Study on Cohesive Soil and Fly Ash Mixture As Reinforced Earth Retaining Wall Filling Material

Vashi, Jigisha M, Research Scholar, Desai, A.K. Associate Professor, Solanki, C.H. Associate Professor, AMD, SVNIT, Surat. The performance of filling material and its interface friction properties with the geosynthetics would directly influence the application properties of the geosynthetics reinforced earth retaining walls. Through Triaxial test experiments performance include studies of shear parameters of cohesive soil and fly ash mixture in this paper. The results indicate that the mixture of cohesive soil and fly ash have higher strength and rigidity & good interface friction. The technical performance of the mixture conform to the requirements of geosynthetics reinforced earth retaining walls, so it can be used as the filling material of geosynthetics reinforced earth retaining walls in region where specified graded sand is not available. Introduction Because of the good engineering performance, a large number of reinforced earth retaining walls have been constructed throughout the world. Compared with the traditional gravity earth retaining walls, geosyntheric reinforced earth retaining walls have better engineering characteristics of light deadweight, beautiful shape, construction convenience etc. Especially on the soft ground, the better performance would be embodied in virtue of their light deadweight. The national planners in India have put infrastructure development on priority. This has resulted in transport planning, widening of National Highways and new roads in the country. Thus work of Retaining Earth (RE) structures/slopes will be designed in very large numbers over different areas. Thus there is a huge possibility of RE wall being constructed for every 2 Km of 6-4 lane road of NH, State Highways where there is a need of large fill/backfill quantity of sand. But in futures sand is not likely to be a source, so there is a need for use of local waste/fill materials as backfill and hence the present study was taken up. Filling materials performances and interface friction properties with the geosynthetics directly influenced the application performances of the geosynthetics reinforced earth retaining walls. The standards used filling materials are cohesion less soil having percentage of fines (<0.08mm) is <15%, free-draining backfill & Soil reinforcement friction factor tan d not <0.3 (or >= 30 o)12. As the filling material of geosynthetics reinforced earth retaining walls, it should have the following engineering properties: (1) good mechanical properties which include the strength and rigidity; (2) better interface friction property with the geosynthetics; (3) the material, better be lightweight. The shear resistance is function of size, type Undisturbed/Remoulded/ critically weathered, state of drainage in shear, degree of saturation has been studied by many researchers. Following parameters for inorganic cohesive CH soils could be adopted Skempton (1948); Nagaraj (1964); Focht & Sullivan (1969); Stauffer & Wright (1984); Green & Wright (1986); Kulhawy & Mayne (1990); Kayyal & Wright (1991); etc. for preliminary analysis, for compacted soil at OMC & 95% of MDD by Proctor test and

observed the range of cohesion of about 100 kPa & angle of internal friction about 20o to 23o for undrain conditions and cohesion of about 50 kPa & angle of internal friction about 18 o for drain condition. Desai, M.D, (1967) studied the expansive CH soil (low to medium) of region has average OMC 20 to 25% and MDD 1.48 to 1.52 g/cc, and this soil remoulded to 95% MDD has Cu = 80 kPa to 100 kPa, u = 15 to 18o. Ke Zhao, et al. (2001) studied the performances of saponated residue and added-calcium fly ash mixture in highway application. Desai, N.H (2007) performed box shear test for Fly ash and CH soil in different proportions and showing good results of cohesion in range of 2 to 11 kPa and angle of internal friction in range of 20 to 45 degree. Through experiments, the technical performances of coshessive soil and fly ash mixture, and the shear parameters for mixture of 80% FA + 20% Cohessive soil & 75% FA + 25% Cohessive soil, were studied. The purpose was to investigate the application properties of the mixture used as filling material of geosynthetics reinforced earth retaining walls. Experimental Work The purpose of this experimental work is to review the previous research conducted for region in India having CH soils and combined pertinent data with results from the technical literature to develop guidelines for selection of shear strengths for reinforced cohesive-soil structures. Soil sample of high plastic clay (CH) and fly ash was collected from GIPCL, Nani Naroli, Kim, Dist. Surat. Physical properties of soil sample were determined by standard lab tests and are represented in Table 1. (Grain size distribution as per IS 2720 Part 4, Specific Gravity as per IS 2720 Part 3 Section I, Liquid & Plastic Limit test as per IS 2720 Part 5, Compaction test as per IS 2720 Part 7, and Free Swell Index test as per IS 2720 Part 40). Physical and chemical properties of fly-ash were also tested and results are presented in Table 1. Table: 1. Properties of Soil & Fly-ash Physical Properties Test Soil Fly-ash Chemical Properties of

Test 1 Test 2 Test 1 Test 2 Fly Ash (% content) % Passing 4.75mm 2.00mm 100 100 97 95 95 76 100 100 96 95 94 75 100 100 100 100 100 79 100 100 100 100 100 78 SiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3 TiO2 CaO MgO 24.30 13.11 17.16 2.51 27.00 0.32 1.05 0.16

I S Sieve size in mm

1.00mm 0.425mm 0.250mm 0.075mm

Specific Gravity Liquid Limit Immediate

2.497 2.488 2.547 2.526 Na2O 58 61 44 45 K2O

LiO2 After 24 Hrs Soaking After 48 Hrs soaking Plastic Limit Plasticity Index Standard Proctor Test MDD in kN/m3 OMC in % 34 24 38 23 62 NP 1.26 33.0 61 NP 51 52 SO3 LOI (Loss on Ignition)

Nil 9.50

4.78

16.20 16.10 1.29 23.5 50 23.5 48 32.0 -

Free Swell Index in %

For the investigation purpose 80% Fly Ash + 20% Soil mix and 75% Fly Ash + 25% Soil mix was decided. Two different tests namely Triaxial test, (IS 2720: Part 11: 1993/2002) and Permeability (IS 2720 Part 17:1986/2002, falling head method) were carried out for this combination. Specimens were cured for 3 days, 7 days, & 28 days and tested for the said test. Modified proctor test was conducted on 80:20 & 75:25 (F:S) mix proportion. Modified Proctor Test result graph is as shown in Fig.1. Moisture v/s Density relation for Fly Ash: Soil (80:20 & 75:25) ratio mention is given in Table 2. Table: 2 Moisture-Density Relationships with Mix Proportion Mix Proportion 80:20 75:25 MDD in kN/m3 13.89 14.35 OMC in % 30 30

Figure 1: Moisture Density Relationship for 80:20 and 75:25 Proportions

Pilot test results of triaxial test of samples, proportion in 80:20 & 75:25 (Flyash: Black soil) with 3 days, 7 days and 28 days currying period at OMC-MDD; at different cell pressure of 0.5 kg/cm2, 1.5 kg/cm2 and 2.5 kg/cm2; and at 1.5 mm/min strain rate. The values of cohesion C and angle of internal

friction are found out from modified failure envelope of traixial test are finding out for 3 days, 7 day, and 28 days respectively. The summary of the test result are shown in Table 3. Table: 3. Testing Result Tests 3 Days () 47.02 42 7 Days Cuu (kPa) () 365 429 51.13 39 28 Days Cuu (kPa) () 336 457 56.36 40

Triaxial Test - UU Cuu (kPa) 80:20 (F:C) Mix 75:25 (F:C) Mix Permeability K for 80:20 (F:C) Mix Permeability K for 75:25(F:C) Mix 414 388

2.66E-05cm/sec (Falling Head Permeability Test was conducted on 80:20 mix proportion immediately after casting of the sample.) 1.23E-05 cm/sec (Falling Head Permeability Test was conducted on 80:20 mix proportion immediately after casting of the sample.)

Conclusion Through systematic experiments, the application performances of cohesive soil and fly ash mixture have been studied and presented in this paper. The main conclusions obtained are summarized below. (1) The mixture of cohesive soil and fly ash has higher strength, rigidity, and good water stability. (2) Triaxial shear parameters of the mixture of cohesive soil and fly ash are relatively higher & meet normal design parameters of backfill. These indicate better interface friction if its used with geosynthetics. (3) The typical test presented, conformed that mix design of (80:20 & 75:25) can be evolved for a site to provide low cohesion, high > 30 material for backfill in RE structures. This requires placement at 2% less than OMC & MDD. (4) The performance of cohesive soil and fly ash mixture conform to the requirement of filling material of geosynthetics reinforced earth retaining walls. So it can be used as a good filling material for geosynthetics reinforced earth retaining walls at site where BS 8006:1995 specified material is not available. Acknowledgment Authors wish to express their deepest gratitude and sincere appreciation to Dr. M. D. Desai (Visiting Prof SVNIT) for his constant guidance, dedication, and encouragement. Authors would like to thank Er. H. H. Desai & Er. N. H. Desai (Owner of Unique Research Center) for providing the lab facilities for the experimental work. References

British standard code of practice for strengthened / reinforced soils and other fills. BS: 80061997.

Desai, M.D. (1967), Experience in Shear Testing for Problems of Earth Dam Foundations & Embankment Materials. Pre-conference Symposia on Pore Pressure & Shear Resistance of Soils, INS of SMFE, New Delhi.

Desai, N.H, (2007), Experimental Investigation for use of Flyash as a Major Constituent with Clay for Construction of Embankment. M.Tech Thesis, D.D.University, Nadiad. Focht, J. A., & Sullivan, R. A. (1969), Two Slides In Over-consolidated Pleistocene Clays. Proceedings of the Seventh International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, Mexico City, 1969, Vol. 2, pp: 571576.

Green, R., & Wright, S. G. (1986), Factors Affecting the Long Term Strength of Compacted Beaumont Clay. Research Report 436-1, Center for Transportation Research, The University of Texas at Austin.

Kayyal, M. K., & Wright S.G. (1991), Investigation of Long-Term Strength Properties of Paris and Beaumont Clays in Earth Embankments. Research Report 1195-2F, Center for Transportation Research, The University of Texas at Austin.

Ke Zhao et al. (2001). A Research on the Performances of Saponated Residue Added -Calcium Fly Ash in Highway Application. Chinese Journal of Fly Ash Comprehensive Utilization, 14 (1):6-10.

Kulhawy, F. H., & Mayne, P. W. (1990), Manual on Estimating Soil Properties for Foundation Design. EPRI EL-6800, Research Project 1493-6, Final Report, Cornell University, Ithaca, August.

Nagaraj, T.S. (1964), Soil Structure and Strength Characteristics of Compacted Clay The International Journal of Soil Mechanics, Geotechnique, No. 2, pp: 103-114. Skempton, A.W. (1964), Long Term Stability of Clay Slopes The International Journal of Soil Mechanics, Geotechnique, No. 2. pp: 77-100. Stauffer, P. A., & Wright, S. G. (1984). An Examination of Earth Slope Failures in Texas. Research Report 353-3F, Center for Transportation Research, The University of Texas. Vashi, Jigisha M., Desai, A.K., Solanki, C.H., & Desai, M.D. (2010), Fly Ash as Backfill Mater ial for Reinforced Earth Structures. National conference on Fly ash/Futuristic Materials in Civil Engineering Construction for Sustainable Development, V.V.Nagar, Anand, India.

Potential Benefits of Flyash in Attaining the Workability of Silica Fume Concrete

Dr. Jaspal Singh, Professor, Civil Engg Department, Er. Anil Kumar Nanda, Civil Engg Department, PAU Ludhiana Introduction Building industry, is one of the key areas of infrastructure development & for catering to the requirements of building materials, we are dependent on natural resources. As natural resources are depleting day by day, we have to think of alternate measuries. Use of industrial wastes for this purpose is beneficial as by this, not only natural resources are conserved but solution to safe disposal of industrial waste is obtained. Flyash and silica fume are the promising industrial wastes which can be easily harnessed in construction. With the increase in the number of coal-based thermal power plants in India, generation of fly ash has reached enormous proportions. In India, about 100 million tonnes of flyash is accumulated every year which is generated as waste from thermal plants. This is causing enough concern as its disposal involves design and installation of ash ponds covering large areas at each plant site. In spite of concerted efforts on a national scale, only a very small fraction (around 6%) of the fly ash is put to use in India, compared to its utilization to a greater extent in other countries. Silica fume is also a waste by-product from the silicon metal and ferrosilicon alloy industries. The chief problems in using this material are associated with its extreme fineness and high water requirement when mixed with Portland cement. However, if used with superplasticizers, we can attain good workability of concrete. Workability of concrete plays a vital role in all construction works, affecting the speed of construction and placing of concrete, which in turn affect the financial aspect of construction project. The use of silica fume reduces the workability of fresh concrete or mortar due to its very high specific surface area; however, it improves many of the properties of hardened concrete or mortar. Earlier workability of concrete was controlled by amount of water added during mixing and setting characteristics were adjusted with the help of admixtures to modify the properties of concrete. Nowadays, Superplasticizers are added to concrete to get highly workable concrete. They are assuming increasing popularity for use in concrete, because of advantages they offer in handling, placing and compaction of concrete. Though use of superplasticizers is very common in developed countries, the superplasticizers are not so common in developing countries like India. It is in this context that effort has been made to study the effect of addition of superplasticizer in addition to fly ash and silica fume on workability of concrete.

Materials Portland cement

xOrdinary Portland cement (OPC) of 43 grade (Ultratech) confirming to IS: 8112:1989 was being used for making concrete. The relevant cement properties experimentally obtained are given in Table 1.
Table 1: Properties of OPC 43 grade cement S. No. Characteristics 1. 2. 3. 4. Specific gravity Standard consistency Initial setting time Final setting time Compressive strength 5. 3 Days 7 Days 28 Days 29.18 N/mm2 33.78 N/mm 47.36 N/mm
2 2

Value obtained experimentally 2.975 32% 123 min 266 min

Value specified by IS:8112:1989 30 min (minimum) 600 min (maximum)

23 N/mm2 33 N/mm2 43 N/mm2

The values obtained conform to specifications given in code

Aggregates i) Coarse Aggregate The coarse aggregate used were a mixture of two locally available crushed stone of 10 mm and 20 mm size in 50:50 proportion. The aggregates were washed to remove dirt, dust and then dried to surface dry condition. Specific gravity and other properties of coarse aggregate are given in Table 2. Then sieve analysis of coarse aggregate was done. Proportioning of coarse aggregate was done and Fineness Modulus was obtained as given in Table 3.
Table 2: Properties of coarse aggregates Characteristics Colour Shape Maximum size Specific gravity Value Grey Angular 20 mm 2.63

Table 3 : Fineness modules of proportioned coarse aggregate Weight IS Sieve designation retained on sieve in gms (10 mm aggregates) 80 mm 40 mm 0.00 0.00 Weight retained on sieve in gms (20 mm aggregates) 0.00 0.00 Average weight retained (gm) 0.00 0.00 Cumulative weight retained (gm) 0.00 0.00 Cumulative @age weight retained (gm) 0.00 0.00 100.00 100.00 %age passing

20 mm 10 mm 4.75 mm 2.36 PAN

0.00 2190 2780 30 -

270 4710 20 0 -

135 3450 1400 15 -

135 3585 4985 5000 -

2.7 71.7 99.7 100 -

97.3 28.3 0.30 0 -

Cumulative percentage weight retained = 674.1 Fitness Modules (F.M.)= Say 6.74 It lies within desirable range 5.5-8.0
Table 4 : Fineness Modulus of the fine aggregates %age passing Sieve no. Retained on each sieve weight (gm) Retained on each sieve (%age) Cumulative %age %age retained Passing for zoneII as per IS-3831970 10mm 4.75 mm 2.36 mm 1.18 mm 600 Micron 300 Micron 150 Micron Pan Total wt. of sample 0 80 gm 200 gm 500 gm 510 gm 240 gm 360 gm 110 gm 2000 gm 0 4 10 25.0 25.5 12.0 18.0 5.50 100 292.5 0 4 14 39 64.5 76.5 94.5 0 96 86 61 35.5 23.5 5.5 100 90-100 75-100 55-90 35-59 8-30 0-10

Fineness modulus = 2.925 and it falls in zone II

ii) Fine Aggregates Fine aggregates were collected from Chaki River Pathankot. It was coarse sand brown in color. Specific gravity of fine aggregates was experimentally determined as 2.62. Then test on sieve analysis of fine aggregates was performed to get Fineness Modulus. Fly Ash Fly ash used in present work was obtained from Guru Hargobind Thermal Plant Lehra Mohabbat, Distt. Bathinda. The fly ash, which was used, falls under class F category. The results of physical properties are given in Table 5.

Table 5: Physical properties of fly ash Characteristics Colour Specific gravity Class Chemical composition SiO2 AL2O3 Fe2O3 4. CaO MgO SO3 LoI IR Lime reactivity 5. Sieve analysis Sieve no. 100 140 200 270 Pan %age of weight retained 0.00 31.35 26.51 24.72 17.42 57.41 26.92 5.21 2.05 0.71 0.085 1.18 93.12 59.50 Values Light brown 2.09 F

S. No. 1 2. 3.

Silica Fume The silica fume used was obtained from Orkla India (Pvt) Ltd (Brand name: Elkem Microsilica 920-D), Navi Mumbai. Its chemical composition and other properties are given in Table 6.
Table 6 : Physical properties of silica fume S. No. 1 2. Characteristics Specific gravity Color Chemical composition SiO2 AL2O3 3. Fe2O3 CaO MgO K2O Na2O 93.800 0.206 0.096 0.426 0.222 0.337 0.107 Values 2.26 Grey

Super Plasticizer The super plasticizer used in the study program was Rheobuild SPI obtained by Basf construction chemicals (India) Pvt. Ltd., Navi Mumbai. It was based on Naphthalene formaldehyde polymer. The

physical and chemical properties of super plasticizer, which was obtained from the company, conform to IS-9103-1979 and are given in Table 7.
Table 7 : Properties of super plasticizer Rheobuild-SP1 S. No. 1. Parameter Specifications (As per IS 9103) Dark brown free flowing liquid Naphthalene formaldehyde polymers 1.15 0.02 Min 6 Max 0.2 32 5 (%) 8 5 (%) Properties of Rheobuild SPI Dark brown free flowing liquid Naphthalene formaldehyde polymers 1.151 7.34 0.0010 32.04 8.01

Physical state Chemical name of active ingredient Relative density at 250C pH Chloride ion content (%) Dry material content Ash content

2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

Mix Design by Indian Standard Recommendations Present investigation includes design of concrete mix (non-air entrained) for medium strength concrete. The guidelines given in various codes like SP: 23-1982, IS: 10262-1982 and IS: 456-2000 have been adopted for mix design of concrete.
Table 8 : Quantities per cubic meter for trial mixes with compressive strength Mix No. 1 2 3 4 5 Water cement ratio 0.32 0.32 0.32 0.32 0.32 Cement (kg) 579.375 540 500 480 450 Sand (Kg) 467.58 487.69 508.15 518.00 533.75 Coarse aggregate (Kg) 1108.52 1156.27 1204.77 1229.00 1265.40 Average cube strength at 7 days (N/mm2) 47.21 44.0 48.6 34.85 40.22 Average cube strength at 28 days (N/mm2) 60.42 58.56 57.31 54.71 44.26

Table 9: Workability with the varying percentage of silica fume & flyash % fly ash 0 10 15 20 4% silica fume 0.870 0.887 0.895 0.902 8% silica fume 0.852 0.860 0.874 0.886 12% silica fume 0.845 0.857 0.869 0.882 0.92 Reference mix

Table 10: Analysis of variance for various percentage of fly ash & silica fume for

compaction factor Mean values of Source/Treatment compaction factor of reference mix Compaction factor with 0 0.92 % flyash Compaction factor with 10 % flyash Compaction factor with 15 % flyash Compaction factor with 20% flyash Mean values of compaction factor Silica fume 4% 0.870 Silica fume 8% 0.852 Silica fume 12% 0.845 0.0230 Critical difference (C.D.)

