In Kanya Kumari District irrigation sources commanding area between five hundred and three hundred acres were categorized sources while below five acres listed as petty works. To all practical purpose miner irrigation here includes the isolated and connected tanks, miner rivulets and small drainage channels because after important tank maintains invited the special attention of the Government. Accordingly repairs and improvement works were done periodically by the joint effects of the Government and ryots in the beginning. Seasonal failures warranted protracted for the tanks. Minor rivulets and drainage channels too did not escape from the festering care of the the Government. But since the kodayar dam tank maintenance was utterly neglected in the presumption. that kodayar supply would be adequate face to face the growing demand. The allowed fund was not utilized in a good manner. Areas benefited by Irrigation projects The kodayar irrigation project and its exlension works have sufficient impact on agricultural activities of the District. old wet lands under precarious supply were provided with secured water suppy, assured crop security and better yield rates

43

Sathyanesan. op. cit. p.110

21

considerable portion of old wet lands. But since the commissioning of kodayar project subsequent these land had been convent. in to crop lands completed depend on rainfall were promised with assured cultivation. Table lands became wet lands emphatically induced the socio-economic betterment of lower social groups. In Tovala taluk before the kodayar project in all 5124 acres were irrigated by the pandiankal. supply from the rivulets-Olakkayarwi was several and always below the required minimum. During the summer season pandyankal failed and pazhayar became poor. kodayar project and channel system under its command relieved the shrinking of supply. The instances of the crop were narrowed down to the diminishing point. Rain poor lands under perennial supply were extended with protective channel irrigation. These lands aggregate to 4150 acres were led through regulated distributaries and depending tanks. Besides unproductive dry lands hitherto devoid of irrigation benefits comprising 1937 acres were converted under profitable cultivation. Pachippara reservoir guaranteed adequate crop security to the existing wet lands in major parts of Nanchinadu and in select Project of Edanadu. Kodayar project at Perunchani provided security to the kodayar project area and the instances of crop failures were narrowed down comfortably. The system of water distribution was over hauled and deficiencies in water management was substantially rectified. Minor irrigation works were under taken with care and interests. The Neyyar L.B.C and pattanamkal channel schemes were executed benefit of the vast stretches of dry lands in western table in kalkulam. In Nanchinadu it provided crop security extended the area under wet land cultivation and had converted the dry lands and precarious single crop tract in to double crop wet lands.

22

All taluks of the Kanya Kumari receive its benefits supply of regular water to this undulating country presented new inducement to wet assured with ample security. The benefits thus acquired include (1) prevention of crop failure in old and wet lands (2) bringing vulnerable rain fed tank fed area under the net work of the channels (3) crop insurance to the rain fed lands and converting. Vast areas and the unproductive table lands into fertile irrigated lands. Economic berefits the irrigation projects in the area under study The kodayar project irrigation scheme and subsequent extension projects facilitated the expansion in the cultivated area. It brought promising improvement in the economic life of the people. The project irrigated 35,907 areas wet lands in kalkulam

caluk. From the valley irrigated wet lands stretched over undulating table lands and terrains. The old wet lands under precarious tank irrigation was provided with regular. Rain fed areas in small patches spreading over the entire District had been extended with unfailing supply. Almost all available dry lands were brought under project irrigation. The net irrigated area witnessed a phenomenal increase and the total out put of irrigated and un irrigated crops marked on an impressive growth. Paddy production had steadily increased since the full utilization of kodayar project from 1951to1961 the total paddy production marked the sharp increase of approximately 50,000 tonnes. In 1956-57 it was 67476 tonnes 1960-61 it raised up to 106880 tonnes. The phenomenal increase during this period was attributed to the extension of areas under wet cultivation and intensive farming year 1964-1965 the total out tern of paddy had a sight a setback and during 1969-70 the paddy production was 83180 tonnes. This declining situational caused shortage in the supply system44. This
44

Season and crop Report of Tamil Nadu 1969-70, Government of Tamil Nadu Madras,1973, p.13

23

phenomenal increase in the growth of production was obviously augmented by irrigation projects. Increasing Labour opportunities All Irrigation projects in Kanyakumari District brought promising impact on labour demand and wet cultivation increased. Expansion in cultivation invited more labour and supplementary inputs and enhanced the labour emphatically. Usually the extensions in cultivated area correlate with more laboar

requirements and the amount of their employment deter mine their income distribution. 45 After that wages increased for coolies. Indecent gears the duration of the work hours has been conisidoraloly redueed quite below eight hours line. In several cases they dictate terms and corridors for work. They are harassing the employers in different ways ways and are capable of plaguing with the fortune of their employers. Consequently the laborers in kanyakumari Districtare highest paid in Tamilnadu Alternative employment changes and large-scale exodus of laborers to high bouring Kerala state substantially contribute to this unique. Situation. As a result here mostly above poverty li8ne a peculiar failures failuare in the entire state labouren opportunities and wages increased46.

Redistribution of Economic Resources

The irrigation had remarkably increased number of wetland owner. Traditionally wetland owing was a progressive of higher castes. Most of the arable lands

45

. Johan.W. Mellore, Thomas S.F.weaver. Ardres, Developing Rural India (Newyork university) 1968, P.9 . C.T. Kurien Framework of plan to abolish poverty, techniques or perspective planning ed. Mal. Calms. Suns. Adiseshiah (Mids) Madras 1972 P36 .

46

24

were under these traditional Jenmies. Consequently the number or owners were less. The type of concentration or land control was an aspect of sandal setup. The high concentration of wet lands under few aristocrats had performed influence on the socioEconomic life of the masses, because lard ownership conferred status are authority The extension of protection to the unprotected tablelands brought more lands under wet collimation. As result the dry lard cultivators became wetland cultivators nard the number wetland farmers increased. The social forces too inter acted with economic factors in the catalyzing the process or distribution wet lands. The introduction of Nayor and Vellela Acts facilitated fragmentation of ancestral property and the ultimate transfer of lands. As a result the number of wet lands holders multiplied. The impressive increase in the rate of wet lard owner ship in 1931 was declared consequences of above Acts. Actually sale of deeds were invited since the Royal proclamation of 1865. The subsequent tenurial reforms influenced the situation further when the land alienation became quite large, it opened the avenge fore the economically advancing section of lower class to possess land rights it further accelerated the process of land Distribution

Diversification of Economic Activity

Besides their contribution economic progress some secondary benefits. No

doubts important secondary benefit was increasing employment opportunities. But it also had significant influence upon the diversification of economic activity. When more employment opportunities were created it generated a new source laborers spent major portion of their wages. Additional employment was created as multiplier effect. Increasing crop necessitated the demand for the distribution centers. The marketing places became the centers of economic activity. In1940 there were 12 markets over 25

taluks Agasteeshwaram, Kalkulam and Vilavancode with expansion in irrigation, the number of weekly biweekly markets emerged. Many towns emerged. These towns have all facilities new transport services started. In necessary economic mobility was another aspect of diversification. Growth of production in agricultural commodities entertained then prospers of new industries. All industries flourished. The surplus income which irrigation had generated powered the basis for economic activity the employment of further capital and labour. Increasing capital was invested on profitable business and spend on channds, which further promoted economic activities. Increasing wage rates and introduction of cash wages placed the labours in a better capital position to invest on land. New situation emerged, which contributed to the large-scale transfer of lands from the tenant labourers. In this way process of land distribution was initiated by the expansion of protected irrigation. It had significant impact on the redistribution of wealth and resource. Impact on society The new economic opportunities generated by the irrigation projects brought immerse pressure on the prevailing social system. In the society socio-economic rights and states have became independent from the matrix of caste, wealth, instead of caste, power and prestige, ownership of land became disposed and with it productive

organization came out structure. The increasing instances of land transfers and new production relations related with the prestige.

26

Economic life Agriculture is the main occupation of the people 80% of the people depend upon agriculture either rentiers or tenants and labourers. However the existence of commercial farming was not completely absent. The predominant rice belt of Nanchinadu of had a quite good number of commercial farms. Advent of marketing centers shifted the subsistence nature of the agriculture Kottar became active commercial center47. Marthanda Varmma built dam which brought about radical changes in agriculture. In 1738 A.D. in the history of south Travancore and assessed its income. It facilitated adjust made of taxation. A feudal setup was introduced through out the District. This helped high class (land lords) only kothayar irrigation projects helps agriculture. A large part of land allotted for cultivation. The land tax is light and payable in several small investments slavery existed in this area. The prices of agricultural produce have considerably in all items. Limited agricultural improvements in the District. This is the sign of limited economic condition in the District 48. The land lord took half the produce so the tenants could not benefit more varam prevailed in wet lands. Fixed tax was raised from dry fields49. The fixed tax varying according to the crop during the British rule Bengal model taxation was adopted in Madras presidency Social structure of Agricultural Labourers All the decisive stages of evolution of agrarian Social structure of agricultural laborers were note able to articulate their claim to cultivate land reason for which seems to have sufficient growth of class consciousness among them50. A considerable group or

47 48 49 50

Travancore Directery, Tvm Government of Travancore p.12 Nagam Aiya. Op. cit. vol. III p.17 Economic conditions of madras presidency Lokanathan, 1941,P.14 Economic Development and social charge kunhaman. M. University of Kerala 1990 P.11

27

the agrarian proletariat comprises scheduled castes who were traditional agrestic slaves and bonded laborers who became agricultural wage workers. They remained as land less labourers. They were brought and sold by their Hindu masters. They almost worked for their master in a free service They seem to have report their hope exclusively in the chances of Development through reservation in education and service. Another communities could not able to apply declaration reservation of seats, education facilities. The laborers allow working especially attached laborers worked from surnise to sunset. Labourers were paid in the customary wage rate prevalent in an area. But issue like the mode of payment extra payment for additional work was at the discretion of the farmers labourers were not expected to ask for payment of wage or any payment or to complain about the grain when payment were in kind. Delinquent laborers were punished harshly. Corporal and other severe punishments were comment51.

Classification of Lands
Travancore minister Ramayyan Dalawa mainly classified the jenmo lands in to Devaswam and Brahmaswam. Brahmaswom is land owners property and Devaswem belongs to the temple52.

Devaswom Lands
The temples of this District possessed properties movable and. immovable The bulk immovable properties, land and the income they unitized for religious needs and care menial purposes. The uralar the original admistrators of temples being mostly highest Brahmins did not care to maintain and cultivate land them selves. Instead they
51

Peasant organizations in south India, K. C. Alexander 1981, Indian social Institute New Delhi P.47 The land laws its origin and growth in Kerala Hari Krishnan, 1984 Trissur, P.48.

52

28

leased the lands to the tenants. The rents periodically from the tenants became the revenue of Devaswems. There were numerous such tenants under uranma system their position as less was quite different from that of their coumter parts of sirkar lands. The ryot wari method involved oppressive rates of taxation and was open to corruption, misappropriation and many mismanagement of landed properties. One mathilakam records shows the lands granted as girt to Brahmins with the suehindram temple. Sanketham were charged melvaram and anchali to proceed of which went respectively to the temple and sirkar. In 1812 paddy fields in Thovalai ard Agasteeshwaram taluk were measured with a to revise the assessments in the area. As per the revision the exclaimed waste lands. The viruthi proclamation was issued only May 1886. The viruthi proclamation declared null and void alienation of lands mode by their holders and empowered the government to resume all alienated viruthi lands. In 1887 such lands example from tax being registered as puthuval. The Hindu religious Endowment Act III passed by the Maharaja of Travancore on vrischigam 1079 M.E(13 December 1903) came in to existence in 1904. According to the Act, the rent role of each tenant of all Sirkar Devaswoms and had to be settled his liability definitely recorded after enquiry. A Royal order issued 3 karkadakam 980 M.E (1905) derided to levy full assessment on all Viruthilands53. In 1924 superintends of Devaswom were empowered far a period exceed three years. All Departments were given powers to lease out kuthagappattem basis all tarish tanatuchitta and puramboke lands under their control. On 30 July Government ordered to treat taratuchitta lands taken by Devaswom Department as sirkar Devaswom purambokes and tax on the Revenue Department 54. In 1896 Jenmi- kudiyan Regulation
53 54

History of Devaswom administration in Travancore (1811-1936) T.V. vijayamohan 1997 P112. Royal proclamation dated Kumbham 995 M.E 1820 A.D

29

result was that incidents of pandaravaka tenure also applied to the sirkar Devaswom lands. Devaswom properties earlier collected rent in kind as ready resources for a uninterrupted prenames of religious ceremonies. The increased revenue from extension of land michavaram renewal fees other dues land desmal on kanom to tenants also lost. The Kanyakumari temple record of 1754 repeals information regarding the reveals system Devaswom lands. The lands which are known as Tirunilam

(Devaswomlands) were charged with anchalicess payable to sirkar. In the case of land help under jenmom (land owned by nobles) tenure by the Devaswoms and given out them as otti, The anchalicess must pay the sirkar. The kudiperi melvaram treated as analogous to the jenmom and ottitenures. The lands held under tirumukam (land donated by the king) tenure had to pay Melvaram to the Devaswom melodrama was charged from the lards granted by sirkar to the temple for its daily puja. In1802 veluthampi the Dalawa of Travancore caused a survey of wetlands and gardens through out the area. Patas also issued landholders. The settlement induded all Devaswom land tax paying. A deduction was allowed to the Devaswom lards from total giving the tax. In 1807 the temple servants were directly responsible to the sirkar. The records 1808 and 1809 show that sirkaar had 1569 temples under their direct and their expenses not fully from the public. From this it is evident the sirkar had direct control over D Devaswom lands even before the assumption of Devaswom co. Munroe in 1811A.D 55. In this District. Almost all Devaswoms were immensely endowed with vast areas landed properties by the devotees, both rulers and public. From the religious point of view it was considered not desirable to tax the Devaswom lands to their prejudice. Because such measures were regarded as sinfull. In due course it became imperative to inter fere with the administration of those temple lands by virtue of their welcome melkoyma right to correct abuses and
55

Vijayamohan op. cit P 57

30

misappropriations. The inevitable culmination of management of 348 major temples and 148 minor temples in the District in 1811 all properties both movable and immovable.

Land Revenue settlement The lands belong to sirkar 75% of total area other jenmom (Belonging to jemmi). In both cases the ryots of riots are fixed and secure and are statues custom, the ryots depriving his little from sirkar or jenmi as the case maybe. The proclamation dated 21at Edavam 1040 M.E. 2nd June 1865 A.D enfranchised the sirkar pat tom declared ryots holding these lands may regret the fully or private heritable Saleable and other wise transferable property. Meenam 1097 22th April 1922extended some rights to holders are kudiyan Act 11 of 107 deferred the low relating to the respective rights or the landlord are temandt in regard to jenmom lands56. The fundamental change were made in 1108M.E (1933) in regard to the jenmi and kudiyam (Amendment) Act XII of all of under Act, the kudiyan has only to pay Jenmikaram (Jenmon dues) to the jenmi through the sirkar respect of land holders, pandarappattom were declared owners by the proclamation of 1040 A.D. There will be no ocasion in for the jenmi to come into the contact with kudiyan as jenmikaram is to be collected from the kudiyan and paid to the jenmi by the government. Jenmom lands have been assimilated completed to the sirkar lands and all relations to the kadiyan with the jenmi are cut off by this amendment 57. His Highness Ayilyam Tirual enfranchised pandarappattom lands the issue of 1040 A.D and his highness srichiitra Tirunal Jenmom lands passing Act XII act.

56 57

Travancore Administration report 1942-43 P.43 Ibid

31

One of the transfers of Kudiyan entitled to take customary dues committed into fixed annual payment. In the case of transfer of right it shall be competent to the kudiyan open the transfer shall comply with the demand. If they disagree as the rate of communication, fair and equitable rate58. Sanction validities transfers of the jenmonm right on the jenmom right kudiyan can under this section call upon the trans free to commute the customary does into fixed final settlement by the Brahmin family. The sale of jenmom right was not giving the jenmi an adequate price owing to the uncertainity of all the title but the burden increased tax being laid upon the transferee the jenmom lands are still heavily handicapped. If the transfer of jenmom rights were to deprive the purchaser of only does collected by original jenmi for a sole reason of the religion of the purchaser, it needs no great effort these lands will be placed a greater disadvantage than before. Whether this indirect restraint on alienation is conducive to the land owners also deserve to the considerd Kanam-jenmom maryada regulated the jenmikudiyan relation. The occupying rights being that of tenant and here legally terminable. They had to share a part of their produce with the jermi and tax to the government. The interest on Kaman advanced was deducted and the share actually paid to the jimmies called michavaram. The regulation of 1811 protected kanom tenant from their arbitrary eviction. They were entitled to the value of improvements. One of the defect of the tenancy reform was they did not satisfy the demand far the fixation lands to all. Before the Patton proclamation of 1865 the Government was the land lord. But even after enfranchisement of tenants the same amount and michavaram was released from them. In the subsequent the principles laid down for the assessment to bring the munkaram close to the settlement tax. Tenants had to pay lard tax as well as michavaram to the
58

Jenmikudiyan, pandalal, 1981, Tvm, P.91

32

government through they became owners of holding they cultivated Regency michavaram these tenants got privilege of paying. Fixed rents to lard lords. The Government referring to the jenmi kudiyan Regulation of 1932 claimed. The kanapattom tenant is deader as full owner of lands with all rights ownership in the someway as holders of the pandarappattom lands were declared by owners. But this was not true consequent on tenant became owner of his holding for all practical purposes. But kanom tenant had sueh much ownership right. Besides the kanappattam. There was several sub ordinate tenure varying a simple lease (Verumpattom) to out right sale (attipper) verumpattom is a simple lease Without any money consideration. It is usually tenable for one year after which the tenant has to quit the land in which no other interest. Another tenure pattom and kuzhikkanam which entitles the tenant receive on the expiry term a compensation to the improvements he might have made on the land. The otti tenure based on money transaction. The jenmi here mortgages his property. For an amount borrowed from the tenant. The tenant enjoys the produce in return for the interest due on his loan. The most excess of profiters over the amount of interest will have to be paid by the jenmi as michavaram. The mortgage amount by selling the mortgaged property closely allied to this tenure is and kuzhikkanom under which payment improvement will be made by the kadiyan. The kuzhikaranma is a payment improving lease entered into with the tenant by the jenmi for the purpose of improving his waste lands. Finally comes to the attiper which is absolute state of jenmies property and surrender of the full rights. In ancient days the absolute sale on his land was considerd to below his diginity by the jenmi and when ever necessary it was affected by slow degrees.