0.887

0.860

0.857

0.0224

0.895

0.874

0.869

0.0196

0.902

0.886

0.882

0.0221

For the present investigation, it is required to have characteristic compressive strength 40 N /mm 2. the mean target strength is 49.24N/mm2 The compaction factor for the design mix is taken as 0.9. The maximum size of aggregate is 20 mm (angular). Type of exposure is taken as moderate and degree of quality control as very good. Trial Mixes The quantity of cement obtained after mix design i.e. 579.375 is much more than the maximum range of cement i.e. 450 kg/m3 as specified in IS 456-2000. So five trial mixes were prepared and average cube strength were obtained after 7 days & 28 days as given in Table 8. Workability of Concrete The compaction factor test was performed to see the effect of addition of silica fume and flyash on concrete. The workability of reference and all other concrete mixes as detailed in Table 9 was measured in terms of compaction factor test. It is observed that compaction factor lies between 0.845 to 0.92. Workability of concrete slightly improved with the addition of percentage of flyash to all the percentage of silica fume. In the case of 4 % silica fume and at 0% level of flyash, compaction factor was 0.87. With the addition of 10%, 15% and 20% of flyash, compaction factor improved / increased to 0.887, 0.895 and 0.902 respectively. For 8% of silica fume & at 0% level of flyash, compaction factor was 0.852. With the addition of 10%, 15% & 20% of flyash, compaction factor improved to 0.86, 0.874 & 0.886 respectively. Similarly, for 12% of silica fume and at 0% level of flyash, compaction factor was 0.845. With the addition of 10%, 15%, and 20% of flyash, compaction factor improved to 0.857, 0.869 and 0.882 respectively. The improvement in workability with the addition of flyash to the concrete can be explained on the basis of ball bearing effect of spherical particles of flyash as spherical particles needs less water as compared to other shapes. Probably, another factor contributing to the improvement in workability is increased amount of paste in mix which in turn produces a lubricating effect on ingredients of concrete and helps in achieving a free flowing concrete with closer packing of materials. Conversely, the workability decreased with the addition of percentages of silica fume to all the percentages of flyash. At 0% level of flyash, compaction factors

were 0.87, 0.852 & 0.845 with the addition of 4%, 8% & 12% of silica fume respectively. At 10% level of flyash, compaction factors were 0.887, 0.860 & 0.857 with addition 4%, 8% & 12% of silica fume. At 15% level of flyash, compaction factors were 0.895, 0.874 & 0.869 with the addition of 4%, 8%, & 12% of silica fume. Similarly, at 20% level of flyash, compaction factors were 0.902, 0.886 & 0.882 with addition 4%, 8% & 12% of silica fume. The optimum value of compaction factor was at the replacement level of 24% i.e. 20% of flyash & 4% of silica fume by weight of cement. After the optimum level of replacement of flyash & silica fume, if we still add silica fume corresponding to 20% of flyash, the compaction factor starts decreasing. It is due to the fact that surface area is increased due to increased fineness and greater amount of water is required to get a closer packing which results in decrease in workability of concrete mixes at higher replacement levels. The variation of workability with different %ages of flyash and silica fume is as shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1: Workability with the varying percentage of silica fume and flyash Statistical analysis

Effect of various %ages of silica fume and flyash on Workability. The effect of various %age of silica fume and fly ash on workability was statistically significant at 5% level of significance. The values of critical difference and mean compaction factor are given in Table 10. Summary The workability was determined using compaction factor test. The statistical analysis was applied on values/results of workability of concrete. All the values/results were found statistically significant. From the experimental investigation, the following main conclusions can be drawn: i. ii. Low water cement ratios like 0.32 can be tried for producing a concrete for commercial Optimum level of replacements of cement by flyash obtained from Guru Hargobind Thermal Plant Lehra Mohabat, Distt. Bhatinda is around 10% for producing medium range of workability concrete.

purposes but appropriate superplasticizer compatible with the materials are required to be used.

iii. iv.

Optimum level of replacements of cement by silica fume is around 4% for producing medium range of workability concrete. The combination of flyash and silica fume is capable of producing a medium range of workability of concrete as partial replacement of cement. The optimum replacement levels of flyash and silica fume are 20% and 4%. This optimum level of combination gave maximum value of compaction factor i.e 0.902

v.

As silica fume & superplasticizer are costly materials and it may not be economical to use them. But when these materials are used with flyash (a waste), workability is likely to improve as evident from the investigation carried out by the authors.

References

Bhatnagar Anil and Kumar Rajesh (2007) Use of flyash in rooler compacted concrete dams. The Indian Concrete Journal 81:90-100. Cohen Menashi D (1990) A look at silica fume and its actions in Portland cement concrete. The Indian Concrete Journal 64:429-38 Gambhir M L (1992) Concrete manual. Pp. 44. Dhanpat Rai & sons, New Delhi. Gambhir M L (1996) Concrete technology. Pp. 23-25. Tata Mcgraw- Hill Publishing company limited, New Delhi. Gopalakrishanan S, Rajamane N P, Nelamegam M, Peter J A and Dattatreya J K (2001) Effect of partial replacement of cement with fly ash on the strength and durability of HPC. The Indian Concrete Journal 75: 335-41.

Goyal S, Kumar M and Bhattacharjee B (2008) Potential benefits of incorporating fly ash in silica fume concrete. The Indian Concrete Journal 82: 38-46. IS: 10262-1982 (Reaffirmed 2004): Recommended guidelines for concrete mix design, Bureau of Indian Standard, New Delhi-2004. IS: 8112:1989 (Reaffirmed 2005): Specification for 43 grade Ordinary Portland Cement, Bureau of Indian Standard, New Delhi-2005. IS: 9103:1999 (Reaffirmed 2004): Concrete Admixtures-Specifications, Bureau of Indian Standard, New Delhi-2004. IS: 383-1970: Specification for Coarse and Fine Aggregates from Natural Sources for Concrete, Bureau of Indian Standard, New Delhi-1970. IS: 1199-1959 (Reaffirmed 1999): Methods of Sampling and Analysis of Concrete, Bureau of Indian Standard, New Delhi-1999. IS: 2386 (Part I,III)-1963: Methods of Test for Aggregates for Concrete, Bureau of Indian Standard, New Delhi-1963. IS: 4031 (Part 4,5&6)-1988: Methods of Physical Tests for Hydraulic Cement, Bureau of Indian Standard, New Delhi-1988. Jolicoeur C, Mikanovic N, Simard M A and Sharman J (2002) Chemical admixtures: Essential components of quality concrete. The Indian Concrete Journal 76: 537-47 Mittal Amit (1998) Development of high perpormance concrete for containment dome of kaiga atomic power project. The Indian Concrete Journal 72: 193-202

Mullick A K (2008) Cement superplasticizer compatibility and method of evaluation. The Indian Concrete Journal. 82: 8-15. Ojha R N (1996) Use of fly ash and condensed silica fume in making concrete. The Institute of Engineers (I) Journal-CV 77: 170-73. Shetty M S (2009) Concrete technology. Pp. 29-184. S.chand & Company limited, New Delhi.

Nanosilica Improves Recycled Concrete Aggregates

Swapna Kutcharlapati, Technical Assistant, Ramky Infrastructure, Hyderabad; A. K. Sarkar, Professor, Birla Institute of Technology and Science, Pilani; N P Rajamane, Head, Centre for Advanced Concrete Research, SRM University, Katankulathur Major problems occurring while using Recycled Concrete Aggregates (RCAs) in concretes are: higher porosity and hence higher water absorption, lower mechanical strengths, residual impurities on the surface of the RCAs creating weaker bond between cement paste and aggregate, etc. The data in this paper shows that aqueous dispersions of nanosilica (NS) obtained from nano-technology can be used to treat RCAs so that the properties of RCAs such as aggregate crushing value (ACV), Lo Angeles Abrasion Loss, specific gravity, etc are improved; concretes made with NS treated Recycled Concrete Aggregates show enhanced compressive strengths. Introduction Nanotechnology (NT) is neither a new science nor a new technology; it helps scientists to develop composites with improved and desired characteristics. The size of the particles in the composites is crucial as at the length scale of a nanometer, the properties of many materials could be quite different from their bulk state. Applications of NT are in vary divergent fields and are already employed to enhance properties of many construction materials such as concrete, steel, glass, etc. Concrete, a very widely used material of construction, can be benefited by NT as concrete becomes more durable, stronger, easily placeable and compactable and self-curable. Nano materials modify the molecular structure of hydrated cement paste and thereby enhancing many properties. NT can make steel to become more tougher, stronger, and corrosion resistant. Using NT, Glass can be made to possess special characteristics such as self- cleaning, insulating and effective water repelling.

This paper deals with application of NT to recycled aggregates prepared from crushed concrete. The nano silica, a product from NT, is used to enhance the properties of recycled aggregates so that concretes with higher strengths can be made. The data in this paper is taken from the work carried out at BITS, Pilani. Nano Materials Nano materials have atleast one dimension of the order of a nano which is one billionth of a meter. We may note here that a strand of DNA is only a 2 nm wide and a human hair could have a length of 100,000 nm. A nano particle becomes a quantum dot with dimension of the order of 10 nm and this size is so small that jumps in energy levels occur. Quantum dots are semiconductors whose electronic characteristics are closely related to the size and shape of the individual crystal; the smaller the size of the crystal, the larger the band gap, the greater the difference in energy between the highest valence band and the lowest conduction band becomes, therefore more energy is needed to excite the dot, and concurrently, more energy is released when the crystal returns to its resting state. Nanotechnology can be defined as ability to create materials, devices and systems, through control of matter in nanoscale by exploitation of properties and phenomena occurring at nanoscale. A Nano Composite is a bulk material containing added nanoparticles to improve the properties of the bulk material. Self-cleaning glass has nanoparticles to make it photocatalytic and hydrophilic. When UV radiation from light hits the glass, nanoparticles become energized and begin to break down and loosen organic molecules (i.e, dirt). Water on contact with the glass spreads across evenly thereby causing washing action. Polymeric coatings containing aluminum silicate nanoparticles have increased resistance to chipping/scratching and hence used in everything from cars to eyeglass lenses. Carbon Nano Tubes (CNTs), first announced by Russian scientists in 1952, was found in the sword of Tipu Sultan as well as in Ajanta paintings [URL3]. The CNTs (with very high Aspect Ratio, (length-todiameter ratio can be up to 132,000,000:1} have extraordinary strength in terms of tensile strength and elastic modulus [Wang, 2009]. It is observed that CNTs are cylindrical in shape with diameter of nano size and length of several millimeters; they have a density of 1.3 g/cc with a thermal conductivity of 3500 Wme1Ke1 (Note : Copper : 385 Wme1Ke1) exhibiting an elongation of 15 to 23% at an ultimate tensile strength of about 3,600 MPa. The nacre, known as mother-of-pearl, is 3,000 times more fracture-resistant than aragonite (basically a calcium carbonate) the mineral it is made of. ninety-five percent of the mass of this biomineral, nacre, is self-assembled, while only 5 percent is actively formed by the organism indicating efficiency of working with nano size particles. Nanoscale materials can be naturally occurring (e.g. volcanic ash) or incidental (byproduct of human activity e.g., diesel exhaust particulates) or intentionally engineered.

Cellulose Nano-fibers (CNFs) are Ligno Celluloses based and can be made from common materials such as wood pulp (about 55% cellulose) and cottonseed fluff (about 94% cellulose). They are extremely strong and tougher than even Cast Iron (A nanocellulose based paper is stronger and tougher than an iron sheet!) Individual CNFs withstand more stress than glass fibres or steel wire. Cement matrix in presence of CNFs can have at least 10% more compressive strength accompanied by increased tensile strength by several times resulting in 40% more impact strength, and this is attributed to crack suppression & stabilization characteristics of CNFs [Swapna, 2008a and 2008b]. Nano Silica (NS) can contribute to efficient 'Particle Packing' in concretes by densifying the micro and nanostructure leading to improved mechanical and durability properties. NS can control degradation (through blocking of water entry on account of pore refinement) of the fundamental binder system of hydrated cement i.e., C-S-H gel caused usually due to calcium leaching out when immersed in water. NS improves behavior of freshly mixed cement concretes by imparting segregation resistance and by enhancing both workability/mouldability and cohesion of the matrix. Specific Surface Area of Ingredients of Concrete Several sizes of particles in a concrete mix cause good filler effect so that the net void volume generated is minimised and thereby an optimum mix with desirable properties is obtained. The actual packing in a multi-size particulate mix depends upon the so called 'grading span' difference between maximum and minimum sizes of particles in the mix; addition of nanoparticles increases the 'grading span' substantially and thereby contributing to rational packing of particles in concrete mix.

Figure 1: Specific Surface Area of Ingredients of Concrete

Nanosilica for Recycled Concrete Aggregates Recycled Concrete Aggregates

Recycled Concrete Aggregates (RCAs) are obtained by crushing of concretes from demolition of concrete structural components in many structures such as: old buildings, concrete pavements, bridges & structures, at the end of their service life & utility, structures deteriorated beyond the possibility of repairs, structures that are turned into debris resulting from natural disasters (such as floods, earthquake, tsunami, manmade disaster/war, etc), structures not serving the needs in present scenario, old structures to be brought down to pave way for new construction for better economic growth. RCAs fit into present day motto of 'Reducing, Reusing, Recycling and Regenerating'. Central Pollution Control Board reported in 2004 that solid waste generation in India was about 48 million tons/annum and more than 25% of this is from construction industry which consists of about 7-8 million tons of concrete and brick waste. The waste quantities are estimated to reach to level of atleast 65 million by 2010 (Kumar and Gaikwad, 2004). RCAs is particularly very promising source of aggregates as 75 per cent of any typical concrete is made of aggregates. RCAs present a unique solution to the problems of large scale demolitions occurring now a days in India. This recycling industry for waste concretes helps reducing management/maintainance costs of dumpsites/landfills and transportation costs RCAs actually results from crushing of waste concrete and this material as a replacement for natural aggregates can be employed in many applications such as: construction of low rise buildings, manufacture of paving blocks & tiles, laying of flooring and approach lanes, in sewerage structures and sub-base course of pavement, besides drainage layer in highways and retaining walls. Some of the major problems associated with RCAs can be identified as: lower specific gravity, higher water absorption, lower level of strengths and durability in concretes, impurities on the surface of the RCAs, lack of strong bond between cement paste and RCAs in concrete matrix, etc. However, properties of RCAs can be improved by suitable organic or inorganic treatment systems.

Improving Properties of Recycled Concrete Aggregates with Nanosilica Treatment of RCAs with Nano silica (NS) is one of the options available for beneficiation of RCAs. The NS used is usually in the form of stable dispersions of nanometer size silica particles and this dispersion is generally in water or other liquid medium [Hosseini, 2009]. Particle sizes of NS range from 4 to 100 nano-meters in diameter with very high surface area of up to 750 m2/gram of silica solids (note the surface area of Portland cement ranges from 0.25 to 0.40 m2/gram). NS is available commercially now as an aqueous solution with a colloidal solid percentage of 30% (nano-particles of SiO2 dispersed in water). Preparation and Properties of Recycled Concrete Aggregates

Figure 2: Crushed Aggregates of different sizes

Figure 3: TEM image of silica nano-silica particles

RCAs in the present study are prepared by crushing (using jaw crusher) of concrete cubes made of M20 grade concrete and then sieving. Quantities of fine aggregates (size less than 4.75 mm) and coarse aggregates (20 mm size) obtained were 18% and 60% respectively. Raw RCAs (Fig 2) were found to have specific gravity of 2.41, water absorption of 5.7%, Aggregate crus- hing value (ACV) of 30 % and a Los Angeles Abrasion Loss of 30 %. It is noted here that Los Angeles test is a measure of degradation of mineral aggregates of standard gradings and it combines many actions such as abrasion or attrition, impact, and grinding. A rotating steel drum containing steel spheres is used to test the aggregate samples and following computation is made: L.A. Abrasion Loss (%) = (Original Weight Final Weight)*100/(Original Weight)) Treatment of RCAs with aqueous dispersion of NS is done by soaking the specimens in the solution for

10 days. The Nano-silica (shown in Fig 3) treated Recycled Aggregates have a specific gravity of 2.62 with water absorption of 0.92%. These treated RCAs recorded an Aggregate Crushing Value (ACV) of 5 % (Fig 4a). Indian Road Congress specifies ACV to be less than 30% for cement concrete pavement 45% for concrete other than for wearing surfaces. The ACV indicates ability of aggregate to resist crushing and a lower figure indicates stronger aggregate with greater ability to resist crushing. The Los Angeles Abrasion Loss of Nano-silica treated RCAs is 5 % (Fig 4b). A reduction in Los Angeles Abrasion Loss indicate increase in strength of aggregates [Kahraman and Fener, 2007].

Figure 4: Tests on Coarse Aggregates

Preparation of Concrete Specimens RCAs were used as coarse aggregates to prepare concrete cube specimens (Fig 5a) made from concrete with mix proportions (by weight) of: Cement : Coarse Aggregates : Sand : Water = 1:1.49:2.83: 0.45. A 10% NS dispersion was also added to the fresh concrete mix containing RCAs. Curing of concrete specimens after demoulding was done conventionally by storing the specimens under water (Fig 5b).

Figure 5: Preparation of Concrete Specimens

Discussion of Test Results Cement hydration generates capillary voids of 10 to 1000 nm size and in a well hydrated paste with a low w/c ratio, the pore size would be less than 100 nm. Hence, NS with nano size dimensions can contribute effectively to the pore size refinement of the hydrated cement matrix. NS solids could fill the voids between cement grains, resulting in immobilization of "free" water ("filler" effect) and thereby increasing the cohesivity of the fresh nix. Use of colloidal nano silica particles in aqueous medium aids better dispersion of nanoparticles in the concrete matrix and decreases agglomeration of nanoparticles which improves nanoparticles performance in concrete. NS enhances cohesiveness of mix besides reducing segregation and bleeding. Concrete made with untreated RCAs had a slump of about 15 mm with a compressive strength of 16 MPa. But, concrete made with NS treated RCAs had a slump of about 35 mm with a compressive strength of 22 MPa. It was observed that NS treatment to the RCAs enhances many aggregate characteristic properties such as abrasion, aggregate crushing value and compressive strengths. This enhanced properties of RCAs lead to higher level of compressive strengths in concretes. NS treatment to RCAs densifies the loose/weak mortar present on surfaces of RCAs. The reactive and filler nature of NS binds the densified surface mortar to the base stone aggregates. Well-dispersed nanoparticles act as centre of crystallization of cement hydrates, thereby accelerating hydration. However, real challenge is always to get an effective dispersion into NS solids into cement matrix. NS particles favour the formation of both small-sized crystals of Ca (OH)2 and uniform gel clusters of C-S-H gel. The NS particles very efficiently participate in pozzolanic reactions, resulting in consumption of Ca (OH)2 and formation of an 'additional' C-S-H. Nano-size and superior pozzolanic activity of NS improve/refine/densify interfacial transition zone (ITZ) between aggregates' surface and cement paste, resulting in better bond between aggregates and cement paste. Concluding Remarks

Recycling and reuse of building wastes is an appropriate solution to the problems of dumping hundreds of thousands tons of debris accompanied with shortage of natural aggregates. Recycled aggregates can prove to be a valuable building material from many considerations such as technical, environment and economical. Recycled aggregates possess, as compared to natural aggregate

relatively lower

bulk density, crushing impact values

relatively higher

water absorption.

Compressive strength of untreated recycled aggregate concrete can be lower by about 15% compared to original concrete. Properties of Recycled Concrete Aggregates and concrete made with them are enhanced by addition of appropriate nano-materials such as Nano-silica. Crack-bridging property of silica nanoparticles and interlocking of silica in the pores of aggregates helps to make the crushed concrete aggregates to gain Regarding cost, it may be noted that

o o o o

Crushed aggregate has almost a zero investment Every 250 grams of Nano-silica solution costs about Rs 150 Optimized value 10% implies that only a tiny amount of nano-silica solution is utilised. Use of waste materials means reduced management/requirements of dumpsites, landfills and transportation costs.

Acknowledgments The test data used in this paper is based on the works carried out by Miss Swapna Kutcharlapati at BITS, Pilani. The authors acknowledge the technical interactions occurred after the invited key note speak given on the topic by Shri N P Rajamane, during the 'Third Edition of Workshop on Emerging Materials and its Applications ( WEMA )' held on 2nd Dec, 2010, at Aarupadai Veedu Institute of Technology (AVIT), Chennai, organised in association with Madras Metallurgical Society. References

Francois De Larrard, (1999), "Concrete Mixture Proportioning: A Scientific Approach", ISBN 0419235000, E & FN Spon, p 440 Hosseini P., A. Booshehrian, M. Delkash, S. Ghavami, M.K. Zanjani, (2009), "Use of Nano-SiO2 to Improve Microstructure and Compressive Strength of Recycled Aggregate Concretes", Proceed of the NICOM3, Nanotechnology in Construction, Springer ISBN 978-3-642-00979-2, pp 215-222

Ji, T. (2005), "Preliminary study on the water permeability and microstructure of concrete incorporating nano-SiO2", Cement and Concrete Research, Vol 35, pp 1943 1947. Jonathan S. Belkowitz, and Dr Daniel Armentrout, (2010), "An investigation of nano silica in the cement hydration process', Concrete Sustainability Conference, National Ready Mixed Concrete Association, pp 1-15

Kahraman S. and M. Fener, (2007), "Predicting the Los Angeles abrasion loss of rock aggregates from the uniaxial compressive strength", Materials Letters, Volume 61, Issue 26, October, pp 4861-4865

Kumar, S. and Gaikwad, S.A., (2004) "Municipal Solid Waste Management in Indian urban centers: An approach for betterment", Urban development debates in the new millennium, edited by K.R.Gupta, Atlantic Publishers, New Delhi, pp.100-10.

Lin K.L., W.C. Chang, D.F. Lin, H.L. Luo and M.C. Tsai, (2008), "Effects of nano-SiO2 and different ash particle sizes on sludge ashcement mortar", Journal of Environmental Management 88, pp 708714.

Swapna Kutcharlapati, (2009), "A Report On Use Of Nano SiO2 In Recycled Aggregate Concrete", Lab Oriented Project Report on Course BITS C314, Guide: Prof. A. K. Sarkar, Birla Institute Of Technology And Science, Pilani, April.

Swapna Kutcharlapati, S.B. Singh and N.P. Rajamane. (2008a), "Influence of Nano Cellulose Fibres on Portland Cement Matrix," National Conference on Advanced materials and Characterization", VIT, Vellore, July23-25 pp. 1-10.

Swapna Kutcharlapati, S.B. Singh and N.P. Rajamane. (2008b), "Influence of Nano Cellulose Fibres on Portland Cement Matrix,"Metals Materials And Processes, V. 20, No. 3, pp. 307-314 URL1, http://science.howstuffwork s.com/nanotechnology3.htm URL2, http://www.nano.org.uk/forum/viewtopic.php URL3, http://www.eanveshan.com/node/134 URL4, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_dot Wang, X., Li, Q., Xie, J., Jin, Z., Wang, J., Li, Y., Jiang, K., Fan, S., (2009), "Fabrication of Ultralong and Electrically Uniform Single-Walled Carbon Nanotubes on Clean Substrates", Nano Letters, Vol 9, pp 31373141

A View of Concrete Technologies and Required Related Research for Materials of Construction and Their Testing Methods
Dr. Y. P. Gupta, Consultant, Allahabad Bypass Project; BCEOM-LASA JV Chairman, ICI UP Centre Professor (RTD.) Civil Engineering, MNNIT, Allahabad Introduction In the past 60 years, significant changes have taken place in the type, properties of concrete and its constituent materials. During the 1940s to 2000s substantial basic research was conducted in the United States and many other Countries which produced a thorough understanding of the properties of concrete materials, such as cement and aggregates, and the effect of these materials on the green and hardened properties of concrete. Material standards and specifications, concrete mix design and ingredient proportions, test procedures, and construction techniques were developed extensively on the basis of this knowledge. In recent years, Construction Industry has been placing strong emphasis on high-strength and highperformance concrete and on shorter construction times. In response to this challenge, research has been focused on producing changes in the properties of the basic ingredients of concrete, such as cement, and on developing new ingredients to achieve better-quality, higher-strength, and moredurable concrete. Admixtures: Needs and Challenges in Concrete Technologies For several generations, concrete admixtures have been developed with the aim of altering a wide range of green and hardened concrete properties to achieve high-early-strength and high-performance concrete. Use of admixtures has allowed a dramatic reduction in the water-cementitious materials ratio (w/cm) in the concrete mix, which in turn has resulted in higher-strength and more-durable concrete. Significant research has also been done on the development and use of cementitious and pozzolanic materials, such as fly ash, silica fume and slag to replace or supplement the cement content in the concrete mixture. These materials have significantly improved the durability of concrete by reducing its permeability. Today, it is quite common for admixtures and cementitious / pozzolanic materials to be included in concrete in addition to the standard concrete ingredients. Such complex concrete mixtures are significantly different from the simple Concrete mixes produced in the 1960s to 2000s in India. Yet many specifications and construction practices developed in accordance with basic research of the 1950s are still being applied to todays concrete materials and construction industry, especia lly on small scale projects. In addition, there are still unresolved problems and many unanswered questions associated with

todays concrete. For example, excessive shrinkage and shrinkage cracking are being observed in many of the high-performance and high-strength concrete. These unintended consequences impact the durability of the concrete and thus tend to defeat the purpose of using such concrete mixes. Another important set of issues with todays concrete relates to the timing, duration, and type of curing, and the balance between curing time and speed of construction. Still another issue is the knowledge gap among many practitioners with regard to the properties of individual concrete ingredients, how the various ingredients interact in the concrete mix, and how to arrive at the optimum mixture for the type of application and level of exposure to adverse environments. An effective technology transfer plan is needed to convey to practitioners state -of-the art information and the latest research findings on materials and concrete properties should be informed to field Engineers & implemented. Testing Methods Current testing methods for concrete and its ingredients are another challenging issue. Some of these methods are simple but time-consuming and tend to slow the pace of construction. New or improved tests for determining the properties of concrete and its materials need to be developed like Concrete strength is known after 28 days which is too long. These test methods should combine speed, accuracy, and precision. Technologies from other fields, such as medicine or the military action that can be non-intrusive should be considered in determining the concrete strength. Research for New Concepts The challenge to the research community in this millennium is to promote and develop a thorough and comprehensive understanding of the properties of concrete and of its multiple ingredients. This challenge can be met through a well-planned basic research program. This program should include the development of new and improved methods for testing concrete and its materials. Another program should focus on the best and most effective means of transferring the knowledge and methods thus developed to concrete practitioners for implementation. The following are some specific directions which these programs might take. a) Cement Many changes have occurred in the sources and production of cement, including the raw materials, fuel used and the grinding of the clinker. Todays cements are much finer than those of the 1950s and 1980s. Research in the basic properties of cement is needed to evaluate the effect of such properties as fineness, chemical composition on the heat of hydration, and on shrinkage characteristics. b) Admixtures and Pozzolanic / Cementitious Materials There is a need to evaluate all the properties of the various admixtures and cementitious or pozzolanic materials. Issues associated with the use of these materials in concrete, including setting time, plastic and hardened concrete shrinkage, and the need for extensive curing should be investigated. The research should produce ready to use tables of the types and dosage or proportion of these materials in concrete, and the specific level of performance and strength achieved with each. The research should also focus on developing a new family of admixtures that would improve the tensile strength of

concrete and facilitate the fast construction of concrete structures. For example, new admixtures now being produced help in the self-compaction of concrete in structures. This must be simplified. c) Curing Materials The industry has moved away from moist curing toward the use of curing compounds which are more convenient to use. However, the use of high cement content, higher fineness of cement, silica fume, and low basic research and emerging Technologies related to concrete w/cm ratio has made the concrete more prone to shrinkage and thermal cracking. Curing compounds are not effective in preventing shrinkage or cracking. New curing compounds are needed not only to prevent evaporation, but also to replenish lost concrete mix water. For example, the curing compound might include chemicals that could condense ambient moisture on the concrete surface to provide much needed moisture. Further, Concrete ingredients like aggregates, Admixtures are to be developed which can help in self- curing of Concrete without the use of water or curing compound and not giving rise to shrinkage cracking. d) Fibers for use in Concrete Apart from cement, water, aggregate and admixture; different types of fibers are also developed. Fiber Reinforced Concrete has a very high resistance to abrasion and impact loading that means it has good ductility similar to mild steel. It also has a higher tensile strength compared to normal concrete and better abrasion resistance. Apart from high strength, it also has high performance & fracture energy. Following are some of the various types of fibers, which may be used in FRC.

Carbon Fibers Steel Fibers Glass Fibers Polypropylene Fibers etc.

Polypropylene Fibers have become very popular these days. Thus concrete mix in green stage should be such that fibers are not collected in pockets and they are well dispersed in the entire concrete matrix. Studies for use of Fiber reinforcement in concrete must be done extensively. This should also be done for Composite concrete Construction using normal concrete and fiber reinforced concrete. e) Tests For Concrete 1. Tests for Green Concrete Tests for green concrete properties such as slump, air content, and unit weight have been useful in controlling the quality and consistency of concrete mixtures. However, it can be expected that more emphasis will be placed on shorter construction duration on the roads, bridges, and airports. The present tests for plastic concrete tend to cause delays in construction. New technology is needed to enable testing of the workability, air content, and unit weight of mixtures in a non-intrusive manner. For example, a non-intrusive device similar to a radar gun could be developed for measuring the concrete workability from the concrete chute itself during its discharge. 2. Tests for Hardened Concrete

A better means of predicting the strength and durability of concrete is needed. Tests based on the hydration process, rate of strength development, and other physical and chemical indicators should be developed for predicting the ultimate strength and permeability / durability of concrete. The availability of such tests would allow better optimization of the concrete mixture with respect to the types and proportions of its ingredients. In addition, the concept of 28-day strength may become obsolete as an acceptance requirement. Concrete mixtures of the future may reach their ultimate strength in less than 7 days. This accelerated development of strength may alter the microstructure of the concrete. Research is needed to better understand the physical and chemical properties of hydration process and its related compounds, as well as the extent of micro-cracking and volume change in the mortar matrix. 3. Tests for Permeability Advances have been made in measuring the permeability of concrete to better predict its durability. Nonetheless, existing devices either are too slow or provide an indirect measure of concrete permeability. Thus a fast, accurate, and repeatable device for determining the permeability of concrete is needed. A procedure should also be developed for predicting the durability of concrete from the automatic analysis of permeability data. Technology Transfer To Field Good-quality research in concrete technology and its constituent materials is being conducted at many places. This research is generating new information and technologies. However, effective means of transferring the research findings and products from the research phase to application in field are needed. Many practitioners do not attend conferences, workshops, or meetings. These practitioners often do not receive full information on the properties of new materials and how these materials, individually or collectively, affect the strength, durability, and volume change of the concrete. A detailed plan for transferring the knowledge and new products resulting from completed research in concrete technology and its materials should be developed and implemented. The Concrete making materials & Design handbooks and Internet information should be the centerpiece of such plan. Summary This millennium brings challenges and opportunities for research on the basic properties of concrete and its materials. New non-intrusive devices and other test methods should be devised to allow faster, more accurate testing of concrete materials and construction procedures. Performance based specifications should be developed for concrete materials and construction aspects in field. Appropriate tests should be designed to assess compliance with the requirements. An effective technology transfer plan should be developed to translate research results and new products for implementation by practitioners or Field Engineers.

Project Management in high rise construction

Mr. Chionh Chye Luay, Project Director SEP Consulting Pte Ltd Essentials of Project Management What is Project Management? What exactly are Project Management and Construction Management? These two terms have been used inter-changeably in the local context that over time, there has been a lot of confusion when performance expectations kick in. This is more so when foreign consultants are involved. Project Management in the local context, normally involves the site management team (Project Manager) in managing the Works Contract, ensuring full compliance with the terms and conditions of contract by both the Contractor and Employer. Project management should ideally begin with the inception of the project, meaning, commencing from the masterplanning right through to sketch design, detailing, contract documentation, contract procurement and construction. In so doing, the Project Manager has to manage the tasking and scheduling of the design and documentation phase of the project and subsequently, control the quality of the Works as specified in the Contract, monitor the completion schedule and assisting the Contractor to manage the time schedule. The Project Manager should also be in a position to advise on the appointment of consultants and site staff, and recommend contractual arrangements and certify entitlement of cost variations and time claims by Contractor. These tasks can only be accomplished successfully with the able assistance of the other key Consultants, such as Architects, Structural Engineer and MEP Engineers and also the Site Supervisors. Construction Management, as is widely practiced locally, involves the construction management team (Construction Manager) calling and managing the various sub-contract Works such as RCC structure, brickworks, plastering, etc. The Employer normally has its staff perform the role of Construction

Manager, but of late, has out-sourced such services. In theory, the Construction Manager not only has to appoint sub-contractors but also has to manage and coordinate their works and ensuring completion on time and with good quality. In reality, time factor often override the quality factor. Aspects of Project Management Project Management, therefore, is a more holistic approach towards management and is only possible when the contractual arrangement calls for only a main contractor performing all the works in the project, whether by their own workers or sub-contracted out to specialist sub-contractors. The Project Managers main responsibilities are to manage and supervise the project and Works such that it is completed on time, with good quality and within reasonable costs. The Project Manager therefore must have the pre-requisite knowledge and experience to plan the pre and post construction activities, as well as monitor the construction schedule and work closely with the Contractor to re-schedule or expedite works when necessary. The Project Manager must also have considerable knowledge of construction details and methodology in order to prevent poor workmanship from cropping out. The Project Manager must also possess the knowledge of appropriate use of materials and finishes and good detailing and construction methods to assist the Employer and Contractor to rein in unnecessary cost over-runs. It must be borne in mind that good quality and workmanship do not mean that it will result in more costs or that you need more time to complete the Works. Quality works, timeliness and reasonable costs are not mutually exclusive. All you need is better planning, better detailing and better supervision. A good Project Manager will go a long way in delivering a quality product within reasonable time and cost. And only if the top management has the will and conviction in carrying out whatever is necessary for delivering that product. Time Management

Time is always of essence. Time is money. More time on a project means more money spent on personnel, facilities and equipment. More time on the project would also mean more bank interest payment by both developer and contractor. It is therefore important that good project planning and implementation be emphasized, especially so for high-rise construction. A good contractor,

experienced in high-rise construction would be able to competently schedule the project completion, but equally important would be a competent Project Manager to manage and check the contractor s sequencing of works and methods of construction. If the contractor errs in certain aspects, this can be picked up and rectified by the Project Manager. It would be difficult if the Project Manager is poor in knowledge in high-rise project and construction planning and execution, but disastrous if it is likewise for the Contractor s staff. To manage a project to its timely completion is certainly more difficult for a high-rise construction as there are more works concentrated on a square metre of built-up area, meaning there is a higher concentration of people, activities and equipment per building block. There are certainly more critical events requiring more precise sequencing of works. The Project manager can assist the Contractor and Developer in the timely completion of projects by advising on the following aspects:

Machinery Use of tower cranes, gondolas, materials hoists and passenger hoists. The deployment of the right equipment at the right place will not only help to expedite works, but help in the supervision and management of works.

Planning Proper advance planning of activities and its timings can ensure speedy construction and an experienced Project Manager can assist and fine-tune the planning and scheduling with on time site input. They can often give different dimensions to the plans and schedules.

Construction Methods Construction methods are always being up-dated and improved. It need not be the ground shaking leap of technology, but sometimes the simple incremental improvement that can increase the speed of construction or allow concurrent activities to be carried out. Such innovations include working platforms and extended gondolas.

Materials The use of appropriate materials such as steel construction and precast concrete can speed up construction and the Project Manager can help the developer to make an informed choice.

Quality Management There are two aspects or components of management that affects quality. They are the quality of the system and quality in personnel. In striving for quality in the Works, it is imperative that there must be quality in both aspects mentioned above. In the management system, an organizational structure must be put in place to move the projects from implementation to completion. These would entail a comprehensive understanding of the works and processes involved and the subsequent detailed documentation of these processes into a workable system. Different projects will demand different priorities but the management system should remain consistent in its approach, meaning that the system must be able to accommodate all the project types, with only minor fine-tuning for each project. The system would probably evolve with the new management ideas, technology and regulatory requirements. The second aspect is that there must be capable staff to manage the system and implement it. There are two distinct phases in the development of a project. The first is the planning phase involving design and plans approval by the authorities. The second would be the procurement/construction phase in which there would be tender(s) and the actual construction. It is imperative that the personnel in the management be organized and deployed not only according to their capabilities and

experiences, but woven into a formidable team that is capable of pushing the project smoothly, from the planning phase to the construction/ completion phase. The thought process at each phase must be congruent and consistent with each other. In the construction phase, proper supervision of works would invariably result in satisfactory if not good workmanship and quality. However, there must be a systematic method of supervision which should be well documented and implemented throughout the construction phase. There must be a system of review and feedback of the site problems hindering good workmanship. Such feedbacks should filter down the site supervision team and also the Contractor site team. supervision, at times standing supervision is imperative if quality is not to be compromised. If the management is not on its toes, the Contractor definitely will not be on theirs. Quality of works not only depends on good workmanship, but is also dependant on the following:

Detailing You can have the best workers, but poor detailing will inevitably result in poor workmanship and poor finishes such as leaking windows, unsightly service ducts and poor external joints.

Equipment Frequent use of simple equipment such as leveler and theodolite can achieve better verticality required especially in a high-rise construction. Methodology Very often, the work methods are often not carefully thought of and as a result, much is left to the workers to do what they thought is the best. Good and thorough method statements can go a long way in making sure the right sequence and timing is being adhered to, resulting in no confusion and speedy execution of works.

Supervision The Project Manager must deploy suitable supervision staff to ensure good workmanship. They must be provided with the right equipment and a safe environment.

Only with the basic pre-requisite of quality in management system as well as personnel in place, can an organization be confident in delivering quality products. The management and personnel are the core ingredients in Quality Control, without which the taste of success can never be savoured. A good Project Manager will go a long way in delivering a quality product within reasonable time and cost. Cost Management Cost has always been a major concern to Developers and in many a times, comes at the expense of quality. However, it need not be the case if there is good design, planning and execution, with the help of good project management. A good management system and competent personnel, including supervision staff, can rein in project cost escalation in the following ways:

Abortive Works Can be minimized with good design and planning. Rectification Works Can be prevented with vigilant supervision. Materials The use of the right material, especially for the external faade is important, especially when the installation the method requires more manpower, machinery/equipment or specialist attention. Steel may be costly, but there are savings in foundation costs and construction time. Careful planning can achieve an optimum approach.