33

Enfranchisement of Jenmom Lands

From the fore going account of the jenmom tenure in its original implications is clear that the condition the tenant with out fixity of rights and without any legal claim to the lands would have been quite insecure. But as long as jenmi rights of evicting kudiyan was not exercised even claimed the tenant enjoyed his lands with almost full ownership rights improvements without any fear of eviction. There was infact no rule regulate the relation between the jenmis and the kadiyan, but the social organization such custom had so great influence in the communal life that landlords and tenants were able to live amicably. The monopoly of the Brahmin and Nayar jenmis with regarding to the holding of land. The jenmies in their turn mode use the opportunity offered by the great demand for the land to let their lands to the royal edict was issued by karthika Tirural. As per the edicts tenants have the right to get otti lands. In 1836 pattom tenant proclamation even jenmom lands brought under the sirkar, Devaswam and Brahmaswom jenmies who engaged every advantage of will orderd administration free lands. Similarly the related assessment on jenmom lands belonging to madampimars and personal imam lands which are assured of few assessment may be raised to the full assessment irrespective of munkaram. Finally the numerous name under which the tax free tenures are known and which cannot be useful distinction maybe given up and these lands maybe under single head Land settlement

34

A scientific survey and settlement has become a methodical assessment and collection of land tenture. The importance of such survey and settlement in agricultural state which depends on the land-tax as one of the main sources of its income cannot be exaggerated. The various names underb which pattom and cognatic tenure are known should be given up and all land under full assessment should be placed under a single head . Similarly these assessment an otti and other tenture may be under a common designation. In this case inam land also uniform rate, being apoportion of full assessment may be levied and numorous names by which they are known should be done59. The board districts in the land tenure jenmom, madam bimalika and Sirkar land. The normal tenure absolute free from tenure60. A jenmi as a rule is absolute expect other jenmis. It belongs to Brahmasvom or Devasvom the jennis from Nambudiri Brahmins. A very great share of Namboodiri property has been continued it has to be alierated arel it gives great preferance to Nayar tennants. They didnt cultivate their land. The madampimars are common Parlance also called jenmis their land subject to Rajabhogam whether in their own lands alienated to them. They are generally Nayars or not. They are also seldom alienated by absolute sale61. If they do tenure it is distingushed with the jenmom lands, and the land transferred to Sirkar, the purchase money less 5% of 25% is given credit and interest is allowed on the 75% added exciting Rajabhogam. Karam will be much short of full pattern rent of the land. The lands divided into Kardukrishi lan ds, Kuttagappattam, Venpattam, otti etc.

59 60 61

Ibid Hand book of Travancere, Tvm, 1881 p.160 Ibid

35

Kandukrishi lands It is the lard land of the Maharajas of Travancore. They harded over these lands to tenants and the Maharajas getting more than half of the gross produce from the cultivators. The tenants are essentially no more than tenants. They can never spell the occupancy of transfer for it without the previous constant of the sirkar. As a matter of act Sirkar never interfere with their occupacy62. The grain rent is collected in kind granaries and spent according to their requirements. These Kandukrishi localised at settlement was trated as waste. Spendiry formal assignment under the Kardukrishi patton and assignment rules, approved Go.No.954 Revenue Dated March 1962. Paramboke lands It was found during re-survey that holdings included portions of lands which were used as pathway street, tanks, channel, road etc. All such lands were sub-divided in resurvey. In taking protection under Tamilnadu Government transferred territary Ryotwari settlement Act ettlement officer had transferred all such lands to promboke. These lands were transferred as government land in 1973. In some promboke lands Government constructed useful building, tanks etc. Kuthaga pattom The few lands that remained under this head have been converted into kuthaga pattom. By this system land is rented on highest bidder full rent and make some profit
62

Ibid

36

himself. The lands are alienable at will every alienation both interest are reduced 25% in other wordsSirkar rupudiates the obligation to that extent by refusing to payfull original interenst. In Nanjinid no fines are levied on alienation of otti lands unless the family of the survey holder becomes extended Tamilnadu Government accepteed Kuthaga pattom in 196963. Odavukur tenure Odavukur tenure a peculiar system of joint owner ship of land trees was introduced in this District. They are usually divided under following categories 1. Land and trees held by different person on different tenures. 2. Land and trees held by the same person, but different on tenures. 3. Trees held by different persons on different tenures and varying proportions. The oduvukur system obtained a large measure in vilavancode and parts of kalkulam. In 1122 M.E Travancore Odavukur proclamation passed. The ryots took advantage of this proclamation consoildated their interest in most cases submitting themselves to the odavukur settlement offices. Incase of disputes the parties sought remeady from civil courts. While settlement under the Tamilnadu act based on the patta entries in Tardappaer accounts it decfided that odakur itself being not a tenure, and most of the odavukur holdings having been liquidated by themselves under earlier legislations, and no case any claim for dual ownership been put fort before the settlement authorities, it was thought best to ignore the existence of tenure, if at all it had survived.

63

G.O. No. 3061 Kuthaga pattom Rules-lease period- binding- of orders Report Submitted 20-121969 (A file from Madras Archives)

37

In respect of tress held on the Kuthagapattom revenue and standing on poramboke the Board decided that their enjoyment can be regulated under the tree tax system, and that where any Government owned tree stood on patta land, the right on the tree can be consolidated with ownership of land collecting value from the pattadar concerned. Nadavukur tenure Nadavukur literally means planters share64. When an enhancement pattern is allowed on garden lands Nadavukur on account of trees sought to be assessed should be allowed to the kudiyan. Nadavukur remission allowed on pandarappattom lands also still pratice abolished by the prolamation in situating revenu settlement. The orgin of the nadavukur is the right of kudiyan to share in the increased produce brought about his labour. Land Revenue administration In early days village tax was collected by local chief. During the regin of Ravivarmma certain rulers formed regarding the collection of taxes Cesses like podukaram, tanittanta and archali levived on paddy lands. But one representation of ryots of Nanchinad abolished to the tanittantam in 1656 A.D. Marthandavarmma orderderd Ramayyan Dalava to transfer regular for fixing permenent taxes on land and maintaining proper accounts in 1738 the first revenue settlement took place65. The land revenue cess of all kinds were properly accounted for a list holders of land and document called ayakettu the agreggale revenue and the increase due to settlements were prepared. Documents examines inconnection with registration of
64 65

Jaslet Op.cit P. 102 S.Padmanabha Iyer, Revenue settlement of Travancore, Final Report 1913 p.75

38

individual properties, the settlement of 1738 A.D. a tax was known as nilavari impossed. An important tax `known as marappattom (Permanent tax) newly introduced 66. A payment of odukkumutal was leived on otti tenure. The tenure called corra-orri (submertgage) was an irrecovarable tenure in the nature of Kudi-jenmom. In 1774 A.D. Travancore Government realised a renewal fees known as Veccezhuthumutalin respect of some in lands in Alakiyapandipuram tenure in considaration of many received as loan. It is found from Agastheeswaram taluk records. In 1745 A.D. revenue settlement was made and tax for garden land Cape comorin suitable revised. A renewal fee called vecceluthu was the lands laying of suchirdram. Lands granted as coro-orri aneaviliain in 1639 A.D. and 1736 A.D respectively were treated as kudi-jenmam in 1749 A.D. some lands which had been orginally granted by sovereign as danom t Brahmin in Keralapuram in 1645 A.D. were treated as kudijenmom. Which some lands were mortgaged transaction extending 1607 to 1736 A.D. were provided the lands were trated as kudijenmam67. In 1705 A.D another settlement was made. The ayakkett of Agastheeswaram taluk records supply this settlement. The important tenures were pattom, irayali, kudijenmam, Devaswaom, Brahmaswom lands. Devaswom and Brashmaswom land excempted from anchalicess. A variyola in 1750 A.D. its very important feature was the preparation of Ayakkettu in the kelvi or Nanchinadu. A renewal fee known as odukkuvattu from ryots when pandarapattom land granted on otti thirty years. Dry land as per unit the assessment
66 67