Alternative Materials Once it is apparent that cost over-run is inevitable; the problem can be alleviated by judicious substitution of materials without sacrificing much of the quality in materials.

Innovative Methods Innovation comes with experience and once the industry matures, innovative methods of construction or installation will naturally follow through, especially in this inter-connected world where knowledge transfer is swift.

New Technology More efficient ways of construction, such as prefabrication and precasting can increase the construction speed as well as achieving good quality.

Project Management Approaches in India Traditionally, the Project Management is primarily part of the Develo pers organization, that is, it is an in-house management. Some developers do employ Project Management firms to undertake the task, whilst some prefer a hybrid team, a mix of professional managers and own staff. In-house Management This is the most common approach taken by local developers, in which all the staff required for the implementation and completion of a project are sourced within the company or employed specifically to perform designated duties. It has its advantages and pitfalls, but the disadvantages seem to outweight the advantages. The main advantage to this approach is that the developer has full control of all the staff, both at the head office and on site. It has full control, from the managers to the supervisors and store men. The developer has the opportunity to set up a good team of managers to set the pace of development. If successful, such in-house management can mean quality projects and costs savings. Unfortunately, with a vast set of problems peculiar locally, this is a formidable task. It is only in the last 6 or 7 years that India s real estate sector started to boom and that mega projects started to spring up in major cities. However, in these years, the preference of education and profession was in the IT sector. There is thus a dearth of experienced and technically competent professionals to power the construction industry. To make matters worse, the buoyant market resulted in frequent job hopping for better pay and many site staff does not see their projects through to completion. How much experiences can one gain with frequent job hopping? With such a scenario, it is difficult for the developers to assemble a decent team, much less a good one. It is also observed that promotion within an organization is often based on friendship and unfailing support of the subordinates and much less through merit. It is difficult to find good staff and equally daunting to retain them. Good staff is hard to come by, what more those with high-rise and complex projects experience? Out-sourced Management Many developers have now employed professional managers to manage their projects, especially the commercial or special projects. There are some good entities providing such services. These professional managers will employ the necessary staff to call for tenders, recommend award and eventually supervise the construction, recommend payment and compile the final accounts. In this

system, there is less politicking involved, but there is always the problem of flow of instruction or information from the developer to the managers. But out-sourcing does not solve the problem of finding experienced and competent staff. The staff is also as good as their managers. The main failing of this system is that the developer does not really experience the learning curve as its staff is not involved in the micro management. Hybrid Management Here, the developer employs the professional managers for the top posts, the numbers of which depends on the complexity of the project. In this instance, the developer can employ the best in the field and may source from outside the country if the need arises. As the employment is on a contract basis, the cost of such employment can be factored into the project without any subsequent baggage. If the right caliber of manager can be sourced, then the rewards in time, cost and quality can be tremendous, though it may cost a little more. Moreover, the junior staff employed by the developer in support of the managers has the opportunity to learn and the promising ones can be inducted as senior managers in the long run.

Contractual & Management Problems Contractual Issues Project and construction managers can only manage and supervise a project in accordance to the Contract specifications and requirements. They do not have the authority to impose or instruct the Contractors outside of the contract. It is thus paramount that the drawings, specifications and other contractual documents must incorporate the good practices of each trade and detailing. Secondly, the contract must empower the Project Manager/Superintending Officer to take the contractor to task for poor workmanship or dereliction in duty and take the appropriate actions to make the Contractor perform. Otherwise, it would be akin to giving him a gun for firing blanks. Out-dated Specifications and Standards The pace of the building industry is constantly changing and evermore faster as building technology advances with the introduction of new materials, products and processes. The construction industry here is very much insular and at times not receptive to changes. There is this noticeable inherent fear of new practices and sometimes a reluctance to adopt new ideas. Only when the developers and consultants start to visit the more developed countries do they realize that they are some way behind in terms of timely delivery of a good project. You will find that many of the Indian Standards are dated back to the 1970s or 1980s. Many of the specifications are actually detailing construction methods that are used decades ago. Moreover, there are many new products being introduced, both produced locally and from abroad. It is a very slow process to get the local developers and consultants to use these new products and technology. Traditional Management Practices India may have world class managers in the finance and IT sectors, but when it comes to the construction and real estate sectors, it is severely lacking. This is primarily due to the late boom in this industry and also the way the design and management of the project is traditionally structured.

On one hand, you have the Architects and Engineers executing their design and authorities other hand, there is this management of construction by other managers. In this scenario, there is a potential in lack of co-ordination and proper flow of ideas and feedbacks between the two parties. More disturbing would be that important lessons from poor design, detailing, specifications and contractual deficiencies are not learnt by the designers and drafters of contract as there is not much dialogue between the designers and the managers. Such traditional practices resulted in lessons not learnt and repetitive mistakes committed.

There is also an over -staffing of site personnel by the developer to the extent that some duties are duplicated and some are not clearly delineated. It is also observed that some developers do have a habit of employing more staff on site to keep an eye on each other. Such practices only encourage the staff to form cliques and distract them in the performance of their duties in supervising the project.

Inexperienced Site Staff As explained earlier on the late boom in the real estate sector and the importance of the IT sector, good and experience site managers and supervisors are hard to come by. The industry is left with not much choice but to deploy whoever is available on the platter. Good managers and supervisors can be sourced from outside the country, but the cost is always a deterrent. Lack of Focus by Consultants

With the advent of the real estate boom, the project consultants are over-loaded with work. They are expanding their offices fast. As with the site staff, good and experienced designers are hard to come by. The urgent need to push out projects fast to be marketed by the developers resulted in not so well thought design and details. Specifications are often left out if not littered with discrepancies. No matter how good is the workmanship, if there is poor detailing, the product cannot work well. All this mad rush resulted in the lack of focus by consultants to produce quality design and details. Late Appointment of Project Managers With the anomalies mentioned above that is very much peculiar here, it cannot be overstated that the Project Manager should be appointed early, as early as the design stage. Only then can valuable input on the design and specifications be incorporated into the design and contract to make it more conducive to good workmanship. While interacting with the developers staff and cons ultants at an early stage, the Project Manager is able to have a more effective and personal communication with them during construction. For some reasons, developers like to leave it late in appointing the project managers, even sometimes only after the award of contract. Conclusion Despite the deficiencies and obstacles faced by the Industry, there are ways to alleviate the problems in achieving reasonable quality, delivery time and cost in projects. The steps taken can include:

Adopting the most suitable project management system that suits the organization; Identifying, sourcing and retaining competent staff; Producing a comprehensive set of contract documents which is in line with international practices and standard; Employing competent Consultants and Project Manager, out-sourcing to foreign personnel or companies if the cost allows for; Appointing the key players early; Embracing new technologies and construction methods; and Marrying project and construction management.

Acknowledgement The article has been reproduced from the proceeding of 'National Workshop on HighRise Constructions' with the kind permission from the event organizers

Concrete(durability)
Dr S C Maiti, Ex-Joint Director, National Council for Cement and Building Materials, New Delhi Raj K. Agarwal, Managing Director, Marketing & Transit (India) Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi. This paper discusses the quality of concrete vis-a-vis the life span of the present-day concrete structures in India. The paper's main focus is on durability of concrete. How to produce good quality durable concrete structures, with the available concrete - making materials! The focus is on materials like aggregates, mineral admixtures like flyash, g.g.b.s., silica fume and on mixing, placing, compaction, and curing of concrete. Use of blended cements to produce durable concrete structures, and details on concrete mixes used for M 70 and M 80 grades of concrete using such cements in developed countries have also been highlighted. Introduction

'Concrete' is a mixture of Cement, water, aggregates and admixtures. The chemical admixtures change the initial characteristics of concrete e.g. setting time, workability, cohesiveness, fluidity etc. The mineral admixtures e.g. flyash and ground granulated blast furnace slag (g.g.b.s.) modifies the resisting capacity of concrete in aggressive environments, and they, being fine materials, help in producing a cohesive, non-bleeding concrete mix. Thus, concrete is a versatile construction material. Its characteristics can be made as desired, using suitable concrete-making materials and their right proportions. The basic characteristics of concrete i.e. workability (fluidity and cohesiveness) and 28day compressive strength can be obtained as desired, using suitable proportions of the constituent materials. Cement is the binding material in concrete. The 28-day compressive or flexural strength of concrete mostly depends on the water-cement ratio or water-binder ratio and the 28 days compressive strength of cement. The water-reducing admixtures reduce the water content of concrete and thereby, the compressive strength of concrete can be increased by reducing the water-binder ratio. Thus, different grades of concrete i.e. M20, M30, M70 etc. can be produced. Without altering the water content or water binder ratio for a particular grade of concrete, the workability of concrete can be increased with the use of superplasticizers. Thus, in heavily reinforced concrete sections, highworkability concrete can be placed without much compacting effort.

In mass concrete structures, bigger sizes of coarse aggregate are used. Air-entraining admixtures are used to produce cohesive concrete mix in such cases. The mineral admixtures like flyash or g.g.b.s. reduces the heat inside the concrete. Thus, PPC (containing flyash) or PSC (containing g.g.b.s.) can be used as low heat cement. For producing very high strength concrete (say M 80), efficient superplasticizer reducing 30-35% of the mixing water will be required. Along with high-strength OPC, mineral admixture silica fume (8-10% by weight of cement) will also be required to produce such high-strength concrete. Silica fume concrete is also abrasion-resistant, and therefore, is being used in construction of spillways of concrete dams. The long-term strength and durability of concrete are important characteristics of concrete. The concrete structures must provide the designed service life. The timely maintenance of structures is essential to obtain the desired service life. In spite of good quality cement being manufactured these days, the service life of concrete structures is not increasing. Indian construction industry should rise above certain level, and produce concrete structures, which will have long service life. Use of Mineral Admixtures in Concrete Flyash, ground granulated blast furnace slag and silica fume have been recommended to be used in concrete as mineral admixtures1. Flyash and silica fume are good pozzolanas, whereas g.g.b.s. is a latent hydraulic material, which also reacts with the lime liberated due to the hydration of OPC in concrete. Silica fume, is a very fine non-crystalline silicon dioxide, a by-product of ferrosilicon industries. It is presently being imported in India from Australia, Norway and China. Generally 5-10% silica fume by weight of the cement is sufficient to produce high-strength concrete (M60 grade and above). Being a highly reactive pozzolana, it develops also the early strength of concrete. silica fume (about 8% by weight of cement) has been used in the spillway of Tehri dam, for abrasion resistance. In the spillway of Kol dam (Himachal Pradesh), it is proposed to use about 10% silica fume for M 80 grade of concrete2. Good quality flyash is available from the electro-static precipitators of our super thermal power stations. But the quantity of Grade 1 flyash is not sufficient to be used to produce portland pozzolana cement (PPC) by the cement manufacturers. The requirement of such flyash by our ready mixed

concrete (RMC) plants is also very high. It is observed that, because of insufficient quantity of good quality flyash, the cement manufacturers are grinding the coarse flyash to the required fineness to produce PPC of minimum fineness of 300m2/kg. By this process, the "ball-bearing effect" of the spherical shape of the flyash particles is lost, and consequently, the beneficial properties of flyash e.g. lower water demand and increased workability of concrete are also lost.

We use flyash in concrete, because as a pozzolana, it has good effect in concrete and we get a cohesive concrete mix. In mass concrete, heat development inside the concrete is less. Sometimes, it substitutes part of cement and sometimes, part of the fine aggregate also. When the quality of flyash is not good, it still has beneficial effect. The reactive silica of such flyash may be in less quantity, but in the long run, the part of such flyash is going to provide a denser microstructure. In such case, use of chemical admixtures i.e. superplasticizer has a major role to play. It should reduce the water-binder ratio (w/b ratio) as low as practicable. With reduced w/b ratio, the permeability of concrete will get reduced, and will result in increased compressive strength in the long run. Therefore, it is expected that low-quality flyash in conjunction with the use of compatible and efficient superplasticizer will provide long service-life for concrete structures. Proper mixing of concrete, adequate compaction and longer curing period will definitely provide durable concrete structures is such cases, also. The mineral admixtures i.e. flyash, g.g.b.s. and silica fume being very fine particles, their uniform blending with cement and aggregates in ordinary drum mixers can not be ensured. In most of our construction sites, batching and mixing plants are not available. Therefore, it is suggested that, slurry can be made with the mineral admixture and part of the mixing water, in the drum mixer, before placing cement and aggregates. IS 456 stipulates that the mixing of concrete in the concrete mixer shall be continued untill there is an uniform distribution of the materials, and the mass is uniform in color and consistency. If there is segregation after unloading from the mixer, the concrete should be remixed. The mixing time shall be at least 2 minutes for drum mixers. For efficient concrete mixers as in RMC plants, the manufacturer's recommendations shall be followed, and trials may be carried out to produce cohesive concrete mix, using proper combined grading of coarse aggregate fractions.

In our construction sites, generally drum mixers are used. Although, the minimum mixing time for concrete has been fixed as 2 minutes, in many cases, it has been observed that the concrete mix is not a cohesive mix, and is not uniform in color and consistency. The cohesive (not segregated) concrete mix can only be placed properly in the formwork and compacted well. This process of placing a cohesive concrete mass around the reinforcement, and fully compacted and finished well, has got considerable influence on the durability of concrete. The adequate cover to reinforcements, dense concrete cover and well-compacted concrete will not get carbonated during its service life. To get maximum benefit out of mixing of concrete, it is suggested a two stage mixing : firstly dry mixing of materials (with covered mixer drums) and then wet mixing process. The Japanese researcher used "neiling" of concrete mass (with small quantity of water) and then wet mixing process. The laboratory data of such two stage mixing indicate higher compressive strength and lower permeability of concrete. In the mixing process, part of the mixing water should be placed in the concrete mixer in the beginning and the chemical admixture along with rest of the mixing water should be placed towards the end of mixing. This procedure provides a concrete of uniform colour and consistency and a cohesive concrete mix. Concreting in Rural India Our rural roads and housing are suffering a great set back, because of improper mixing and compaction of concrete. How can we expect durable concrete structures when the quality of concrete placed is not 'good'. The normal drum mixers are not available in rural India. The concrete vibrators are not used, because of non-availability of electricity. In such situation, although rural concrete roads are supposed to be of M 30 grade, and the RCC slabs in houses are supposed to be of M 20 grade, the real scinario is terrible. With hand mixing of concrete, and with rodding of concrete in the formwork, no durable concrete can be produced. The result is shorter life - span of concrete structures. In rural india, diesel-operated concrete mixers and vibrators can be used to produce cohesive concrete mix and placed and compacted efficiently. However, if hand mixing is the only alternative, 10% extra cement is to be added to the concrete mix, and the mixing time is to be increased, in order to obtain a cohesive concrete mix.

Life Span of Concrete Structures In India, we design buildings for a life span of about 50-60 years. Bridges are designed for about 100 years, while the concrete dams are designed for about 150 years. Delhi Metro structures have been designed for 120 years. The Euro tunnel connecting England and France under the sea has also been designed for 120 years.

Although, our buildings are designed for 50-60 years, it has been observed that the buildings have longer life span. Old buildings in Mumbai and Kolkata developed distress at about 100 years age. With the availability of good construction materials in the present days, our structures should provide longer service life, provided we build them with adequate care, using proper method if mixing, placing, compaction and curing of concrete. In addition to mineral admixtures like flyash, g.g.b.s. and silica fume, the chemical admixtures e.g. superplasticizers provide the required workability and compressive strength of concrete. But because, both cement and the chemical admixtures are chemicals, their compatibility must be ensured before use. Fortunately, a large number of chemical admixture companies are operating in our country, specially in cities, and the materials like plasticizers, superplasticizers (normal and retarding type), accelerating and retarding admixtures are available in good quality and quantity. Only their proper dosage and compatibility with different types of cement, if ensured, shall provide cohesive, workable concrete mix, which can be placed comfortably in the formwork and compacted well. Thus, production of good quality concrete, their proper placing, compaction and curing shall ensure longer life span of structure. In normal "mild" exposure condition, the structures shall have required service life. But in aggressive environmental conditions, they require special care and protection. For example, in marine environment or in heavy rainfall areas, or where aggressive chemical environment exists, the concrete structures should be built with the required materials, and protected well. In sea environment, chloride and sulphate will reduce the service life : the sulphate will attack the concrete, and the chloride will corrode the reinforcements. In such situations, codal provisions must be followed. With the use of superplasticizers, water-cement ratio can be reduced, as low as possible, may be in the range of 0.35 to 0.40, so that the permeability of concrete gets reduced. Portland slag cement with more than 50% slag content is suitable in case both sulphate and chloride are encountered in the environment. For 'Severe' conditions, such as thin sections under hydrostatic pressure on one side only, and sections partly immersed, considerations should be given to use a water-cement ratio or water-binder ratio (in the case of use of mineral admixtures), as low as possible. IS 456 states that portland slag cement conforming to IS 455 with slag content more than 50% exhibits better sulphate-resisting properties. For thin structures, the life can be increased by providing extra cover to steel

reinforcements, by chamfering the corners or by using circular cross sections or by using surface coatings which prevent or reduce the ingress of water, carbon dioxide or aggressive chemicals 1. For high sulphate concentrations i.e. more than 2% in soil or more than 5% in ground water, IS 456 stipulates use of protective coating on the well-made (with lower w/c ratio and with proper cement) concrete surfaces. The coating can be based on asphalt, chlorinated rubber, epoxy or polyerethene materials. In 'severe' exposure conditions i.e. in marine environment, in many places, fusion-bonded epoxy coatings have been used on steel reinforcements. The TMT bars, and the metallurgically changed corrosion-resistant steel bars are definitely going to increase the service life of concrete structures near the sea. Polymer-based coatings to steel reinforcements have also been found useful. Concrete Aggregates Use of good quality aggregates will definitely increase the service life of concrete structures. In many places in India, good quality river bed sand is not available. Sometime, only very fine sand is available. Sand and coarse aggregate must be strong and good, in order to produce durable concrete structures. Well-graded aggregates provide dense concrete mix. Crushed rock coarse aggregate from strong rocks like basalt, quartzite, granite etc. are angular and they provide good bond in concrete and develop strong concrete. Flaky and elongated coarse aggregates should be avoided, if possible. The crushing, impact and abrasion values of coarse aggregates shall not exceed the limits specified in IS 3833. The fine aggregate should generally be of grading zone II or grading zone III. For very high strength concrete, coarse graded fine aggregate (Zone I) is suitable. Sometimes, river bed sand is not available, so we use crushed stone fine aggregate. They can also produce good quality dense concrete, provided their grading is satisfactory as per IS 383. The deleterious materials like clay lump, coal, lignite, shale and soft fragments should be avoided. Use of good quality well-graded coarse and fine aggregate will definitely increase the service-life of concrete structures. Use of Blended Cements Our cement manufacturers are producing more blended cements. The portland pozzolana cement (PPC) is about 50% of the total cement production. The PPC is with about 20% flyash. The portland slag cement (PSC) is a good quality cement, with slag content of about 40-50%. But this cement is limited, about 15% of the cement production. This has become a special cement, because of its availability near the steel plants. The slag (blast furnace slag) is a consistent material, and therefore is of low variability. The use of PSC has become important because this cement in concrete can resist very aggressive environments, and hence increases the life span of concrete structures. It has been prescribed to be used in sea environments and also in concrete dams. The PSC in concrete can resist the alkali-silica reaction in concrete. In aggressive environments, e.g. in concrete piles in sea environment in Gujarat, PSC with 70% slag has been used to produce high-workability M40 grade concrete. Typical concrete mix proportions used are as follows:-

OPC (53-grade) - 30% (141 kg.) g.g.b.s. - 70% (329 kg.) sand - 41% (720 kg.) Coarse aggregate (20mm MSA)) - 1044 Kg. Retarding superplasticizer - 0.8% (by wt. of OPC + ggbs) In mass concrete, both PPC and PSC are advantageous, because of low heat of hydration, and also because their alkali is not fully effective. Typically, about 1/6 of the alkali of flyash is potentially reactive, and about 50% of the alkali of ggbs is effective4. For the underground structural elements of cut and cover tunnels and station boxes, 30% flyash has been used for M35 grade of concrete in Delhi Metro projects5. Delhi Metro structures have been designed for 120 years. The water /(cement + flyash) ratio was 0.40, and the slump of concrete was 120mm. In the Salhus mono tower cable stayed bridge in Norway, PSC was used. The bridge superstructure main span is 163m. the following mix proportions were used for M70 grade of concrete. PSC - 450 Kg. Silica fume - 35 Kg. Light weight aggregate - 470 Kg. Water - 195 Kg. At kualalumpur city centre, there are 450m high twin towers, made of RCC core and columns and composite steel /concrete deck floors. Flyash was used in concrete for a grade of M80. Concrete admixture was used to produce 200mm slump of concrete. The elastic modulus for such concrete at 56 days was 35.5 Gpa. The total alkali in concrete was less than 3kg/m3 of concrete. This satisfies the BRE recommendations6 for resisting alkali-silica reaction in concrete. The construction of Euro-tunnel under the sea (50-250m below sea level) is designed for 120 years. Each tube is composed of rings made of 5 segments. There are total 2,26,000 segments and 5,00,000 m3 of concrete is used. The length of the tunnel is 51km, of which 37 km is under the sea, 4km under land on French side and 10km under land on British side. The tunnel lining concrete (precast) is of M45 grade, and the cast in place concrete is of M 30 grade. For the tunnel lining concrete, low C3A cement was not recommended. In marine environment, C3A is important to trap the chloride ions entering the concrete. OPC with 5-8% C3A was used.