Travancore Land Revenue Manual Vol. III p.77 History of Nanchinod, P.Ramachandran 1981 p.115 [a Thesis from Kerala University]

39

fixed at rates varying from halfpanam to one and half panam peryear 68. The pattom on dry lands were converted into wet ands in the water spread area of palkulam tanks fixed at the rates varying from a panam to an end a half panam per year. In 1752 A.D. settlement was conducted for the dry lands under otti tenure in pidakai kelvi. For dry lands on otti tenure in parakkai pidagai, out of assessment fixed, a deduction of one third assessment made on document nadavukar from the two-thirds the adukkuvattu the subseqent lands were added some area from the total sum thing arrived at a deduction was made at six percent and the renavator was fixed as the michavaram due to Sirkar. In the statement of account of 1752 found among cape cormorin temple record it is seen that sirkar purchased lands as corra-otti from the authorities of Cape cormorin temple for the purpose Mahadhanapuram grant. The details regarding this grant are given in a nittu dated 24th January 1752 A.D. According to this nittu this grant was made eighteen Brahmin eaqual share. In 1764 A.D. some paddy fields and gardens Kottukal purav and near Suchidram were acquired on cora orri and granted as danam to twelve Brahmins to settle themselves Asram Agraharams. In 1776 another settlement in Nanchinad was introduced. This settlement introduced new lands brought under cultivation in the wake of Nanchinad-puthanar project covering the areas of Kottar, Therur, Suchidram and Agateeswaram. At first a thorough Survey was made according to their fertility. The kind of taram was done according to the opinion of the tadastrass or assessors. A deduction to the extent of one fourth of tenai was sanctioned. The remaining three-fourth was fixed as the annual assessment due to Sirkar. Out of this remission 1% was to be made for vettalivu. The
68

Ibid

40

balance was remitted to the Kelvi or village office and patta obtained an adagola was also granted to the ryots. For the years of six from Capecomorine 1702 A.D. no increase in pattern was possible. The lands gave to the suchidram temple was considered as Karivu during 1769 account settlements. In Nanchinad also the land which had been converted into wet lands were heavier assessment. For the collecting of tax revenue under several heads like erailakam,ayam, tarava, Chunkam, Valiyam, Kanappattom, adiyara, uttrappodu, an office known as Chavadi maigam opened at Kottar. It was responsible for accounts of realiting to receipts and expenditure irrespect of these items of revenue. Land Survay and taxation In order to assess the land revenue, the government pad attention and survey and record maintaining. Whenever the different arose between neighbours the land was remeasured and the records were unchecked while land survey ensured protection to individual formers its main aim was the fixation of land tax. Interestingly the land was surveyed was assessed and various type of land taxes were levied in accordance within their made of irrigation. Based on this a different slab of tax was fixed69. In 1738 A.D for a systematic survey assessment was done. Consequently the Government gave patta to every lard holder. Lard was taxed on the basis of fertility nature of crops grown, the yield and facilities fer irrigation. Thus such human and just assessment of the income from agriculture formed the basis annual taxation under a

69

M.Muhammed Husain, Padmanabhapuram through ages, 1994 p.122

41

system small formers who had fight against the innumerable natural barriers like flood, poor rains and soon did not feel pin of tax by the Government70. From stone inscription one many know the following names of taxes are silavari, peruvari, desappakudi and kamuraippadu. In order to faciliate easy payment of taxes, the tax due for each crop would be paid in four or eight instalments. It is interesting tonote even in the exciting system of income tax payer in order to avoid burdening himelf at the end of the financial year allows fixed sum to be deducted from his salary of every month. The Government too encouraged as it received parts of tax for the income received was more just. The tax was calculated in kind but only half of it was collected inkind. An amount equivalent to the remaining half was collected in instalments. The farmers could pay during 3rd and 5th instalments if he wishes through the ports exports were carried and this promoted the economic stability of the region. There was economic and political stability in the region of Marthandavarma. Tenurial Developments Exportand and import duties added income to the state. Tax collected from tollgates. The income from temple spent for Brahmins. Marthanda varma concentertaed constructig dam and post. According to pattom proclamation on June 1865 Land transfer were most allowed among the tenants. It conferred full ownership on the tenants allowed unrestricted transfer of properties.The new rights and benefits enjoyed by cultivators of the sirkar pandavaraka lands caused confusion between the status of these ryots and other sirkar lands71.

70 71

Ibid Agrarian change and Economic consequences land Tenures in kerala(1850-1960) T.C. Vargeese, 1970 p.17

42

In order to improve the situation, the state interviewed and issued another proclamation in 1867. The proclamation enunciated that tenures were not redeemable and the tenants had to pay the jenmi the rent other fees according to past usage and accordance with land72. Jenmis were not improved in the larded property and that if they were promitted ejects, tenants agricultural prosperity on the state would be adversely affected with hardships. The British Resident accepted the rights of kanam tenants fer permenant occupary and observed as follows in a letter to the Dewam of Travancore. The Royal proclamation Act or 1867 secured permenant occupay right and relief in the fixation of rent and fees for the kanom, kudiyan who in all held an area of more than 1.5 lakh acre to more the half of the jenmom lands, most of the terants will hold either under these known as tenants or directly from jenmis did not however get any relief measures even on Sirkar lands, there were cases of sub leasing on each rent basis. There were other types tenures under which sirkar were held like Devaswam vaka, Viruthi, Kandukrishi, Sreepadom etc, apart from the tenure lands, the last three of these were private properties of Royal palace. All these resulted complexities in revenue management and caused sufferings to the tenant of these lands in the absence of any to regulate their relationship with owners. The Government did not take any intermediate step to secare relief to these tenaants on the ground that these tenure covered only a very small portion of total area. The government had properly also other reasons, but the genuine difficulty in talking any steps were lack of pricise data on these tenures. In addition to the problem presented by the tenures mentioned above incidents of revenue assessment generally fell unequally on different categories and different cultivators under the same tenure. Government wanted to settle the problem in 1913. It
72

Ibid

43

didnt come to practise. Thus tenures like Ooranma, Devaswamvaka, Brahmaswomvaka, Madampimarvaka can be considered in one sen se as different tenurial sub-divisions of Sirkar lands. Since they were created by the state through assigning land or incomes to different places for various purposes. However different ascent rates were men tioned. In 1867 Jenmi proclamation Act and 1896 promulgation of the jenmi proclamation came into excistence. In 1885 Government appointed a committee to study about the JenmiKudiyan and its relation with tenant and the effects. In 1896 this Act was passed. The right increased michavaram on every renewal of kanom lease. The Jenmi Kudiyan (Amerdment) Act of 1932 The incorporation of these recommendations in statute book through the amendments of exciting Act took effort the Actof 1932 with the new amendment the landlord of jenmon land covered by the Act ceased to possess the receiving of jenmikaram and kanam (kudiyan) was considered the owner of the land under only obligation of payment of jenmikaram. The jenmikaram commuted with the promulgation of Act on any particular piece of land was not to be changed till the new settlement and increase in any case was not to be more the 10% of the previous jenmikaram amount. The jenmikaram needed be paid imoney. More important provisions was enacted for the implementation of the Act. The Government did not leave the provisions to be implemented through natural dealing between jenmi and kudiyan, but the state intervened in between to see that the provisions were effectively implemented. By law the state assumed the responsibility for the collection of jenmikaram as offer proper settlement of jenmikaram land. The Board of Revenue Madras replied hardly recommended perpetuation of lard Revenue settlement required for a collection of further information and particulars. 44

Thus the universal introduction of zamirdari system was held in the abeyance for fear sacrificing the future revenue of the Government in the imperfect state knowledge. Evan tually Madras Government reported to the supreme court that it was possessed of materials for a permenant zamindari settlement certain parts of the tract. A special commission was appointed between 1802 to 1804 Souther4n District of Tamilnadu parcelled down in to estates and permenantly assesed. The Tamil Nadu Reforms (Fixation of ceiling on Land)Act 1961 Tamil Nadu Act 58 of 1961 The policy to abolish all the intermediaries (such as jagaris and inams) was followed by the extending protection and improvement of tenancy rights and the imposition of land ceiling as a set up in the agrarian reform73. The state of Tamil Nadu took suitable legislative measures to implement the policies advocated by the centre on the recommandation of planning Commission regarding measures indicated in the first part of policy decision on the second five year plan. In fact legislative measures in the direction s been on the anvil our state since 1948. Extract from the report of the land Revenue Reforms committee size holding below This was the case for preventing undue concenteration traction of land in the hards of a comparitively few in the future atleast, Those who have large holding already should not allow to increase them. Those who have smaller holdings 74. Those who take to cultivation a new should not be allowed to make the holdings grow beyond as certain limit. While the limit should be small enough to prevent concentraction it should large