For the cast - in - place M30 grade, durability of concrete was of more concern than the strength. Three blended cements were used: i. ii. iii. One blend containing 51% OPC, 25% slag and 24% flyash. One blend of 70% PSC (with 82% slag) and 30% flyash for RCC. One blend of 72% PSC and 28% flyash for unreinforced concrete.

Conclusion The paper provides the 'definition', 'durability' and 'applications' of concrete of various grades and various constituents. Use of chemical and mineral admixtures along with good quality cement can produce concrete of any desired grade and if properly constructed, the service life of concrete structures can be enhanced. the mixing procedure and mixing time have considerable influence on the quality of concrete in terms of its cohesiveness and workability. Concreting in rural India has to be given special importance as producing and placing good quality concrete have become difficult, in the absence of electricity and proper mixing and placing equipments. The paper further discusses use of blended cements to enhance durability of concrete structures, and provides details on concrete mixes for M70 and M 80 grades of concrete used in developed countries. Finally the paper provides the details on the selection of concrete making materials (specially on blended cements) for the Euro tunnel, which has been designed for 120 years. References

Indian standard code of practice for plain and reinforced concrete. IS 456:2000, Bureau of Indian Standards, New delhi. Nanda R.L., S. Ratanaramig, P and Boonsiri S. Developing 'High performance concrete for hydraulic structure at Koldam.' the Indian Concrete Journal, Vol. 84, No.1, January 2010, pp. 21-33.

Indian standard specification for coarse and fine aggregates from natural sources for concrete. IS 383, Bureau of Indian standards, New Delhi. Neville, A.M. 'Properties of concrete, 4th Edition,' Pearson Education Ltd. 1995. Shetty, M.S., Muenz, K and Gall, N. Delhi Metro : 'Quality control of concrete for underground section.' The Indian Concrete Journal, April 2005, Vol. 79, No. 4, pp. 11-21. BRE. Alkali aggregate reactions in concrete. Building Research Establishment Digest 330, March 1988. Moranville-Regourd, M. 'Selection of Concrete materials for the Euro-Tunnel.' Proceedings, P.K. Mehta Symposium on Durability of concrete, Nice, France, May 23, 1994, pp. 147-159.

Recent Technologies Using Waste Materials

By - products for Sustainable Development Satander Kumar, Scientist (Retd), CRRI New Delhi. Sustainability and long term performance of concrete structures are the two important criteria with respect to the prevailing environmental conditions. Sustainability cannot be sacrificed to attain high strength. High ultimate strength is generally accompanied by a low W/C ratio. This is not, in itself, adequate to satisfy all sustainability related requirements. All types of concrete used in different applications must provide acceptable frost resistance, repeated heat resistance, sufficient fatigue life and adequate serviceability. Such concretes are made with the use of mineral admixture by partly replacing Portland cement or aggregate. This type of concrete for offshore concrete platforms in the North sea, with compressive strength of 45 to 70 MPa has been used, without any problem with respect to corrosion of embedded steel or other environmental reasons so far, after 15 years of the combined exposure to heavy mechanical loading and a severe marine environment. Good quality fine particles of waste materials or byproducts particularly mineral admixtures and superplasticizer make the cement concrete sustainable with improved long term performance because of least permeability and very slow chemical reaction with harmful compounds present in the concrete. Granulated blast furnace slag, fly ash and silica fume are few major mineral admixtures which are by products of the steel, power and alloy industries which do not require much further processing (grinding or heating etc.) Before their use in the concrete except in case of granulated blast furnace slag which need only grinding. Even, the energy consumed by these mineral admixtures and other by products of the Industry could be re-utilized also. Minimum use of natural resources and recycling of unused materials are key elements in sustainable development. Unprecedented rise in our urban population, traffic population and a rapidly changing construction scenario have put tremendous pressure on available resources and carrying capacity of our eco-system. The paper deals with the studies showing the ability of the concrete containing waste materials as compared to conventional concrete, to protect embedded steel from corrosion and concrete from other environmental effects for a very longer service period. Introduction The first cement plant in India came up in Porbander, Gujarat, in 1914 and the first concrete road in India was constructed in Chennai in the same year. Indian cement industry, being the second largest in the world, has the annual production capacity of cement 115 million tones (apprx.). The waste materials which may commonly be used in road construction are: flyash, steel slag, broken bricks, debris from the dismantled concrete and other building structures, rice husk ash, lime sludge, marble slurry dust, silica fume (a byproduct of ferro silicon alloy industries), phospho-gypsum, kimberlite tailings from Panna mines, iron ore wastes, recycled bituminous and cement concrete materials etc. Some of the advantages of waste materials are:

Wide spread availability, Less haulage cost as compared to borrow soil or other conventional materials, as there is generally a ban on mining of sand/aggregate or use of top soil in some metro cities, Flyash/slag/silica fume mitigate alkali silica reaction, Low energy requirement and environment friendly,

A detailed research work on the use of phospho-gypsum in making concrete roads, has been done at the department of Civil Engineering and Applied Mechanics, Shri Govind Ram Sakseria Institute of Sciences and Technology, Indore (MP). Research work has also been done at Florida Institute of Phosphate Research Institute, Bartow, Florida in 1988 and at other Institutes in India and abroad. 10 percent phospho-gypsum in cement concrete gives, 5-10 percent increase in compressive strength for M-20 grade concrete. Nearly, 10 million tones of blast furnace slag become available from steel plants in India. About 5 million tones of blast furnace steel slag annually is being produced as granulated slag, which is mainly used in the manufacture of Portland blast furnace slag cement (IS 455-1989) either by inter-grinding or blending after grinding. The concept of milling to get milled materials is to use existing roads as quarry from which road stone aggregate can be reclaimed. The material removed from the highly distressed bituminous roads by milling machine (grinding) is called milled materials. Milled materials are stabilized with various additives like cement, emulsions, RBI grade 81, etc. When the stone aggregates are replaced by milled materials partly or fully, the behavior of milled material in the base course is comparable to conventional base courses. As per IRC:63-1976 "Tentative Guidelines for the Use of Low Grade Aggregate and Soil Aggregate Mixtures in Road Pavement Construction," the debris materials of the concrete structures/buildings, brick bats, mortar and concrete as sub base may be used after evaluating their properties especially grading and crushing strength alone or in combination with other binders /additives (5-10%). The country is generating around 110 million tones of fly ash per annum from its coal based thermal power plants. Silica fume is a byproduct of ferro-silicon alloy industries. Silica fume particles are ultra fine and siliceous in nature containing more than 85 percent reactive silicon dioxide which is about two times more than the silicon dioxide content present in the fly ash collected by electro-static precipitators. Flyash normally has lime reactivity of 50-60 kg/ sq. cm (5-6 M Pa) or even more, where as the minimum specified value of lime reactivity is 45 kg/sq. cm as per IS: 3812-2003. A good quality silica fume (as mineral admixture) is now available in India from the private firms including firms dealing with super plasticizers. High performance concrete mixes can be designed very easily by using slag, fly ash and silica fume partly and adding super plasticizers into the fresh wet concrete up to maximum 2.0 percent (preferably less than 0.5 percent) by weight of cement to achieve desired workability. This slag has potential reactivity and need alkaline medium for activation. Globally, a mixture of all the

three is also being used as a replacement of Portland cement for making high strength and high performance concrete. The reason being higher cement content than specified will reduce the life of the structure and pavement and with regard to objective of sustainability of the pavement will be far away from our reach once the structure or pavement is built. Properties of Materials i. Cement: The cements when tested for various physical and chemical properties shall conform to Grade 43 (IS: 8112-1989 and Grade 53 (IS: 12269-1987).

ii. iii. iv. v.

Coarse and Fine Aggregates: Various tests on aggregates shall conform to Table 1. Super plasticizer: Various tests carried out as per IS: 9103-1999 shall conform to properties given there. Fly Ash:The properties are given in IS: 3812-2003. Silica Fume

Micro silica is available in the following four forms: i. ii. Undensified: Its density is typically 200 to 350 kg/m3. It is collected from the filters as a very light powder, which is used in making mortar and grout. Densified: It has a density of 500 to 700 kg/m3. It is basically processed to increase the bulk density by loosely agglomerating the fine particles. This form is not as 'dusty' as undensified micro-silica and has a fine granular appearance and is being used in ready-mix concrete and pre-cast products. iii. Palletised: Its density is around 1,000 kg/m3. This form is treated with a small amount of cement and water to give solid agglomerate. It is normally used only for inter-grinding with cement and cannot disperse beyond the actual grinding. iv. Slurry: It is an aqueous suspension of undensified micro-silica in water, usually in the ratio of 1:1 (by weight). The material has a specific gravity of around 1.4 and as a liquid, is easier to handle than the powders. Slurry freshly made shall be frequently agitated to avoid setting out micro silica fume particles. The slurry shall be used only on a day-to-day and batch-to-batch basis.

The slurry may contain other agents to maintain the suspension and the effect of these on the finished concrete would have to be assessed. Various tests carried out on silica fume shall conform to ASTM: C 1240-2001 or IS Specification. Properties of silica fume are given in Table 2. Durability To improve the durability of the concrete containing very fine particles, following admixtures are generally used as per the requirement: i. ii. iii. Accelerators Retarders Water reducing agents which are termed plasticisers and superlasticisers viz.: Sulphonated melamine-formaldehyde condensates (SMF) Sulphonated nepthalene-formaldehyde condensates (SNF). Modified lignosulphonates (MLS), iv. Air-entraining agents

Sulphonic acid esters, carbohydrate esters etc. Durability of concrete may be evaluated by the following tests:

Chloride Ion Permeability Test (ASTM-C1202) Modulus of Elasticity Abrasion Resistance as per IS: 9284-1979. Bond Strength Cover to concrete Weathering durability tests

The durability of concrete by Chloride permeability test consists of monitoring the amount of electrical current passed through 51 mm thick slices of 102 mm nominal diameter cores or cylinders during a 6

hour period. A potential difference of 60 V DC is maintained across the ends of the specimen, one of which is immersed in a sodium chloride solution and the other in a sodium hydroxide solution.

The total charge passed, in coulombs, has been found to be related to the resistance of the specimen to chloride ion penetration. The results are used to assess qualitatively the chloride ion penetrability of concrete as indicated Table 3: The specimens may also be cast for weathering cycles to undergo i. ii. iii. heating for 8 hours at 60C and cooling them at 27C, keeping in 5% sodium sulphate solution at room temperature and heating them at 60C., keeping the specimens at15C and cooling them in air at room temperature. Visual observations may be made on the damages and deterioration caused. Concrete Cover - Plain and Reinforced Concrete: As per clause 304.3 of IRC: 21-2000 regarding the cover of concrete to steel bar in case of plain and reinforced concrete bridges, the minimum clear cover to any reinforcement bar, closest to the concrete surface, shall be 40 mm. Increased minimum cover thickness of 50 mm shall be provided when concrete members are exposed to severe conditions as mentioned in clause 4.0 on concrete except that for the condition of alternate wetting and drying and in case of foundations where the minimum clear cover shall be 75 mm. New Technologies i. Self compacted Concrete (SCC) has its own limitation - it can not, on its own, flow into nooks and corner of the form work. Through compaction, often using vibration is essential for achieving strength and durability of concrete. It has its own limitation depending on the types of structures, its dimensions, and types of reinforcement, location of structures etc. Self compacting concrete (SCC) may provide remedies to these problems. Developed by Prof. Okamura and his team in Japan in 1986, SCC has evolved as new innovative technology, capable of achieving status of being an out-standing advancement in the sphere of concrete technology. There are now many countries who are also working on SCC viz Sweden, Thailand, UK, India etc.

o o o o o o

Ensure through compaction employing unskilled labour Minimize repair of finished surface Ensure good finished surface Reduced manpower for casting and finishing Increase in speed of construction Improvement in the performance

No vibration is necessary for SCC which can flow around obstructions, encapsulate the reinforcement and fill up the space completely under self weight. The salient advantages are: Development of Self Compacted Concrete (SCC) is now being improved and is being used in the concrete industry. As a safe guard against separation of water, use of a viscosity modifying agent is usually essential to minimize shrinkage due to high powder content in SCC. There are typical mixes of SCC similar to conventional concrete where risk of cracking due to shrinkage and thermal stresses could be reduced. Addition of flyash and other siliceous materials such as silica fume and granulated slag make 'Sustainable SCC'. There are many organization/academic institutions/cement companies in India who are working in the laboratory and field for the advancement and use of SCC in structures. There is a need to formulate IRC/BIS specifications/ guidelines for the use of SCC in respective structures based on the experience/data gained in India. However, there are guidelines published by Hampshire, UK (EFNARC-2002)/contract documents on use of SCC in Nuclear Structures. ii. High volume flyash (35 to 90 per cent) concrete is the other area on which work has been carried for making roller compacted concrete pavement in China in 1998, USA, UK etc. There is early strength decrease, but strength will get sharp development later and high-grade cement benefit the early strength iii. Soil stabilization is extensively used in European and African Countries to optimize and conserve natural resources. The preliminary estimate revealed that we require 175 million cubic meter of aggregate per annum. Such exploitation of natural resources would create serious environment issue. There is therefore need to develop and popularize alternate methods of road construction and thereby make the optimum use of natural material. This is also necessary to reduce diesel consumption required for transporting and processing these materials. There is a need to improve the engineering properties of traditional construction material to reduce the material consumption.. 10mm stabilized soil is equivalent to 15 mm of unbounded granular layer which mean drastically reduction in aggregate consumption. Lime is used to stabilize clayey soil and cement is used for stabilization of sand soils. Now I the market, stabilizers are available such as RBI-Grade 81 which can be used both for sandy and clayey soil with long term performance. iv. Ultra Thin White Topping (UTWT- The fourth major technology is Ultra Thin White Topping (UTWT) i.e laying of concrete over bituminous pavement with closer joint spacing, the details of which are given n IRC:SP 76. UTWT involves the use of High Performance concrete (HPC) as per IRC: SP 70 and Ultra High performance Concrete i.e HPC contain fibers and special types of aggregates. UTWT has been used in India, USA and U.K. as thin rigid overlay over flexible pavements. In case of ultra thin white topping (UTWT), existing bituminous layer is milled before laying UTW over bituminous layer. The minimum thickness of bituminous layer after milling shall be 75 mm for UTWT and also existing bituminous layer shall be free from major defects and cracking so that reflection cracks or sympathetic cracks are as minimum as possible. These cracks, if left out after milling, shall be repaired with either bituminous or cement concrete layer or any other

suitable polymers to avoid reflection cracking. The basic purpose of UTWT is to improve the riding quality along with the load carrying capacity. i. ii. iii. iv. v. vi. vii. viii. ix. The roadway is milled to a uniform depth throughout the surface layer of asphalt, Edges of the milled area serve as forms and significantly reduce the cost of formwork, Polypropylene/polyester fibres are optional to add to enhance the toughness of UTWT Maximum W/C ratio 0.33, Concrete strength (Compressive) = 276 kg/sq cm at 3 days, Concrete is placed by slipform/fixed form to the finished grade of the existing roadway as per the facilities available, Joints spacing is normally kept at 100- 150 cm, Provides additional durability which is achieved due to the additional use of mineral admixtures, and Bond between concrete overlay and the underlying asphalt, enable UTWT to act as a composite section and require less thickness of UTWT,

Salient features of UTW: White topping (WT) is a conventional concrete overlay of 20-30 cm thick with a leveling layer of bituminous\macadam or dry lean concrete over a crack arresting layer over the existing bituminous layer or in some cases, existing bituminous layer is removed before white topping is laid, or repaired with the suitable materials. Mineral admixtures in the WT also will improve the sustainability of the pavement. Roller Compacted Concrete, Soil stabilization and others- There are other technologies which includes the use of byproducts which areroller compacted concrete pavement (RCCP) (IRC:SP-68) i.e concrete pavement made with the use of roller/ soil compactor on low slump concrete, concrete, soil stabilization of weak soils, paver block for footpath, shoulder and even for carriageway at the round-abouts or crossings, flowable fills (containg very low quantity of Portland cement) or cement treated bases. Byproducts in these technologies may be used as soil or aggregate, replacement. If the pavements which are designed and constructed for very longer period than conventional life, these are normally called perpetual pavements. This may be possible with the use of mineral admixtures in the concrete, soil stabilization or other by products as discussed. General Discussion And Conclusions There are many mineral admixtures, which are generally industrial by-products and are recommended as replacement of cement or sand in the concrete to increase the performance and durability of concrete structures and to reduce the high cost. Sometimes it is very difficult to design the concrete mixes up to the expected level of quality and service in coastal or other typical areas without the use of mineral admixtures. Flyash, slag and silica fumes are as health hazard as cement and other reactive siliceous particles. These shall also be used in a similar way with proper care and bags shall be opened when required, but used within a period of six months.