73

History of land Revenue settlement and abolition of intermediary tenure in Tamil Nadu, Govt. of Tamil Nadu Madras 1978 p. 207 Ibid

74

45

enough accomadate growth of holdings came into excistence 6 th April 1960 was a self contained code which defines all the indicates connected there to viz fixing the limits up to which land can be held in the state, including the territory of Kanyakumari District. The ceiling limit n lard holdin gs as orginally fixed depended on the number of members in the extent of dowry lands held by the female members in that family and the surplus determined in the manner prescribed under the statues. The ceiling was 30 standard acres for a family an additional five acres for every additional five acres for every additional member of the family subject to an over all ceiling limit of 60 standard acres. Land from hill areas were exempted from it. In Kanyakumari District standard acres defined as follows a) 1 Acres of registerd wet lant irrigated by any source of forming put of or benifited by project or b) 12 acre of registered dry land irrigated by any source mentioned in item (a) or c) 1.2 acres dry land an irrigated by Government source other than a source mentioned item (a) or d) 4 acres of dry lard an irrigated by any source mentioned in item (a) by any other Government source of irrigation. Compensation for surplus land taken over Government is payable in the shape of 10 years bond carrying 4 % interest. In 1964 Madras occupants of Amendment passed. Through this ammendment all over the Madras State stale land less labourers got land. In Kanayakumari District also some the land less laborers got its benefit 75. In 1965 again land reforms brought by the Government (Disposal and surplus land) The land Act also imposed for about 10 years, it was formed that its result was not applicable. Even
75

File No. 2576 (Revenue) Madras occupants of kudiyiruppu amendment 28 10 - 1964

46

while the legislation was on the anvil land holders owing large extends disposing of their surplus land holding who ever would offer a price particulars the land among the relatives. Trust came into existence in large numbers. There was a large scale of adjustment or land holding with the ceiling with result only megre extent came to be declared as surplus. The exemption granted under the Act also proved a handicap in securing sizable extent of land as surplus for distribution to bonafide poor and agriculturists. In 1969 Government of Tamil Nadu issued another land Reform Act ( Fixation of land ceiling) As per this Act more land gave to the landless except for dairying76. The TamilNadu Land Reforms (Fixation of ceiling on Land) fourth Amendment Act 1972. Act 39 of 1972. The all ceiling area following was reduced further 40 to 30 standard acres. The Act also effected certain changes, procedure, the main point being. The rate of compensation prescribe ceiling Act 1961 which was revised so that quantum compensation would get decreased with increasing in holding. The TamilnNadu Land Reforms ( Fixation of ceiling on Land) Amendment Act 1972 Act of 1974) According to this Act, a provision also had been made for collecting compensation for the surplus lands from the land owner from the date of commencement of the Act till the date or taking over surplus land 1st March 1972. Revenue Settlement.
76

G. O. No 3045 ( Revenue) Dated 19 12 69 Fixation or land ceiling ( A file from Madras Archives)

47

The earliest revenue settlement of the lands in the slaves of which records available was that 914 M.P ( 1738 AD)The assessment in force was fixed at the last settlement which was commenced in 1833 A.D and settlement was made a permanent for a period has long lost in the case of some taluks, resettlement exhibited. In printed registrars which gave particulars of survey extent tenure, full assessment for holding77. A. scientific survey proceeded settlement of each taluk and every parcel of land in each village when came under settlement bears a separate constitute a record of rights. Classification of Tenures At the last settlement an endeavor made to the systematic and simplify the tenures as far as possible generally increasing the incidents of taxation. The names of various tenures little more than historical importance as evidencing the mutations of ownership, still linger the pages of Ayacutt or settlement registrar. But all these terures fall into distinct and well understood groups whether classified according to the proprietorship of the land or according to the theoretical proprietorship of the land or according to the nature of conditions of both with the principles of taxation78. Land for land less The number of applications for the lands from the members from the backward communities 1875 out of 853 where given in 1942 43 being 370 acres. The total extent of land in the name of backward communities 118 from both with and outside they earned more than 950 acres.
77 78

Travancore Administration Report 1942 43 P. 49. Ibid.

48

Brahmaswam lands The Brahmins held the land under their control as individual family property or collective property came to e called as Brahmaswom lands 79. Their property was administered by a collective council of all the elder member of Brahmin family 80. Non Brahmin were the slaves of the Brahmins. Caste System and Jenmis emergence Among Hindus Malayalee Brahmins (Nambudiries) occupied highest rank in the Socio - religious hierarchy followed by Non Malayalee Brahmin former community of Government employees. The Namboodiri jenmies were absentee

landlords in whose land cultivation was done by tenants with the help of agricultural labourers belong to the lower castes. The agricultural labourers who were the real workers on land came from backward communities. They occupied lowest rank in the socio religious hierarchy owing to the inferior status in society of them living as attached or bonded labourers of Jenmies. The Nayars were the servants of Brahmins. The Nayars occupied a rank in the socio-economic hierarchy of Hindus just below the Brahmins. The overwhelming majority of them where agriculturists. Who did not as a rule work on land. They despised such work too. The land or Nayars used to be cultivated by the traditional agrestic labour communities. So long as subsistence farming prevailed and down

79

Senu Kurian George, Land relation and stricture in Cochin 1750, A.D. to 1949 A.D. 1994 p.6.
K.P. Singh, people of India, Kerala Vol.I, NewDelhi 2002 pp.1079-1081

80

49

trodden communities accepted without demur the low wages offers to them by land lords the system functioned smoothly. This Jenmi system emerged in this area. Casteism The traditional caste formation of the area (Kanyakumari District) Brahmins occupied the highest positions. The social superiority was determined largely by their ritual status along with the economic power and the political control. For categorization in Nambudiries and paradesis. The Nambudiries where Malayalam speaking Brahmins migrated from the north assumed superiority over other communities 81. Usually land control, nearness to the ruling families and political participation determined of power82. Among them those who appropriated ritual predominance along with the economic and political status had an edge over the others of similar groups. Brahmins formed a made to this83. Numerical superiority on the basis of concentration pattern among the power group contributed substantially to the disparity. There arose the differences, with the land owning group not all were land owners among the non - owning group not all were land owners84. The influence of Tamil Brahmins in Travancore court was so vital that The

famous Malayali Memorial Agitation in 1891 was spearheaded against them85. In Kanyakumari District Brahmins were chief land lords or jenmies. For the expenses in connection with the temple sacrifices large estates with all revenue water
81 82 83

Caste and economic opportunity S.Sivanandan, 1989 P. 77. (A Thesis from Kerala university) A Hindu manners and customs and ceremonics 3rd ed (London Oxford Press 1928 P. 23). Y.B. Damke References group, theory with regard to mobility in caste Social Action No. 1 (Jan 1963) XII 1955 56 P. 15. Myriadai, Asian Drama (Middle sex) Penguin books 19958 II. P.1059. A.M. Varkey, Travancore, the present problem (Calicutt executive Committee All Travancore joint political congress 1934, p. 6.

84 85

50

transferred to them under Devadanam grants. Brahmin acquired Brahmadanam grants for their ritual services. During the chera Chola war 11 th century lands were transferred enormous to the temples. Since Devadanam and Brahmadanam lands were given

immunity from tax and destruction from enemy. Cultivators transferred the lands to Brahmin and temples. Since Devadanom and Brahmadanom lands were given immunity from tax and destruction from enemies transferd their lands to temples. According to established customs land alienated to the temples and in Brahmins couldnot be refeemed. So those who dispossessed the lands to Brahmin escape from the tax and punishment. To make content, Brahmins inverted stories and the impression of merit acquiring out of much transfers. Accumulation of land rights diverted a section of the Brahmins from diverting their service. Instead they became managers of temple lands and with the enormous wealth. Temple lands were sold on various pretexts for their personal luxary. Social superiority and their domination described those who opposed the transfer of Devadanam lands to Brahmins. By 14th century Brahmin control over lands were total and absolute86. To silence the those who disputed with their land rights, they invented and fabricated the legened and the presentation of lards to them. By customary land the Brahmin Jenmies were debarred from doing cultivation which would debase their caste position. So they left their lands to tenants. Chiefly to those castes which enjoyed sudra status or nearer to them. Thus Nayars, Vellalas, Krishnavaka became the chief tenants of the Brahmins. Chief tenants through the were cultivators could not till the entire lands at their possession and so they
86

Lemerciner Relationship between means of production caste and Religion, Social compass No.23 London 1981. No.2-3 (1981).

51

feudalise if further. The sub infeuds weree given to sub tenants mostly Nadars under the share crop system87. Under the system of sub infeudation, the sudra tenant reserved the privilege to cultivate fertile irrigated lands directly by themselves. Barren waste lands which came under the provided on their tenantship were given to sub tenants. Like wise most of the tiny plots. Coconut grooves or paddy fields leased out to rural families whose activities were mixed with cultivation. Plucking of coconut etc 88. Thus again the small plots table lands and cultivable waste lands passed on to Nadars. The Nambutdhiri Yogakshema Mahasabha (The Nambuthiri walefarc

Association) and Nambuthiri Samajam were their caste associations which advocated change in the community. The right of all Nambuthiri mates to formal marriages and partition of illam property became the pressinneed of the younger members of every family89. Travancore Malayala Brahmin Regulation in 1837, it reduced the Karanavans power. The regulation also led Brahmin community in the path of individualism. The joint family created the Jenmi system throughout the District. Among the landowning superior castes there was a shift from joint family to nuclear family units. It resulted the fragmentation of property. This fragmentation of property has its originn in the idea or individualism. After this Act the lands were partitioned among the high class.

87 88 89

Hard grave, The Nadars of Tamil Nadu, 1943, Madras P. 56. Limorciner, opcit. P. 174. Travancore Legislative council proceedings Vl. X.TVM 1927. P. 639.

52

Nayars
They are next to Brahmin in the District. They have many subdivisions in their caste. They received matrilinedneal system90. The process or proselytism into Nayar fold continued undisturbed for centuries together, Nanchinattu vellalas Nanchinattu vellalas acquired land rights from Pandya chiefs. They also received enormous land grants from Chola kings. They got some concession from Marthandavarma. Most of them were employed as village accountants. In that way also they owned private properties. They also received matrilineal system. In any way they received much more concession from the Travancore Government. Became the masters of Nanchinad91. The Kammalas and Ezhavas The Kammalas and Ezhavas the two intermediate castes occupied ranks below owing classes and above agrocultural labourers in commercial hierarchy. The Kammala comprised different artisans in a caste which did not have the agricultural background at all. The Ezhavas who constituted numerically was a significant

community. A small minority among them owned extensive area of land, However majority of them were labourers. In fact the number of Ezhavas owned more than one acre land. The Avarna caste became increasingly indebted poor and destructive. In equally discrimination and caste oppression more institutionalized characteristics of
90 91

E. Kunjanpillai, Studies in Kerala History TVM, 1970, pp. 170 173. Evolution of land tenure in Travancore, Noorjam Beevi, 2001, P. 281. (A Thesis from Kerala university)

53

social structure92. The pulaya and parays tillers lived on the bank of fields 93. Caste oppression and economic deprivation led lowest section of the Avarnas, incourse of centuries, the position of aggrestic slaves became the puppets of land owners. Feudalism Feudal customs like uliyam and viruthi existed here. In Feudalism the land controlled by few. The Aryans settled in 4th century A.D. The sections like potter, carpenter, blacksmiths, Nadar, Ilava, Pulaya and Paraya were exploited by upper class 94. The Brahmin, Khatriya, Vysya and Sudra such high castes engaged in religious duties, agriculture, trade and administration and those who have no property but worked in the land became as serfs or slaves of lower class. Such an exploited communities could not rise up the ladder of the society. Subsequently the system of private ownership of land completed between the land lord and tenants95. The low class people forced to supply the provision to palace, temple festivals. The worst kind of exploitation was that the member of this families carried away by force by government96. Agriculturists forced to do work for high official 97. The Brahmins of Travancore were mere powerful by the 11 th and 12thcenturies A.D under the impact the forces set in the chera-chola war the caste system because war extremely religious. The kings were considered. kshatriyas and some other co-operated with Brahmins ware considerd as sudtras. The Nambuthiries received matrilineal system. The

92 93 94

Sivanandan op.cit. p.77 Noorjam Beevi op. cit. p. 65. Socio Economic Basic of political evolution in the erstwhite of Travancore state (1859 1939) R.K. Sureshkumar, 1989, TVM, (A Thesis from Kerala University. Ibid p. 24 K. E. Eapen church missionary Society and Education in Kerala Kottayam 1985, P.33 N. Muhammed Husain op.cit p=-96

95 96 97

54

Hereditary passed father to son. But wear families hereditary passed through mothers brother to mothers son98. The Brahmins were exempted from rajabhogam with ordinary peasants also began to teamster ordinary peasants also began to transfer asset to Devaswom and Brahmins. While the government was in need of money during wars when they raised tax. The property during the war by denoting to the Brahmaswoms or Devaswoms subsequently there formed a process of conversion of temple lands in the Brahmin land from kings. Simultaneously Namboodires acquired wealth. So the Namboodiries became the uralars (administrators) of temples. Such circumstances

Namboodiries came to acquire to status wealth, powerful landlords. The Namboodiries managed Socio religious matters for all. Nayars looked after their lands as a rewards land from Namboodiries. All others working in the land f Namboodiries and Nayars. Many kind of tenures imposed on agriculturists. Kanappattam (cultivate the land) talakanam (levied by toddy tapping) and maniponnu for wearing gold ornaments. The low class people working under high class peoples coconut grooves and paddy fields utilizing lower sections capacity on the favour of them. In tis way Brahmin became more prosperous and powerful99. In feudalism a minority had control over all land. Feudal powers and obligation depressed the landless. Economic pressure

compelled the slaves work under landlords, Socially, religiously, politically also they were oppressed. Caste, class, power, position were prescribed according to their

economic importance. Feudal powers and obligations depressed the landless people much and forced them succumb to the mercy of rich. Nayars and their Decline
98 99

J.H. Hutt, caste in India, (Bombay)1969, pp77-85 Irrigation, Economic growth in south Travancore, Journal of Kerala Studies (1988) V. Sathyanesan. Op. cit. P.76

55

Next to Namboodiiries, Nayars were the biggest land holders. When they displaced the ancient ruling families they inherited vast lands along with the vanquished slaves. Due to their long period association with ruling families (Nambuthiries, kings) they obtained successive land rights. For their military and administrative service, lands weree conferred on them almost interruptedly. Further as they were very close with Namboothiries, they had privilege colleting revenue from Devadanom and

Brahmadanom lands100. In this process they duped their masters and amassed wealth, the claim of their Namboothitiri parents over lands and organized terror eliminated the,. They collected tax from the sub tenants. In that process also they accumulated wealth power and authority. This new economic position forced them to obtain from physical labour which they substituted for marginal works 101. The damp heat of the climate restrained active participation in cultivation and induced their good desire live without work 102. So far the family needs they cultivated the fertile land with agrestic slaves and rest were parceled out to sub tenants. Thus the number of sub tenants multiplied utilization of a slave in agriculture evoked the institutionalization of agrestic slavery. The spread of English education instilled a new lease of life among the middle class of all communities. The Nayar community became educated and elite. Even though they enjoyed social status, their social status, their economic condition was not free from anxiety103. The Historical hangover did not allow them to engage in

commercial activities or trade which the Syrians and Ezhava prospered. Because of this
100 101 102

E. Kunjan Pillai, Op cit., P. 312 Daniel Thorner Agrarian prospects in India, II ed (Madras Allied publishers 1978). P. 16) Gilbert slater, Dravidian Elements in Indian culture (New Delhi) ESS Publication P 123 124. P.K. Parameswaran Nayar, 1972. P. 87.

103

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declining material condition, Government services considered as the next best with the advent of English education, many Nayar families were quick to send their children tenant educational institutions. The result was by the half of 19th century itself a new thing emerged in Nayar community. It was status group based on education and occupation. It was the next class that tried to awaken their fellow beings. Joint family system The joint family system know as Travancore Nayar families started asserting the jenmom title with regard to their family properties. From 18th century onwards many castes emerged as landlords. By Kanappattom tenures Nayar became the supervisors of Nadus and lands of the Namboodiries104. Nayar leased atwill orcultivated agrestic slaves nayar Taravad matriarchal family. Their heridiotor is son in law. The joint family was conducted by karanavar Nayar regulation 1912, restriction were imposed by the regulation of powers of Karanavan105. But this regulation did not provide for a

individual partition or towards but only for thavazhi partition.

Nayar Viruthi System

104 105

Cover File 15128 or 1866 (revenue) Dent. P.18 (A coverfiles) from Kerala Archives). Rajagopalachari, Note on the administarion of Travancore, 1914. P.33.