A concrete pavement particularly made with mineral admixtures/ by-products maintains the initial roughness of 2000mm/km only if it is very carefully and meticulously designed and constructed. Such pavements require stricter quality control of both materials, which constitute the concrete, and process of laying the same, which otherwise result in failure. During lying of pavement quality or dry lean concrete, adequate quantity of water shall be added. If it is less than the requirement, some of the cement may remain un-hydrated and if it is more, there may be more shrinkage. By the use of byproducts, rigid pavements have some advantages:

Shrinkage of concrete is directly proportional to water content per cubic meter of concrete, If compaction of concrete layer is excessive, there would be sometime, more free water on the top surface, there by causing more shrinkage cracks, Concrete pavement may perform well in areas having high rainfall, prone to water-logged and flooding where swelling pressure due to expansive soils, is very high. More service life Annual maintenance is very less, Less quantity of aggregates is required, conserving natural resources

Use of mineral admixtures will not only enable substantial savings in the consumption of cement and energy, but also has many advantages such as: improvement in workability, decreases in permeability, decreases potential alkali aggregate reactivity, increases resistance to sulphate reaction, better finishing etc besides saving in time. In town, streets particularly in North East and Uttar Pradesh, pavement can be made with bricks laid flat or on-edge over 50-75 mm of rammed ballast, lean cement concrete, and well consolidated. The soil should also be well rammed and brought to camber or proper levels. References

IS: 10771992Common Burnt Clay Building Bricks Specifications S: 34951992 Methods of Tests of Burnt Clay Building Bricks Part1 Determination of Compressive Strength IS: 34951992 Methods of Tests of Burnt Clay Building Bricks Part2 Determination of Water Absorption IS: 34951992Methods of Tests of Burnt Clay Building Bricks Part3 Determination of Efflorescence IS: 21801988 Specification for Heavy Duty Burnt Clay building Bricks IS: 22481992Glossary of Terms Relating to Structural Clay Products for Building IS: 54541978Methods for Sampling of Clay building Bricks IS: 19051987Code of Practice for Structural Use of Unreinforced Masonary IS: 33161974Specification for Structural Granite IS: 36201979Specification for Laterite Stone Block for Masonry IS: 41391976Specification for Sand Lime Bricks IS 3812 : 2003Specification for Fly Ash for use as Pozzolana and Admixture

IS 269 : 1989Specifications for 33 grade ordinary Portland cement IS 650 : 1966 Standard sand for testing of cement (first revision) IS 1344 : 1981 Specification for calcined clay pozzolana (second revision) IS 1727 : 1967 Methods of tests for pozzolanic materials (first revision) IS 2580 : 1982Jute sacking bags for packing cement (second revision) IS 3535 : 1986Methods of sampling of hydraulic cements (first revision) IS 4032 : 1985Methods of chemical analysis of hydraulic cement IS 4845 : 1968Definitions and terminology relating to hydraulic cement IS 4905 : 1968 Methods of random sampling IS 11652 : 1986High density polyethylene woven sacks for packing cement IS 11653 : 1986Polypropylene (PP) woven sacks for packing of cement IS 12089: 1987Specification for granulated slag for the manufacture of Portland slag cement IS 12154 : 1987 Light weight jute bags for packing of cement IS 12174 : 1987Jute synthetic union bags for packing of cement IS 12423 : 1988Method for colouri- metric analysis of hydraulic cement Technical Report on RBI-Grade 81, Legend Surface Developers Pvt Ltd, Sanik Farm, New Delhi.

Causes and Prevention of Structural Failures

Prof. A. Gopala Krishnayya, Professional Engineer, Mann-Talley INC; Delaware (U.S.A) P. Varun Chowdary, Asst. Prof. SRKIT, Vijayawada. Introduction The design of structures should satisfy three fundamental requirements: 1. Stability: The structure should be stable under the action of loads. 2. Strength: The structure should resist safely stresses induced by the loads. 3. Serviceability: The structure should perform satisfactorily under service loads. Stability, strength and serviceability can only be achieved by following basic design principles. This paper presents different structural failures, so other engineers can benefit from this knowledge. Building Collapse

Part of a building in Vijayawada collapsed one early morning killing a person. On inspection, it was found that the collapsed part was constructed adjacent to the main building with 25mm expansion joint. The collapsed building was constructed on two columns. Each column has 6-16mm main steel. Load from each column is transferred to a single under reamed pile. Which has 6-10mm bars. It appears that the collapse is due to three causes: 1. The over lap length of steel rods at the junction of pile & column is inadequate. 2. Structure is unstable due to number of columns used (two only) 3. Unsymmetrical wall load on the structure. The collapse of the building could have been prevented by structurally connecting it to main building there by providing stability. Collapse of a FootBridge A Footbridge in Vijayawada collapsed one day before opening & fell into the canal below killing two painters. The footbridge has a span of 40m. It consisted of two welded trusses, cross girders & precast RCC slabs. On inspection, it was found that the welding is defective. Prevention Following the provisions in IS code for structural steel fabrication would have prevented this failure. Collapse of a Residential Building

One evening in Vijayawada, a three story residential building (Fig 2.) collapsed a day before occupancy killing watchman & his family. On inspection, it was found that one of the building columns was constructed on filled up well. The old well is filled with sand and an Isolated footing was constructed on the well. As the construction progressed, load on column increased. The foundation has settled, leading to the failure of the building. Prevention Isolated footing is a wrong choice for the foundation on the old well. For that column a well foundation should have been a better choice. Vibration of Slab Owner of a college building complained that a floor slab in one of the rooms is vibrating, when students were walking or jumping on the slab. On inspection, no structural cracks were found in the

slab. The size of the slab is 8m X 9m and it is supported on four sides by beams. It is continuous on three sides. The thickness of slab was 150mm. It appears that deflection check was not done in the slab design. Prevention Generally, slab thickness is calculated based on deflection criteria. A proper design of slab may have given a safe design. The slab had failed in deflection check, however it is safe in flexure. Structural Cracks in the Slab A dining hall of size 18m X 48m (Fig 3.) was constructed with two bays in east west direction and six bays in north south direction. Size of each slab is 8m X 9m and the slabs were designed as two way slabs. 1mm wide cracks developed in the slab at the location of maximum negative bending moment.

On inspection, it was found that the structural design was correct. Non-destructive tests revealed that concrete had required compressive strength. Thickness of slab was adequate from consideration of flexure & deflection. On further investigation, it was found that the top reinforcement has a clear cover of 130mm instead of 20mm. since the top steel is placed close to neutral axis, it became ineffective in carrying negative bending moment and hence the slab cracked at all the supports. It is apparent that the rod bender fabricated the steel for 150mm thick slab and the site engineer did not understand the importance of top steel bars. The slab became two way simply supported slab instead of two way continuous slab. The dining hall is still functional. But before another floor is added the slab should be checked. Prevention Inspection of steel by structural engineering before placing concrete would have prevented this failure. Cracks in Walls

In one of the college buildings, diagonal cracks were observed in many walls. The cracks pattern did not fit the standard cause of wall cracks. The plan & section of the building are shown in Fig4 and Fig 5. Structural analysis of the building was performed using STAAD pro software. From the analysis

results, it was apparent that the frame did not meet the deflection criteria even though the beam has satisfied the deflection criteria.

Due to Architectural reasons, the columns were oriented in the frame along minimum moment of Inertia. The excess deflection of beam & column has caused the cracks in brick walls. Prevention Deflection of frame should be checked for safe design. Conclusion Various structural failures that have reached limit state of collapse & serviceability were presented. Following are the failures presented here: 1. Limit state of collapse due to stability 2. Limit state of collapse due to welding 3. Limit state of collapse due to unsatisfactory filling of old well 4. Limit state of serviceability due to excess deflections 5. Limit state of serviceability due to incorrect fabrication of steel 6. Limit state of serviceability due to orientation of columns All of the above failure, may have been avoided by following fundamental concepts of structural design.

Opportunities & Challenges for Use of Nanotechnology in Cement-Based Materials

Dr Rakesh Kumar, Scientist; Dr Renu Mathur, Scientist & HoD and Dr Arun Kumar Mishra, Scientist, Rigid Pavements Division, Central Road Research Institute (CRRI), New Delhi Exploring and manipulating inner characteristics at nano-meter scale of matter in order to obtain exceptional properties and performance of materials is one of the most active research areas of the present time. The potential for application of nanotechnology in cement-based materials is huge. Currently, applications of nanotechnology in cement-based materials in several areas including construction of concrete roads are being explored. Nanotechnology has immense potential to result in a new generation of concrete, stronger and more durable, with desired stress-strain behavior and possibly with the whole range of newly introduced properties. Enhanced flexural behavior of the concrete may lead a reduction in the concrete slab thickness used in the construction of concrete pavements. This paper presents brief information on nanotechnology research opportunities and challenges in cement-based materials. Introduction Nanotechnology has immense potential and abilities to control the materials world including cementbased materials. It is the science of extremely tiny particle that deals with the study and use of materials and devices that operate at unimaginable nanometer scale i.e. one billionth, or 10"9, of a meter. A nanometer is so small that we cannot see something of this size without the use of very powerful microscopes. It is used to measure things that are very tiny i.e. atoms and molecules. Another way of putting it: a nanometer is the amount an average mans beard grows in the time it takes him to raise the razor to his face [1]. It is more about taking advantage of novel properties that arise solely due to the nano-scale and producing useful or functional components. Materials at this scale behave very differently from when they are in larger form. This technology offers better built, long lasting, cleaner, safer and smarter products for the home, for medicine, for agriculture, for communication and for industry in general. It is the synthesis and application of ideas from science and engineering towards the understanding and production of new materials and devices with enhanced properties and capabilities. Nanoscience & Nanotechnology Nanoscience is the study of phenomena and manipulation of materials at atomic, molecular and macromolecular scales, where properties differ significantly from those at a larger scale; while nanotechnology describes design, characterisation, production and application of materials and systems by controlling the size at nanometre scale. The term "Nanotechnology" was invented by Taniguchi in 1974, and it was first popularized in the 1980 by scientist and visionary K. Eric Drexler [2] in his book "Engines of Creation." Nanotechnology is the creation and utilization of materials, devices, and systems through the control of matter on the nanometre scale. It is more about taking

advantage of novel properties that arise solely due to the nano-scale and producing useful or functional components with new or enhanced properties. Some of the important fields where nanotechnology applications are being actively explored are shown in Fig.1. Why Do Materials at Nano-Scale Behave Differently?

Figure 1: Current active fields where nanotechnology applications are being explored When the dimensions of a material are decreased from macro size to nano size, significant changes in electronic conductivity, optical absorption, chemical reactivity and mechanical properties occur. Materials with the size range from 100 nm down to the atomic level can have different or enhanced properties compared with the same materials at a larger size. The two main reasons for the change in behavior are an increased relative surface area and the dominance of quantum effects [1-3]. An increase in surface area will result in a corresponding increase in chemical reactivity and making some nanoparticles useful as catalysts too. As size of the matter is reduced to tens of nanometers or less, quantum effects can begin to play a role, and these can significantly change materials optical, magnetic or electrical properties. Carbon Nanotubes (CNTs) Carbon nanotubes are among the most extensively researched nano-materials today. CNTs are tubular structures of nano meter diameter with large aspect ratio. These tubes have attracted much attention in recent years not only for their small dimensions but also for their potential applications in various fields. A single sheet of graphite is called grapheme. A CNT can be produced by curling a graphite sheet. Carbon sheets can also curl in number of ways. CNT can be considered as the most superior carbon fiber ever made. Addition of small amount (1% by wt) of CNT can improve the mechanical properties consisting of the main Portland cement phase and water. A CNT can be singled or multi

walled. CNTs are the strongest and most flexible molecular material with Youngs modulus of over 1 TPa. The approximate diameter is 1 nm with length to micron order. CNTs have excellent flexibility. These are essentially free from defects. Nanotubes are highly resistant to chemical attack and have a high strength to weight ratio (1.8g/ cm3 for MWNTs & 0.8G/cm3 for SWNTs). CNT has maximum strain of about 10% which is higher than any other material. Fig.2 shows the flexible behaviour of CNTs. Electrical conductivity of CNTs are six orders of magnitude higher than copper, hence, have very high current carrying capacity. Hence, carbon nano tubes have excellence potential for use in the cement composites. Opportunities in the Fields of Cement-Based Composites

Figure 2: Flexible behavior of CNTs Nanotechnology is being used for the creation of new materials, devices and systems at molecular, nano- and micro-level [4-9]. Interest in nanotechnology concept for portland cement composites is steadily growing. The most reported research work regarding application of nanotechnology in cement-based materials is either related to coating or enhancement of mechanical and electrical properties. Some of the widely reported nanoparticles in cement concrete industries are Titanium dioxide ( TiO2), Nanosilica (SiO2), Alumina (Al2O3), Carbon nanotube (CNT) etc. Currently, the most active research areas dealing with cement and concrete are: understanding of the hydration of cement particles and the use of nano-size ingredients such as alumina and silica particles [4-7]. A typical scale of various constituent of a normal concrete is given in Fig. 3.

Figure 3: Scales of various constituents of concrete [7] Average size of Portland cement particle is about 50 microns. In applications that require thinner final products and faster setting time, micro cement with a maximum particle size of about 5 microns is being used [4]. Knowledge at the nanoscale of the structure and characteristics of materials will promote the development of new applications and new products to repair or improve the properties of construction materials. For example, the structure of the fundamental calcium-silicate-hydrate (C-S-H)

gel which is responsible for the mechanical and physical properties of cement pastes, including shrinkage, creep, porosity, permeability and elasticity. C-S-H gel can be modified to obtain better durability. Cement-based materials containing carbon nanotubes can be used for both strengthening and enhancing electrical and electronic properties of the concrete besides their mechanical properties. Development of smart concrete using carbon nano tubes would be easier. If nano-cement particles can be processed with nanotubes and nano-size silica particles; conductive, strong, tough, more flexible, cement-based composites can be developed with enhanced properties, for electronic applications and coatings. Nano Concrete and Nano Ingredients Nano concrete is defined as a concrete made with portland cement particles with sizes ranging from a few nanometer to a maximum of about 100 micrometers [4]. Nano ingredients are ingredients with at least one dimension of nano meter size. Therefore the particle size has to be reduced in order to obtain nano-portland cement. If these nano-cement particles can be processed with nanotubes and reactive nano-size silica particles; conductive, strong, tough, more flexible, cement-based composites can be developed with enhanced properties, for electronic applications and coatings. There is also limited information dealing with the manufacture of nano-cement. If cement with nano-size particles can be manufactured and processed, it will open up a large number of opportunities in the fields of cement-based composites. Current research activity in concrete using nano cement and nano silica includes:

Characterization of cement hydration Influence of the addition of nano-size silica to concrete Synthesis of cement using nano particles and coatings (applied to protect concrete).

The characteristics of nano concrete can be effectively used to create unique products, which can be also molded to complex shapes. Nano concrete containing carbon nanotubes can be used for both strengthening and creating electric circuits. Recently, Wang et al. [10] has demonstrated the use of nanoclays in the making of self compacting concrete for improve it for slipform paving for the construction of concrete road. The NIST researchers have claimed that the service life of concrete could be doubled by using a nanosized additive that slows down aggressive ion transport in concrete (http://www.nanowerk.com/news/newsid=9054.php). Rather than change the size and density of the pores in concrete, they reasoned, it would be better to change the viscosity of the solution in the concrete to reduce the speed at which chlorides and sulfates enter the concrete. The basic is "Swimming through a pool of honey takes longer than making it through a pool of water. The NIST researchers have demonstrated that the nanotechnology additives can be blended directly into the concrete with current chemical admixtures, but that even better performance is achieved when the additives are mixed into the concrete by saturating absorbent, lightweight sand [8] It has been claimed that all the samples showed a unique nanosignature for the C-S-H material regardless of the sample origin. This is known as the materials genomic code and means that the strength of cement paste is not a function of specific minerals but relates to the way the nanoparticles are arranged. "If everything depends on the organizational structure of the nanoparticles that make

up concrete, rather than on the material itself, we can conceivably replace it with a material that has concretes other characteristicsstrength, durability, mass availability and low costbut does not release so much CO2 into the atmosphere during manufacture." said Professor Franz-Josef Ulm from civil and environ- mental engineering at MIT [11]. Nano Silica Fume for Improving Concrete Performance Nano silica is most common nano additive to concrete. It is reported that nano silica was found to be much effective than micron sized silica for improving the performance such as permeability, and subsequently, durability. In addition, reduced amount of about 15 to 20 kg of nano silica was found to provide same strength as 60 kg of regular or micro silica. Fig.4 presents a typical SEM of nanosilica particles. Nano-silica is effective additives to polymers and concrete, a development realized in highperformance and selfcompacting concrete with improved workability and strength. Nano-silica addition to cement based materials control the degradation of the fundamental C-S-H (Calciumsilicate-hydrate) reaction in water as well as block water penetration and leads to improvement in durability. The addition of nano SiO2 particles enhances the density and strength of concrete. The results indicate that nanosilica behaves not only as a filler to improve microstructure, but also as an activator to promote pozzolanic reaction for fly ash concrete as a result strength of the fly ash concrete improves particularly in the early stages. Coatings for Concrete

Figure 4: SEM of a typical nanosilica particles Another major large volume application of nano powder in cement-based materials is the area of coatings. The attractive colouring on ancient Czech glasses is found to contain nanoparticles. This shows that nanotechnology was used for coating surfaces i.e. spraying and making a product look attractive from ancient time. Nano-powders have a remarkable surface area. The surface area imparts a serious change of surface energy and surface morphology. The change in properties causes improved catalytic ability, tunable wavelength-sensing ability and better designed pigments and paints with self-cleaning and self-healing feature. One promising area of application of nanoparticle for cement based materials is development of self-cleaning coating. Titanium oxide is commonly used for this purpose. It is incorporated, as nano particles to block UV light. It is added to paints, cements and windows for its sterilizing properties as TiO2 breaks down organic pollutants, volatile organic compounds, and bacterial membrane through powerful catalyst reactions and can reduce airborne

pollutants applying to outer surfaces. Additionally it is hydrophilic and therefore gives self-cleaning properties to surface to which it is applied. Challenges for the Application of Nanotechnology in Cement-Based Materials The primary challenge is to manufacture nano-size cement particles. The second challenge is the heat of hydration. Due to many folds increase in specific surface areas the nano cement particle are very reactive and results in enormous amount of heat of hydration. Special organic and inorganic additives are needed to be developed to control the setting and heat of hydration. For the nano-coatings, the properties of the coatings themselves need extensive investigation. Durability of coatings under various exposure conditions, abrasion resistance, friction resistance, high temperature resistance, failure modes, and electrical characteristics need to be proven by using exhaustive experiments. Furthermore, huge amount of expenditure is needed for the equipments to study the behaviour of nano cement and nano additive in cement based materials. Conclusion There is wide scope for the use of nanotechnology including nano ingredients for harnessing improved mechanical and electrical properties such as higher strength, toughness, flexibility, stability, conductivity, besides self-cleaning property of cement-based composites. The challenges are also huge that includes health hazards working with dry nanoparticle, huge expenditure for procuring equipment for study at nano level. Currently, limited availability/Non-availability of nano cement, sand etc. makes it difficult to apply to use this technology in cement-based material. Current studies are mostly confined to laboratory stage. Therefore, a lot more extensive studies are required before the application of nanotechnology becomes viable and economical way for enhancing the important properties of cement-based materials. Acknowledgments The authors are grateful to the Director, Central Road Research Institute for his permission to publish the paper. The help provided by Ms S. Juneja (RI), Mr Ranjit Kumar (A trainee student) and Mr M.K. Singh (TA) are thankfully acknowledged. References:

Kahn, J. (2006). "Nanotechnology". National Geographic 2006 (June): 98119 Drexler, K. E. (1986). "Engine of creation." Anchor Book Edition, N.Y. Deb, B-Woods. (2008). "Nanotechnology: Ethics and Society." Taylor and Francis Group, N.Y. Balaguru, P., and Chong, K. "Nanotechnology and concrete: Research opportunities." Proceedings of ACI Session on "Nanotechnology of Concrete: Recent Developments and Future Perspectives" November 7, 2006, Denver, USA, 16-27.

Boresi, Arthur P.; Chong, Ken P.; Saigal, Sunil. Approximate Solution Methods in Engineering Mechanics, John Wiley, New York, 2002, 280 pp. Chong, K.P. "Research and Challenges in Nanomechanics" 90- minute Nanotechnology Webcast, ASME, 2002; archived in www.asme.org/nanowebcast

Collepardi, M.; Collepardi, S.; Troli, R.; and Skarp, U. "Combination of Silica Fume, Fly Ash and Amorphous Nano-Silica in Superplasticized High-performance Concretes", Proceeding of First International Conference on Innovative Materials and Technologies for construction and Rehabilitation, Lecce, Italy, 2004, 459-468. http://www.nanowerk.com/news/newsid=9054.php. "Nanotechnology to double the lifetime of concrete." Accessed on 2 Dec. 2010. Sobolev, K., and Gutierrez, M. F. (2005). "How nanotechnology can change the concrete word." American Ceramic Society Bulletin, Vol.84, No.10, pp.14-18. Wang, K., Shah, S. P., and Voigt, T. (2007). "A novel self-consolidating concrete for slip-form application." TRB 2007 Annual Meeting. http://www.azonano.com/Details.asp?ArticleID=1873. "Cement and concrete combined with nanotechnology may hold key to reducing greenhouse gases and climate change." Accessed on 6 Dec. 2010.

High Performance Concrete

Samir Surlaker & Sunny Surlaker, MC-Bauchemie India Private Limited, Mumbai Concrete is the most versatile man made material of our times. As a material, its use today in the world is second only to water. This is because of its mouldability when fresh and its strength and durability characteristic when set. Concrete technology has made tremendous strides in past decade. Concrete is now no longer a material consisting of cement, aggregates, water and admixtures but it is an engineered material with several new constituents. The concrete today can take care of any specific requirements under most of different exposure conditions. In todays construction practices, many extra properties are demanded of the concrete in terms of speed of construction, workability characteristics, early strength gain, excellent durability, resistance to aggressive media and a long service life. In this context, it is natural that High Performance Concrete (HPC) will soon gain a mainstream appeal, especially in fast developing nations like India. High Performance Concrete (HPC) There are no unified definitions for High Performance Concretes (HPC) and different Institutions and experts define High Performance Concrete differently. The American Concrete Institute defines High Performance Concrete as Concrete that meets special performance and uniformity requirements that cannot always be obtained by using conventional ingredients, normal mixing procedure and typical curing practices.

In simpler words, HPC is a concrete that has atleast one outstanding property viz. Compressive Strength, High Workability, Enhanced Resistances to Chemical or Mechanical Stresses, Lower Permeability, Durability etc. as compared to normal concrete. For example, Self- compacting Concrete is a specific part of High Performance Concrete, which distinguishes itself with self-consolidation properties coupled with high flowability. Table 1 shows the Properties and Areas of application of High Performance Concretes. Table 1a shows some properties and areas of Application of HPCs. Table1: Properties and Areas of Application of HPC Property Compressive Strength Workability Durability Density Types of Concrete High Strength Concrete Self Compacting Concrete High Resistance Concrete Chemical-Mechanical High Density Concrete with low Permeability Areas of Application Construction Elements in High Rise Buildings Precast Industry Filigree Construction Elements Natural Draught Cooling Tower Tank Bund Areas Marine Structures

Table 1a: Properties and Areas of Application of HPC Properties of HPC 1. Increase of Durability by lowering of Permeability 2. Increase of Concrete Density 3. Increase of Compressive Strength 4. Improvement in ratio of Flexural Strength to Compressive Strength 5. Increase of resistance to Corrosion Attack 6. Increase of Chemical Resistance 7. Improvement of Abrasion Resistance 8. Reduction of Segregation and Bleeding 9. Increased resistance to Alkali-SilicaReaction (ASR) 10. Improved sulphate resistance and low chloride ion penetration Areas of Application of HPC 1. Production of High Strength Concrete 2. Production of highly Durable Concrete 3. Guniting and Shotcrete Applications 4. Underwater Concreting 5. Concrete in Marine Environment 6. Concrete for Nuclear Projects 7. Concretes for Sewage Treatment Plants 8. Concrete for Underground Structures 9. Highly Abrasion and Chemical Attack Resistant Concrete 10. Concrete to take Thermal Stresses

Most of these concretes will have very low water cement ratios to achieve durability and this would call on New Generation Super Plasticizers. The advantage of New Generation Super Plasticizers over Older types is the performance; wherein New Generation Super Plasticizers are highly effective at water cement ratios as low as 0.2. Further Acrylate family (AP) and Polycarboxylate (PCE) based Super Plasticizers have minimum loss of slump with respect to time and they do not retard the concrete. The process of hydration begins immediately and there is remarkable development in strengths within 6-8 hours as against the old generation retarding Super Plasticizers. New Generation Super Plasticizers have better compatibility as well as they are found suitable for usage in concrete where Microsilica, Flyash, GGBSF, Aluminosilicates, Colloidal Silica, etc. are used. In addition to High Strength Concrete which has become relatively common, some HPC applications, which is of interest for the Indian market can be classified as: 1. Self-compacting Concrete / High workability concrete 2. Concretes resistant against acids / aggressive media 3. High Performance Waterproof Concretes

Self-compacting Concrete Self-compacting Concrete (SCC) as the name signifies should be able to compact itself by its selfweight under gravity without any additional vibrations or compaction. SCC should be able to assume complicated formwork shapes without forming cavities and entrapping air. The reinforcement should be effectively covered and the aggregates should be fully soaked in the concrete matrix. In addition, the concrete should be self-leveling and self-defoaming without any external compaction. Figure.1 shows the flow of SCC.

Figure 1

Self-compacting Concrete has the following special advantages:

Saves costs on machinery, energy and personnel for vibrating the concrete Considerably improved finished surfaces (Fairfaced Concrete), less efflorescence Saving in initial cost of formwork and more usage Marked improvements in durability on account of better compaction Extremely suitable for slim and complicated moulds (filigree elements) Covers reinforcement effectively Better adhesion between cement binder and aggregates Reduces demoulding time No sound pollution

The economy of SCC is calculated as extra cost incurred for New Generation Super plasticizers and stabilizers minus the cost of formwork, early demoulding time, purchase of vibrating equipments as well as material saving for concrete cosmetics repair. When these costs are considered & coupled with the durability of conc- rete obtained, the gap between the cost of SCC and normal concrete is substantially narrowed down. Technology for Self-compacting Concrete The major difficulty faced in development of Self-compacting Concrete (SCC) is on account of contradictory factors that the concrete should be fully flowable but without bleeding or segregation. It is therefore required that the cement and mortar of Self Compacting Concrete should have higher viscosity to ensure flowability while maintaining stability of bigger aggregates. Special PCE based chemical admixtures and specialized mineral admixtures like Microsilica or Aluminosilicates are required in the production of SCC. To meet the concrete performance requirements, the following three types of self-compacting concretes are available. Figure 2 shows the different concepts for production of SCC.

Figure 2: Concepts of Production of SCC Based on these concepts, the general proportioning guideline for SCC is given in Figure 3.

Figure 3: General Proportioning Guideline for Self-Compacting Concrete

Acid Resistant Concrete One of the major applications of HPC is to increase the durability of concrete where acid attacks or aggressive media are anticipated. This can be achieved physically by resorting to very dense aggregate packing. The packing curve is shown in Figures 4 and 5. This is practically possible by selecting a very smooth sieve line from largest aggregate to the smallest grain of Mineral Additives like Microsilica or New Generation Aluminosilicate slurries. Chemically, cement by itself is not acid resistant. The acid resistant binder is formed by combination of cement, microsilica / aluminosilicate and flyash. To control permeability very low w/c ratio has to be adopted. These types of concretes are especially suited for External Structural Elements in Industrial Areas, piles in aggressive soils, etc.

Figure 4: Ideal Particle-Size Distribution So as to provide the essential concrete properties a high-performance PCE (polycarboxylate ether) needs to be incorporated in the mix. By adjusting the particle size distribution on a micro scale, the permeability of the concrete is reduced which minimizes the penetration of aggressive substances. This approach also minimizes amount of cement used in the mix. Permeability reduction is also achieved by addition of the latest generation aluminosilicates or Microsilica. Depending on the degree of dispersion these material particles more or less completely fill the spaces between the cement particles. During hydration, the pozzolanic silica reacts with the free calcium hydroxide to form calcium silicate hydrates. This gives a denser concrete structure.

Figure 5: Ideal Particle-Size Distribution in Acid Resistant Concrete General Mix Design for Acid Resistant Concrete is given in Table 2. Figure 6 shows a cooling tower built entirely with Acid Resistant Concrete. Figure 6: Cooling Tower Built using ARC

Table 2

High Performance Waterproof Concrete For a fast developing nation like India, the future focus will be to reduce maintenance costs of structures. We will NEED to adopt a stance to prevent deterioration of structures by using the latest available material technology. Taking into consideration todays general concrete manufacturing and placing process, it becomes imperative to waterproof the concrete as insurance against its deterioration. If manipulating the properties of concrete itself can prevent water ingress through the concrete, the longevity of the structure can be maintained. This method will ensure that the concrete is protected against water and aggressive media and the structure is protected from failure through its design life. Quite simply this can be achieved by blocking the pores and capillaries in concrete using one of the following methods: 1. Using high performance PCE polymers to reduce water cement ratio of concrete 2. Use of materials like Silica-fume or Aluminosilicate slurries in concrete 3. Use of highly specialized latest generation Integral waterproofing compounds that work on process of Dynamic SynCrystallization (DySC) technology

Using PCE Polymers to improve watertightness

Figure 7: Structure and Functioning of PCE Polymer Molecules Using PCE polymers, give excellent water reduction as compared to normal plasticizers. This helps to reduce the w/c ratios and cement contents, even in normal concretes. Lower the w/c ratio, lower are the number of capillaries in concrete. It is also a well documented fact that PCE based admixtures do not have the side effects of retardation often seen with normal retarding superplasticizers. This is beneficial as workability time of concrete can be controlled but the hydration and setting of concrete will proceed unhindered. This ensures that any subsequent vibration to concrete after initial set will not open up capillaries, as is the case if concrete is retarded for a very long period of time, thereby rendering concrete relatively waterproof. Figure 7 shows the structure and functioning of the latest PCE Polymer molecules. Use of Condensed Silica Fume or Aluminosilicates to improve watertightness Again it is well-known that Condensed Silica Fume or Aluminosilicates are extremely fine materials that function both as micro-fillers as well as pozzolanic materials that hydrate in the presence of the Calcium Hydroxide in Concrete. The combined effect of these materials, as micro-fillers and hydrating materials, close capillaries in concrete, thereby rendering it waterproof. Using Integral Waterproofing Compounds working by Dynamic SynCrystallization Keeping todays constructional practices and economy in mind it may be difficult to incorporate the use of PCE plasticizers, Silica Fume or Aluminosilicates in concrete. In this case, the best alternative would be to use the latest generation, highly specialized Integral waterproofing compounds working on the principle of Dynamic SynCrystallization (DySC) and Hydrophobic Pore Blocking. The ease-ofuse and relative economy of such a material makes it ideal for use even in concretes up to 60 MPa in strength. Therefore, even normal concretes can be converted into high performance waterproof concretes. Use of special latent hydraulic and pozzolanic Nanoparticles in special integral waterproofing additives cause the cement matrix to be densified by a complex process called Dynamic SynCrystallization

(DySC). The strength of any cement-based material is based on the hydration of clinker. The C-S-H gel so formed alongwith interlocked hydration crystals form the dense cement matrix. In the presence of water, the Nanoparticles in the capillary pores now act as additional crystallization seeds that lead to new C-S-H gels and crystal formation thus continuing mineralization of the cavity structure. Over time the structure of the matrix is thus becoming more refined, overall porosity decreases, microcracks are sealed and pore size distribution is optimized. This DySC mechanism reduces pore content of the concrete making it water tight.

Figure 8: Mechanism of DySC and Hydrophobic pore Blocking In addition to the DySC mechanism, special additives in the integral waterproofing compounds cause a contraction of capillaries and also convert the water-absorbing capillary forces into water repellant capillary forces due to the hydrophobic effect. It is specially formulated and designed to prevent the passage of water through pores and capillaries of the concrete, making the concrete watertight. Figure 8 shows the combination of processes rendering the concrete watertight. Table 3 shows a comparison of performance of Dynamic SynCrystalliztion based Product versus no protection. Table 3: Comparative Results of Concrete With and Without DySC based Additives Test Result Water Absorption at 7D, % Water Absorption at 28D, % Compressive Strength 7D, N/mm
2 2 2

Control Mix 1.3 1.3 66 75.5 10.1 14.1

MC-Special DM Mix 0.9 0.7 67.5 76 4 9.1

Compressive Strength 28D, N/mm

Water Penetration @ 1kgf/cm , cm Water Penetration @ 3kgf/cm2, cm

Water Penetration @ 5kgf/cm2, cm Initial Drying Shrinkage, % Wetting Expansion, %

19.4 0.026 0.016

11.8 0.030 0.005

Conclusion The latest applications of concrete will necessitate the use of High Performance Concrete incorporating new generation materials such as PCE based admixtures, Microsilica, New Generation Aluminosilicates, and the latest Generation Integral Waterproofing Admixtures. New generation PCEs can answer the call of stringent requirement of high workability, self-compaction and long hauling times. The New Generation Superplasticizer cannot be equated with High Range Water Reducing Agents combined with Retarders, as the latter would not give the desired high early strength. The new generation superplasticizers would have to be of the type that would give very low loss of slump over a period of time without delaying the hydration process. Using a combination of these materials a new generation of concretes can be made which improve the durability of structures for maximum benefit. Presently, the cost of raw materials of New Generation Superplasticizers as well as of new generation materials like Microsilica/Aluminosilicates is relatively higher and therefore blending of raw materials can be resorted to. But rather than initial cost, lifecycle cost and a cost to benefit ratio should be considered. These new materials bring forward a new frontier in construction, which can make construction much faster, durable and cheaper in the long run and this should be recognized. Till date, the usage of these new generation materials is not substantial in India, but soon the technology and commonplace use of HPC, will pick up considering the speed at which infrastructure projects are being launched in the country. LOGIN CREATE AN ACCOUNT ADVERTISE WITH US CONTACT US ABOUT US

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Advances in Bituminous Road Construction

Prof. Prithvi Singh Kandhal, Associate Director (Emeritus), National Center for Asphalt Technology (NCAT), Auburn University, Alabama, U.S.A.

Introduction

An ambitious road construction plan is underway in India, which primarily involves bituminous pavements. At the present time, Ministry of Road Transport & Highways (MORTH) Specification for Road and Bridge Works, 2001 Edition is used for construction of all roads including national highways. Advances in bituminous construction technologies are made in the world almost every year. This paper describes such advances in terms of materials, mix design, special bituminous mixes, and recycling.

There is a need to incorporate these advances in MORTH specifications which are about 10 years old, to keep abreast of latest technologies. Materials Paving Bitumen

Prior to July 2006, penetration graded road paving bitumen such as 60/70 was used in India. This grading system was based on empirical penetration test, which is conducted at 25oC. The penetration test measures the consistency of bitumen. Although two 60/70 penetration bitumen samples from different refineries may have similar consistency (stiffness) at 25oC, but one may be softer than the other when tested at 60oC, which is close to the highest pavement temperature on a hot summer day. Bitumen which is very soft at high temperature is undesirable because it can cause rutting in bituminous pavement under heavy loads. Therefore, the Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) adopted a viscosity grading system for paving bitumen in July 2006 by issuing standard IS:73:2006. This system is based on viscosity testing at 60oC. Penetration graded bitumen 60/70 was deleted and substituted with viscosity graded VG-30. Similarly, penetration graded bitumen 80/100 was deleted and substituted with viscosity graded VG-10. Although the preceding advancement has been made, there is a need to advance further by adopting performance graded (PG) bitumen, especially for national highways. The viscosity grading system gave excellent performance results in the US for over 20 years. However, the viscosity grading system, although more rational than the penetration grading system, was still based on experience. A 50-million dollar, 5-year Strategic Highway Research Program (SHRP) was undertaken from 1987 to 1992 to develop a performance based grading system for bitumen, which was based on engineering principles to address common asphalt pavement distress problems. The so-called Superpave (acronym for Superior Performing Pavements) performance grading system includes new bitumen tests and specifications with the following salient features: 1. Tests and specifications are intended for bitumen "binders," which include both modified and unmodified bitumens. 2. The physical properties measured by Superpave bitumen tests are directly related to field performance by engineering principles rather than just the experience. 3. A long-term bitumen aging test, which simulates aging of bitumens during 5-10 years in service, was developed and included for the first time. 4. Tests and specifications are designed to eliminate or minimize three specific types of asphalt pavement distresses: rutting, fatigue cracking, and thermal cracking. Rutting typically occurs at high temperature, fatigue cracking at intermediate temperature, and thermal cracking at low temperatures. 5. As shown in Figure 1, the entire range of pavement temperature experienced at the project site is considered. New testing equipments were developed/adopted for testing bitumens for this purpose. A rotational viscometer is used to measure the bitumen viscosity at 135 oC. A dynamic shear rheometer is used to measure the viscoelastic properties of the bitumen at two

temperatures: high temperature corresponding to the maximum 7-day pavement temperature during summer at the project site, and intermediate temperature corresponding to the average annual temperature of the pavement at the project site. A bending beam rheometer and a direct tension tester are used to measure the rheological properties of the bitumen at the lowest pavement temperature during winter at the project site.

Figure 1: Superpave performance grade bitumen testing is conducted over the entire range of temperature experienced at the project site

The Superpave performance grade (PG) bitumen is based on climate. For example, PG 64-22 bitumen is suitable for a project location, where the average 7-day maximum pavement temperature is as much as 64oC, and the minimum pavement temperature is 22oC. The high temperature grades are PG 52, PG 58, PG 64, PG 70, PG 76, and PG 82. The low temperature grades are 4, 10, -16, -22, -28, -34 and so forth. Both high and low temperature grades are in increments of 6 Celsius degrees. Example: A project location in Rajasthan has a maximum record 7-day pavement temperature of 70oC in summer and a minimum record pavement temperature of 3oC. A PG 70-4 bitumen will be specified for paving that project. Aggregate

Figure 2: Schematic of equipment for testing fine aggregate angularity (FAA) Many advances have been made in characterization of coarse aggregate, fine aggregate and mineral filler used in bituminous construction. However, one simple test for characterizing particle shape & surface texture of fine aggregate (sand) passing 4.75 mm sieve can be implemented easily in India. It is desirable to have angular fine aggregate particles in mix so as to resist rutting in bituminous pavements. Whereas angularity of coarse aggregate (retained on 4.75 mm sieve) can be evaluated by naked eye, it is not easy to do so in case of fine aggregate particles. The schematic of the test equipment for measuring fine aggregate angularity (FAA) is shown in Figure 2. It can be fabricated easily in India. FAA test procedure has been adopted as standard AASHTO Test 304. A calibrated cylindrical measure is filled with fine aggregate of prescribed grading by allowing the sample to flow through a funnel from a fixed height into the cylindrical measure. The fine aggregate is struck off at the rim, and its mass is determined by weighing. Uncompacted void content in the fine aggregate is calculated as the difference between the volume of the cylindrical measure and the absolute bulk volume of the fine aggregate collected in the measure. Bulk volume of the fine aggregate is calculated from its mass and its bulk dry specific gravity. This test is based on the concept that round particles pack closer than angular particles and therefore produce lower uncompacted void content, that is, lower FAA value. A FAA value of 45 or more is desirable to ensure that the fine aggregate is angular and does not contain any natural sand, which normally has rounded particles. Mix Design Marshall Mix design is currently used in India for designing bituminous mixes. In any mix design, it is desirable to compact laboratory specimens to a density which is expected to be achieved in the bituminous course after 2-3 years of densification under traffic. For designing bituminous mixes for

heavy traffic, 75 blows each are applied with a Marshall impact hammer on both sides of the specimen. This laboratory compaction level worked well in the past. However, it was observed in the US during the 1980s that the field density of in-service bituminous pavements was significantly higher than the laboratory design density obtained with 75 blows. This was attributed to increased truck tyre pressures and new tyre designs with stiffer side walls. Therefore, 75-blow compaction level appeared inadequate. Increasing the number of blows was not desirable because it merely caused degradation (breakage) of aggregate particles in the specimen.