57

The Nayar Viruthi formed important class or tenure in the District. It existed in Thovala and Agastheeswaram. The holders of the tenure called Viruthikkar. Viruthi means labour without remuneration106. The Viruthikkar did some special service for the land holders107. The manjor partition lands were assigned to Nayars who were primarly military class their land allow to agriculture. The viruthikkars had towork all the days in a week. The Nayar viruthis were held free of assessment or Pattom but they were liable to the payment or Rajabhogam quit rens at on eight etc. All services specified and value money rates the net demand viruthi land would be fixed assessment in some case of deduction made for the service in others. During the reign of Mulam Tirunal (1885 1924) Viruthi holder had no right over his holdings except its enjoyment during the regular performance of the service imposed on him and he should not sell, mortgage without sanction of government would be recognized108. The tenure had fixity and holders were entitled to undisrtibutive possession. So long as they continued to discharge the service regularly when the Viruthi hadder failed to render the stipulated service on any occasion, a penalty called patta kotte refused to do service absolutely the holding became liable resumption by government. In 1887 a government committee was appointed to examine the system of Nayar Viruthi and suggest a measure for reforming same in accordance with Royal proclamation 1886. They owned 20,000 acres land. In short Viruthi system an

indigenous device of the ancient enforcing authority upholding the prestige and relationship of sovereign and ensuring without good supplies required 109. The economics
106 107 108 109

Protestant women missionaries in Travancore, Mini 2008 P.171

The Nayar Viruthi in Travancore, Journal of Kerala Studies, 1988, Sugeetha P. 27. Ibid. P. 30 Noorjam Beevi. Op.cit., P. 135.

58

in the set up did vouch for the prosperity of the Viruthi holder and least regenerature. Hence demoralization of system and deterioration of the holders. The rulers did not care to regulate this traditional organization by paying cash salaries regularly and demand in return service enjoyed on them. Causes of the phychological nature that filled the system with corrupt policy official at other end, the nature of economy turned as disadvantageous of Viruthikkar. By the Christian Missionaries effort 7 August 1893. Travancore Government , Government Queen Gauri Parvathi Bai abolished Viruthi110.

Nayars and Slaves

Commercial crop were the main stay of the economy. The Predominance of commercial crops in agricultures production gave some unique features to the feudal system as it evolved. Cultivation need slaves, consequently number of slave castes emerged111. Rich people and sirkar owned slaves for cultivation. The Viruthi holder was to render manual service and supply provisions to the government in lieu lands enjoyed by him. However the government of Travancore issued notification by which the

uzhiyam service by the Ezhavas and other except governmental activities was abolished. Statement of the travelers also confirm the evidence Barboas says The more part of them are slaves bounded to the lands of Nayars to whom they are assigned by king that may live support by the labour of these men the slaves of king and rich people live in poverty. T.V. Madnava Rao found up to 1865 slavery existed fully in this area. In speaking of agriculture serfdom, however one should be cautious lest one should apply foreign conception of slavery to conditions which obtained here in middle ages. The commonly accepted conception of slave that is a person absolutely rightless,

110 111

Mini Op. cit. P. 175 R.K. Suresh kumar op.cit. P. 29.

59

the chattel this owner devoid of all lagal ststus or possession of owning neither land nor prosperity of any land and complete subjection to this his master by when maintained and housed and who can be put in differently, to rural industrial or house hold work, and sold or otherwise disposed of at his owners pleasure112. When he was concentrated with agriculture he was a territorial slave attached to the land and as per masters wish they can obey. Slavery was therefore apparently not a very hard. Borbosa says Nayars protect and Cherish them (Slaves bound to their land). According to Vinjaneswara if a slave rescued his master, from imminent danger, he should be allowed to have share of a son. Throughout the middle ages land and its products were the most important source of the wealth and by for the largest part of the population was engaged in cultivating soil regularly. Almost every form of service was required by grant of land. In the records which have come down to us dealing with the foundation of villages, several units a service that made up a village economy and the village officers and servants who put in charge such services and reward by grants of land. So far theory by grants of land. So far theory of one - sixth seems to have been followed in practice, but they were certain demands on land which have to be taken into account for a correct estimate borne by land, which made the tax more than theoretical one sixth. There are a number of items, said to have been colleted besides the Kadamai from the land, they were not uniform over the whole country. Abolition to slavery

112

Economic conditions in Southern India, Vol. I (1000 1500 A.D). Appadurai, Madras University P. 257.

60

The abolition of agrestic slavery and lifting prescription on dress had achieved some desirable success. The criminal procedure code of 1861 and Antiserf legislation 1862 provided for equal treatment and economic rights to all casters. British law, caste equality operated possibility for social advancement among lower caste groups. The Nayars as the chief tenants were the greatest beneficiaries or the reform113. However in the long run, it adversely affected the interest of Nayar families. The abolition of agrestic slavery led and freed labour problems, which led to enhance wages and regular payments. It affected the economic power of the Nayar joint families and promoted the sense of individual interest among the family members. The

increasing cost of education of their children further aggravated their financial crisis. The Nayar joint families unable to bear the financial strains, plunged into debt, it pressurized many Nayar to release value of portion of their land through state114. Jenmi kudiyan Act of 1896 and the Act of 1932 which conferred the property rights on all the tenants. It had initiated the Nayar dominance in the socio economic life of Travancore. With Christianity also the lower people had better condition especially for Nadars. The other classes also received its effects. In 1922 by the Royal proclamation of 12th April the Devaswom Department was detached from the revenue Department. It increased the possibilities of lower classes entering government services but the representation was very poor.

113 114

Robin Jeffery, The Decline of Nayar Dominance, 1936, Delhi, P.7. J. Fuller Nayars today (London Cambridge University Press 1976,p. 128)

61

The untouchability bill was passed on 8 th May 1955. By the Act, religious and social disabilities were removed. In this area (Kanyakumari District) wide publicity was given to the Act. So that the depressed classes received awareness. Nayar in Kollal Village In Kollal village Nayars lands more than half of the village one joint family control over the whole land. The head of the Taravadu family acted as a village chief. They handed over the lands to Nadars to look after the lands and cultivating the lands. After partition or Nayar family in forties their family portions Nadars purchased lands from Nayars. Nayars step by step pauparised115.

Vavara Village
Similarly Kollal village Vavara also owned by Nayars. Here Karayogam organized in 1971. Nayars controlled social, political economic conditions of the people. The Karayogam influenced Nayar families socially, economically and politically. The Karayogam settled all disputes among them. After partition of Nayar Travancore land it was purchased by Nadars. Thus Nadars became dominant in the society in Vavara and Kollal Villages.

Changing pattern at life

115

Tharabai, changing pattern social stratification in Kanyakumri District (1975) p. 62.

62

Under the absentee land lordism those tenants who are engaged direct cultivation of land, gradually they came down. When the economic status of such tenants enhanced and they acquired upper class status. Educational status was to be related economic status. They acquired

simultaneously higher status also. The educational status remained stagnant when there is no important improvement in economic status116. Nayars lost properties During the year 1925 Nayars lost properties 4.87 lakhs. They sold the

properties to other communities. In mortgage also they lost Rs. 1.64 million. But Christian and Ezhavas gained considerably. During 1920 1930 Nayars lost landed properties worth Rs. 8, 40, 10, 717 and loss for the Nanjinad Vellalas their lands lost Rs, 53, 68971. Through investments Christians acquired Rs. 6, 06, 97, 567. Ezhavas and Christians acquired considerable land during that period. In all communities they sold land for same community. Christians gained more land than any other community, while Nayars lost their land uniformly117. Various motives urged the Christians to by land from Nayar. The disabandment Nayar militia and the cessation of hereditary offices in civil services enjoyed by Nayars, with the establishment of British power they were reduced from the power and other Christian converts got the got the privileges to such posts. SO they forced to sell their lands. The family organization was best suited for a corporate life and for enterprising commercial or agriculture118. The higher social status compelled them to

116 117 118

Ibid. Ramachandran Nayar, Social consequences of Agrarian charge, 1991, Jaipur. P. 71. Ibid.

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spend lavishly on marriages and festivals in order to keep appearance and to some extent this extravagance contributing to their mounting debts. Christians and Ezhavas were excluded from the army and government services. But Syrians got success in trading sector and Nayar failed of their position of land system 119. The Christians law of inheritance which stipulated that the land was a solid piece of wealth with sole proprietory rights mode the Christians made a more acceptable security for agricultural loans. Reasons for the decline of Nayars Before 19th century the Nayars attained high position in politics and society for a long period. They became influenced community inconnection with Nambuthiries through matrimonial alliance. But after 19 th century the hoary day of Nayars which turned into become a resting period. During the introduction of British rule in

Travancore the Nadar community attained great developments which paved the way for decline of Nayars. Reasons Suppressive measures of king Marthanda Varmma During the period of king Marthanda Varma (1729 1758 A.D) severe blow was given to the Nayars. Once they were politically and economically Predominant community in Travancore. He abolished Feudalism. He set up organized an

administrative machinery under Tamil Brahmins to reduce the influence of Nayars in administration. He established military division under Maravas which reduced the

military importance of Nayars. They received salaries directly from the government. He

119

Ibid

64

was against Ettuveettil pillamars120.

Marthandavarma suppressed Ettuveettil Pillamar,

Madampimar and killed Nayar chiefs. Their houses were rashed to the ground land were confiscated their women were enclosed and children were sold to fishermen121. Suppressive Measures of the British After the establishment of British supremacy, Veluthampi the Deulan of Travancore extended whole hreated supported to Meccaulay and East India company when Nayar brigade rose in revolt against Veluthampi, Meccalay supported to suppress them in 1804122. In 1805 East India company modified treaty with Travancore. As per this next treaty the British increased tribute two fold. But Veluthampi failed to pay arrears to East India company. So that Mecaulay exchanged hot words, it led strained relation123. With regards Mathew Tharakan affair on arrear payment to government of Travancore, Veluthampi threatened Tharakan to remit the arrear payment. Other wise

his properties will be confiscated. Mathew Tharakam sought the help of Meccauly to withdrawal the orders of Veluthampi124. This incident also infuriated Veluthampi. An enemity between Veluthampi and Meccaulay ensued. Veluthampi tried to kill Mecaulay but he miraculously escaped. In 1809 Veluthampi issued Kundara proclamation.

Veluthampi failed in the war with broken heart he lost his life at Mannady Bhagavathi temple. After Veluthampi Ummini Thampi became the Dewan on 8th March 1809 who belonged Nayar community125. He was not able to lead the administrative machinery in
120 121 122 123 124 125

Dr. Valiakavu Mohandhas, Kerala History to students, 2008, Quilon, p. 40. C. Stantly John Tamil separatist Movement (Thesis from Kerala University TVM), 1987, p. 16. Veluthampi Dalawa biography Ponnara Saraswathi Quilon P 54 Veluthampi Dalawa Joseph Chazhikadan, 1969 TVm P. 70 Ibid A History of Travancore shangonny Menon 1984 New Delhi P. 348

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an effective manner. The Travancore government faced financial crisis. Ranilekshmi took reins (came into power) she did not satisfy with umminithampi and removed him from service and appointed Col. Munroe as Dewan. Ummini thampi tried to kill

Munroe. Altogether Nayar community received bad marks. These factors brought about appointment of Maratti Brahmin as Dewan of Travacore and high officials selected from Maratti Brahmins so the Nayar Community lost the administrative dominance. In 1811 Munroe assumed the Dewan of Travancore. changes in administration. He took salutary mal

He removed all offices in connection with

administration and corruption Ramavarmma appointed Valiya Sarvadhi Karyakkar to look after the Mukhonns (divisions) in 1773126 AD. But Munroe re organized

administration, judiciary and reduced the power of Valiya Saravadhi Karyakkar and Sarvadhikaryakkar. He rejeunated judiciary. He set up Hozur court to try civil cases. He toured all over the state and punished the officials through severe measures. He modified administrative machinery without Nayars it reduced the arrogancy of Nayars. He abolished the National council of pidakaikkars. Pidakaikkars were the controlling authority over lower class. They enquired the low class people whether accepted law or not. In 1814 Munroe was relived from the post of Dewan service. From 1877 only Maratta Brahmins looked after the administration of Travancore. The British Government neglected Nayars from high offices.

Suppressive Measures of Madhava Rao

126

Ramavarmma of Travancore, Dr. B. Sobhanam 1978, Calicut p. 60.

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Madhava Rao, the maker of modern Travancore undertook various measures on education, public works Department. It was adversely affected Nayar community due to lack of education127. In 1864 Travancore Government held competitive examinations for the Government services. Non Malayalee Brahmins were appointed in the Trvancore were neglected. Nayars were not not able to get higher education because of Nayar Taravd crisis. Crisis with in Nayar Taravads With the introduction of higher education in Travancore, the Nayar youth did not receive higher education because of internal dissensions among the Nayar Taravads. The Karanavars sent only their legitimate heirs in schools and colleges. This was not liked by the generation of joint family system. They scceeded from so called joint family system128. In 1865 the Government promulgated Land inheritance Act

(Pandarappattom proclamation) which favoured joint family system. The law paved the way for partition of Taravad properties. This caused hues and cries in the Nayar families which hampered unity among Nayars129. Economic crisis of Nayar Taravads. With the promulgation of land inheritance law made many Nayar families indulged. They troubled a lot to partition of Nayar Taravads. So they approached judicial courts. This created social backwardness in Nayar Taravads. A Malayalam proverb Kanam vittum Onam Unnanam (they will sell their property to celebrate Onam festival). Many Taravads sold their lands to conduct marriages and other ceremonies.
127 128

Robin Jeffery op.cit. p. 75. Renjini. D. Nayar women Today, Disintegration of Matrilineal system and status of Nayar women in Kerala, 2000, New Delhi p. 19. K. Gopinathan Pillai, Socio Economic Changes in Nayar Community, 1984, TVM, p. 215.

129

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So they spent a lot of money for luxurious ceremonies to exhibit their power and prestige130. The low class people worked in Ceylon coffee and tea estates and earned money. They bought lands of rich people through out the District. It was also another important cause for Nayars decline131. Another important death blow to Nayars was the re organization of states on the basis of linguistics. Nayars encouraged Malayalam in Kanyakumari District. (Once part of Travancore). But Tamil was the mother tongue of the majority people. After the formation of Kanyakumari District. On I November 1956. Tamil became the official language of the Kanyakumari District. After integration, Malayalam began to decline in its importance in Kanyakumari District. Some of the Malayalee Nayars sold their Only poor Nayars

property and left Kanyakumari District and settled in Kerala.

educated their children in Tamil medium schools. Tamillians attained higher positions in all part of life. This almost reduced Nayar domination in Kanyakumri132. Missionaries and Economic changes through social activities. After 1830 foreign missionaries propagated gospel in this District. In 1847 missionaries organized a powerful compaign against agrestic slavery. In 1885 agrestic slavery was abolished and it haulded the dawn of social equality and economic freedomn. Churches were established at importants centres in 1819 in Thittuvilai and Agasteeswaram prosely went hand in hand with the sprout up of or churches 133. A large number of Nadars joined in Christianity134.
130 131

Ibid. p. 227. Bilingual cultural of Kanyakumari an area study, Shiju. K. 2009, p. 23 (AThesis from Kerala University Malayalam section.) A personal Interview with Kumaradhas, Methukummal 11. 10. 2008. R. N. Yesudhas, The History of London missionary society 1806 to 1908 . 1980 Pp.58-59 Ibid P. 247

132 133 134

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Many converted Christians entered in trade invested their surplus income on land and there by more occupational shift was made Christianity contributed material progress of convertes. Educated Christians were employed in schools, Government offices and plantations, which increased their earning capacity. Through the community development and other programmes assistance was given to the poor and needy. The Kottar Service Society is an organization which has taken keen interest in promoting agriculture, fisheries and health. embroidery, weaving etc135. Missionaries sponsored cottage industries like

Christianity provided the people an ideology and tools t In imparting knowledge and

make changes in the prevailing structural changes.

civilization it had made rapid Strides. Missionary education removed the deep rooted prejudices and promoted the material and moral progress of the community. It charged their quality and style of life there by stimulated behaviour changes136. Economic changes through education The Christian Missionaries introduced education for the lower section of people. Education opened new changes of economic activity and induced the process of occupational shift. Defiling traditional occupations were substituted for the decent and profitable employment. This employment opportunities gave more good position in the society137 for depressed class people. Education and communication broadened the outlook of depressed classes. Education promoted the possibilities for contract with new ideas and transmission of new ideas induced additional changes138.
135 136 137

Felix Wilfred, In Service and Fellowship called to serve, pp. 181-188. L.M.S Annual Report 1900, Parassala, Mission District. P.5. Neil. J. Smelser and Martin Lip set ed. Social Structure and Mobility in economic Development p. 134. Ibid.

138

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Institutional Changes In economic institutions too there are remarkable charges. After social

charges land ownership scattered. Nayars and Vellalas were losing control over the land139. In this new trend very big business managed by other castes especially Nadars. Vadassery, Monday Market, Karungal are other centres. By the temple entry proclamation temple opened for all other caste people for doing religious activities. There was the Nadar domination in the District in political field also. From the erst while dominat Vellala and Nayars, political power Shifted to Nadras. Thus almost political powers came to Nadar community. Nayars settled in towns because their worst financial condition. Expensive education for their children again worsened their economic position. In this situation they situation sold their properties to other communities. This slowly ownership of land slipeed out of their control140. Ownership of land scattered from Nayars and Vellalas in all fields, other caste people emerged141. Thus the domination of the high caste people came to a tragic end.

139

Iravi Kharve, Education and social change Eco. Ard Pol. Weekly Annual number (Jan. 1968) p. 17. V. Sathyanesan, op.cit, p. 237. Ibid.

140 141

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