Figure 3: Schematic of Superpave gyratory compactor

During SHRP, a new Superpave mix design method was developed in the US. A Superpave gyratory compactor (SGC) was developed which compacted the laboratory specimen with gyratory action (see schematic of SGC in Figure 3) rather than impact compaction as is done with Marshall hammer. Gyratory compaction also simulates field compaction with rollers in terms of aggregate particle orientation. Depending on the traffic level in ESALs (equivalent single axle loads) expected on the highway, desired compaction level can be obtained in SGC by varying the number of gyrations without causing any significant degradation of aggregate in the mix. Another advantage of SGC is that a densification curve (number of gyrations versus compacted density of specimen) is obtained during the compaction process. At least three different gradations of the proposed mix are evaluated in the Superpave mix design to select the gradation which has the strongest aggregate skeleton.

Special Bituminous Mixes Stone Matrix Asphalt

Stone matrix asphalt (SMA) was developed in Germany in the mid 1960 and it has been used very

successfully by many countries including US as a highly rut-resistant bituminous course, both for binder (intermediate) and wearing course for heavy traffic roads. SMA is tough, stable, rut-resistant mix that relies on stone-on-stone contact to provide strength and a rich mortar binder to provide durability.

Fig. 4a Stone matrix asphalt crosssection

Fig. 4b Conventional hot mix asphalt cross-section

Figure 4 provides a cross-sectional representation of the difference between SMA and dense-graded conventional bituminous mix. In a conventional dense graded mix, coarse aggregate particles (retained on 4.75 mm sieve) are separated by fine aggregate matrix, which primarily carries the load. In SMA, coarse aggregate particles have stone-on-stone contact forming a stone skeleton which carries the load. Since SMA mix has relatively higher bitumen content, cellulose fiber is added to the mix to minimize drain down of bitumen in trucks during transportation of the mix from plant to project site. Although the cost of SMA is typically about 25-30% higher than the cost of dense graded bituminous mix, it is still economical considering life cycle costs. SMA has been widely used in the US since 1991 for heavy-traffic roads. It must also be used in India for heavy corridors especially when overloading is also common. Indian Roads Congress (IRC) has recently published a tentative specification for SMA (IRC:SP:79-2008), which was drafted by the author to facilitate its use in India. A manual containing detailed guidelines for designing and constructing SMA mixtures was developed by the author in the US for practicing engineers. Open Graded Asphalt Friction Course Open graded asphalt friction course (OGFC) is an open graded hot mix asphalt mixture with interconnected voids that provide improved surface drainage during rainfall. The rainwater drains vertically through the OGFC to an impermeable underlying bituminous layer and then laterally to the day lighted (exposed) edge of the OGFC onwards to shoulder. In addition to minimizing hydroplaning potential during rainfall and providing improved friction values on wet pavements, the OGFC offers the following advantages compared to other dense graded surfaces: (a) reduced vehicle splash and spray

behind vehicles, (b) reduced tyre-pavement noise, (c) enhanced visibility of pavement markings, and (d) reduced night time surface glare in wet weather. Numerous states in the US currently using OGFC have experienced excellent performance in terms of safety (improved wet pavement surface friction) and durability. This has been accomplished by one or more of the following: use of polymer modified asphalt binders, relatively higher bitumen content (by using cellulose fibers), and/or relatively open gradations. Figure 5 shows an interstate highway in the US, where OGFC was used in the lanes on the right side and dense graded bituminous mix was used in the lanes on the left side. Note the dramatic difference: there is no standing water and absence of splash/spray on the lanes on the right side during rain. A manual giving detailed guidelines on design, construction and maintenance of OGFC was developed by the author for use by practicing engineers in the US. Due to economic considerations, OGFC should be used in India selectively in regions with heavy rainfall and stretches of roads prone to accidents resulting from skidding on wet pavement. Warm Mix Asphalt

Figure 5: Lanes on the right have OGFC and lanes on the left have dense graded hot mix asphalt on a interstate in the US. Note absence of standing water and splash/spray on the lanes on the right side. Warm mix asphalt (WMA) is a fast emerging new technology which has a potential of revolutionizing the production of asphalt mixtures. WMA technology allows the mixing, lay down, and compaction of asphalt mixes at significantly lower temperatures compared to hot mix asphalt (HMA). The technology can reduce production temperatures by as much as 30%. Asphalt mixes are generally produced at 150C or greater temperatures depending mainly on the type of binder used. WMA mixes can be produced at temperatures of about 120C or lower. The development of WMA was initiated in Europe in the late 1990s primarily in response to the need

for greenhouse gas reduction under the Kyoto Protocol. WMA technologies such as Aspha-min, WAM Foam, and Sasobit were developed during that time. New WMA technologies such as Evotherm, Rediset WMX, REVIX, LEA (Low Energy Asphalt) and Double Barrel Green were later developed within the US. Warm mix asphalt offers the following significant advantages:

Energy savings. The most obvious benefit of WMA is the reduction in fuel consumption. Fuel is used to dry and heat the aggregate. Studies have shown that lower plant mix temperatures associated with WMA can lead to as much as 30 percent reduction in energy consumption.

Decreased emissions. WMA produces emissions (both visible and non visible) from the burning of fossil fuels at a significantly reduced level compared to HMA (Figure 6). This would permit asphalt plants to be located in and around non-attainment areas such as large metropolitan areas that have air quality restrictions.

Decreased fumes and odour. WMA produces lower fumes and odour both at the plant and the paving site compared to HMA. This would also result in improved working conditions at both places.

Decreased binder aging. Short-term aging of liquid asphalt binder takes place when it is mixed with hot aggregate in pug mill or mixing drum. This aging is caused by the loss of lighter oils from the liquid asphalt binders during mixing at high temperatures. It is believed that the short-term aging of the binder will be reduced significantly because the loss of lighter oils will be less at relatively lower mixing temperatures. This may enhance asphalt pavement durability.

Figure 6: Emission can be seen from the hot mix asphalt at 320 F (160 C) in left truck. No emission is visible from the truck in right containing warm mix asphalt at 250 F (121 C). (Photo courtesy: Matthew Corrigan, FHWA)

Extended paving season. By producing WMA at normal HMA temperatures, it may be possible to extend the paving season into the colder months of the year or in places located on high altitudes since the WMA additives or processes act as a compaction aid. Further by narrowing the difference between compaction temperature and ambient air temperature the rate of cooling is decreased. WMA may also be transported over longer distances as compared to HMA with reduced loss of mix temperature in the hauling units. This advantage should facilitate the Indian Border Roads Organization (BRO) in constructing asphalt roads in high altitude and/or remote areas far away from hot mix plants.

Compaction aid for stiffer mixes. WMA additives and processes may be used to improve the compactibility of stiff mixes when mix is produced closer to typical HMA production temperatures. Smaller reductions in temperature may also be possible. There is extensive experience with the use of certain types of WMA with SMA in Europe.

Increased amount of RAP. Research has shown that the percentage of reclaimed asphalt pavement (RAP) can be increased in WMA compared to HMA during hot recycling. Generation of carbon credits for India. Developing countries like India can earn CERs (Certified Emission Reductions) or popularly known as carbon credits under the Kyoto Protocol if technologies such as WMA are introduced and implemented.

At the present time a mix is considered warm mix in the US if the mix produced at the plant has temperature exceeding 100C but significantly below that of a normal hot mix. WMA has a wide range of production temperatures ranging from slightly over 100C to about 20 to 30C below typical HMA temperatures. WMA technologies are also applicable to mixes made with polymer modified asphalt binders. WMA technologies can be classified broadly as (a) those that use water, (b) those that use some type of organic additive or wax, and (c) those that use chemical additives or surfactants. Technologies which introduce small amounts of water to hot asphalt binder, take advantage of the phenomenon: when water turns into steam at atmospheric pressure it expands in volume by a factor of 1,673. This causes tremendous increase in the volume of asphalt binder which not only helps in coating the aggregate easily but also lowers the mix apparent viscosity. Processes to introduce water into the asphalt binder consist of foaming nozzles, use of hydrophilic material such as zeolite or use of damp aggregate. Asphalt binder temperature typically is the same as that used for hot mix asphalt. Technologies that use organic additives or waxes lower the asphalt binder viscosity above their respective melting points. It should be ensured that their melting points are above the in-service pavement temperatures during hot summers so that permanent deformation or rutting does not become a problem. Technologies that use some chemical additive and /or surfactants produce a variety of different mechanisms to coat the aggregate at lower temperatures. It appears WMA technology is about to take off in India. There is a need to incorporate WMA specifications in MORTH specifications. Recycling of Bituminous Pavements Recycling of existing asphalt pavement materials to produce new pavement materials results in considerable savings of material, money, and energy. The specific benefits of recycling can be summarized as follows: 1. When properly used, recycling can result in substantial savings over the use of new materials. Also, the cost of haulage can be avoided if recycling is performed in place. The need for economic consideration is felt now more than ever, because of tightening budgets and ever increasing cost of materials. 2. Recycling can help in conservation of natural resources by reducing the need for new materials. This translates to substantial savings in aggregate resources and demand for asphalt binder (bitumen), especially during supply interruptions. Even though there may be an abundant supply of aggregates, the distribution of these sources does not always coincide with the location of need. 3. Recycled materials have proven to be equal or even better than new materials in quality. Hot mix asphalt (HMA) overlay on recycled base is expected to perform better than an HMA

overlay on the existing surface, even though they have the same thickness, because the former can substantially reduce the potential of reflective cracking through the surface course. 4. Recycling can maintain pavement geometrics as well as pavement thickness. The existing pavement structure can be strengthened by recycling without adding substantial overlays. In some cases, the traffic disruption is lesser than that for other rehabilitation techniques. 5. Recycling can save considerable amount of energy compared to conventional construction techniques. This factor is of significant importance during an energy crisis like the one experienced during the 1972 Arab oil embargo. Over the years, recycling has become one of the most attractive pavement rehabilitation alternatives. With the continuous accumulation of performance data, field and laboratory evaluations of recycled mixes, and with the simultaneous development of realistic performance oriented guidelines it is expected that recycling will continue to be the most attractive rehabilitation technique. Different recycling methods are now available to address specific pavement distress and structural needs. A brief description of these recycling methods follows. The Asphalt Recycling and Reclaiming Association define five different types of recycling methods: (1) Cold Planing; (2) Hot Recycling; (3) Hot In Place Recycling; (4) Cold In-Place Recycling; and (5) Full Depth Reclamation. Cold planing is described as an automatic method of removing asphalt pavement to a desired depth and restoration of the surface to a desired grade and slope and free of humps, ruts and other distresses. This method can be used for the roughening or texturing of a pavement to improve frictional resistance. Cold planing is performed with a self propelled rotary drum cold planing machine with the reclaimed asphalt pavement (RAP) transferred to trucks for removal from the job site. The resulting pavement can be used immediately by regular traffic and overlaid at some future time or left as a textured surface. Hot recycling or hot mix recycling is the process in which reclaimed asphalt pavement (RAP) material is combined with new materials, sometimes along with a recycling agent, to produce hot mix asphalt (HMA) mixtures. Both batch and drum type hot mix plants are used to produce recycled mix. The RAP material can be obtained by milling or ripping and crushing operation. RAP at ambient temperature when introduced in weigh hopper of the batch plant (Figure 7) or drum of the drum plant is heated by superheated virgin aggregate. If the amount of RAP exceeds 15-20 percent, a softer asphalt binder is used to rejuvenate the aged asphalt binder in the RAP. The mix placement and compaction equipment and procedures are the same as for regular HMA. Typical RAP to new aggregate ratio varies from 10:90 to 30:70 with a maximum of 50:50 (drum plant). The advantages of hot mix recycling include significant structural improvement, equal or better performance compared to conventional HMA, and capability to correct most surface defects, deformation, and cracking.

Figure 7: Hot mix asphalt recycling in a batch plant

Hot in place recycling (HIR) consists of a method in which the existing pavement is heated and softened, and then scarified or hot rotary mixed to a specified depth. New HMA or recycling agent may be added to the RAP material during the recycling process. HIR can be performed either as a single pass or a multiple pass operation. In single pass operation, the restored RAP material is combined with new material. In multiple pass operation, the restored RAP material is recompacted first, and a new wearing surface is applied later. The depth of treatment varies between 20 to 40 mm (3/4 in to 1 in). The Asphalt Recycling and Reclaiming Association (ARRA) has identified three HIR processes; (a) surface recycling, (b) repaving, and (c) remixing. In a surface recycling operation the existing asphalt surface is heated and scarified to a specified depth. The scarified material is combined with aggregate and/or recycling agent. The mix is then compacted. A new overlay may or may not be placed on the recycled mix. In the second type of HIR method, repaving, the surface recycling method is combined with a simultaneous overlay of new hot mix asphalt (HMA). Both the scarified mix and the new HMA are rolled at the same time. In the case of remixing, the scarified RAP material is mixed with virgin HMA in a pug mill, and the recycled mix is laid down as a single mix. The advantages of hot in place recycling are that surface cracks can be eliminated, ruts and shoves and bumps can be corrected, aged asphalt binder is rejuvenated, aggregate gradation and asphalt content can be modified, traffic interruption is minimal, and hauling costs are minimized. In cold in place recycling (CIR), the existing pavement material is reused without the application of heat. Except for any recycling agent, no transportation of materials is usually required, and, therefore,

haulage cost is very low. Normally, an asphalt emulsion is added as a recycling agent. The process includes pulverizing the existing pavement, sizing of the RAP, application of recycling agent, placement, and compaction. The use of a recycling train, which consists of pulverizing, screening, crushing, and mixing units, is quite common. The processed material is deposited in a windrow from the mixing device, where it is picked up, placed, and compacted with conventional hot mix asphalt lay down and rolling equipment. The depth of treatment is typically from 75 to 100 mm (3 to 4 in). The advantages of cold in place recycling include significant structural improvement, treatment of most pavement distress, improvement of ride quality, minimum hauling and air quality problems, and capability of pavement widening. Full depth reclamation has been defined as a recycling method where all of the asphalt pavement section and a predetermined amount of underlying material are treated to produce a stabilized base course. It is basically a cold mix recycling process in which different types of additives such as asphalt emulsions and chemical agents such as calcium chloride, Portland cement, fly ash, and lime, are added to obtain ail improved base. The four main steps in this process are pulverization, introduction of additive, compaction, and application of a surface or a wearing course. If the in place material is not sufficient to provide the desired depth of the treated base, new materials may be imported and included in the processing. This method of recycling is normally performed to a depth of 100 mm to 305 mm (4 to 12 in). The advantages of full depth reclamation are that most pavement distresses are treated, hauling costs are minimized, significant structural improvements can be made (especially in base), material disposal problems are eliminated, and ride quality is improved. Summary This paper describes recent advances in bituminous road construction in terms of materials, mix design, special bituminous mixes, and recycling. These include performance grading system for paving bitumen; measuring particle shape of fine aggregate; Superpave mix design; stone matrix asphalt (SMA); open graded asphalt friction course (OGFC); warm mix asphalt (WMA); and four types of asphalt pavement recycling.

References

Kandhal, P.S. An Overview of the Viscosity Grading System Adopted in India for Paving Bitumen. Indian Highways, Volume 34, No. 4, April 2007. Roberts, F.L., P.S. Kandhal, E.R. Brown, D.Y. Lee, and T.W. Kennedy. 'Hot Mix Asphalt Materials, Mixture Design and Construction.' NAPA Education Foundation, Lanham, Maryland, Second Edition, 1996.

Kandhal, P.S. and F. Parker. 'Aggregate Tests Related to Asphalt Concrete Performance in Pavements.' Transportation Research Board, National Cooperative Highway Research Program Report 405, 1998.

Kandhal, P.S. 'Aggregate Tests for Hot Mix Asphalt:' State of the Practice. Transportation Research Board Circular No. 479, December, 1997.

Kandhal, P.S. Design, Construction, and Maintenance of Open-Graded Asphalt Friction Courses. National Asphalt Pavement Association Information Series 115, May 2002. Kandhal, P.S. Designing and Constructing Stone Matrix Asphalt Mixtures State-of-the-Practice. National Asphalt Pavement Association Quality Improvement Publication QIP-122 (Revised Edition), March 2002.

Kandhal, P.S. Warm Mix Asphalt Technologies: An Overview. Journal of the Indian Roads Congress, Volume 71-2, 2010. Kandhal, P.S. Recycling of Asphalt Pavements: An Overview. Association of Asphalt Paving Technologists, Asphalt Paving Technology, Vol. 66, 1997. Kandhal, P.S. and R.B. Mallick. Pavement Recycling Guidelines for State and Local Governments. Federal Highway Administration Publication No. FHWA-SA-98-042, December, 1997.

About the Author Prof. Prithvi Singh Kandhal is Associate Director (Emeritus) at the National Center for Asphalt Technology (NCAT) based at Auburn University, Alabama, U.S.A. NCAT is the largest asphalt (bitumen) road technology center in the world. Prior to joining NCAT in 1988, Kandhal served as Chief Asphalt Engineer of the Pennsylvania Department of Transportation for 17 years. He is the first person born outside North America, who has held the following three very prestigious positions in the asphalt technology area:

President, Association of Asphalt Paving Technologists (with members from all continents in the world) Chairman, American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) International Committee on Road Paving Standards (responsible for over 200 highway standards used worldwide) Chairman, Transportation Research Board Committee on Asphalt Roads, U.S. National Academy of Sciences

Prof. Kandhal has published over 120 technical papers and has co-authored the first ever textbook on asphalt road technology, which is used by more than 25 universities in the U.S.
NBMCW March 2011

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A Study on Soil Stabilization through Innovative Material for Construction of Rural Roads
A Study on Soil Stabilization through Innovative Material for Construction of Rural Roads A Case Study of East Gujarat

Ujjval J. Solanki - Lecturer, Darshan Institute of Engg.& Technology-Rajkot Dr. N.C. Shah - Professor and Section Head, Civil deptt. SVNIT-Surat. R.G. Dhamsaniya, - Asst. Prof., Darshan Institute of Engg.& Technology-Rajkot M.D. Barasara Asst. Prof., Darshan Institute of Engg.& Technology-Rajkot

Rural road connectivity is one of the key components for rural development, as it promotes access to economic and social services, generating agricultural income and productive employment. There are number of important points to be considered while involving suitable and economical designs for the low volume rural roads in India. For construction and maintenance as well as the level of quality control that can be effectively exercised in rural areas. To the extent possible, the use of locally available materials as such or after suitable processing has to be maximized in the larger interest of economy. The study is aimed to improve engineering performance of locally available in situ material for subbase and base course of rural road. The name of innovative material is Consolid system of soil stabilization which is suggested by The Committee for Accreditation of New Materials and Techniques formed under the aegis of Highway Research Board of Indian Roads Congress to accredit patented or new materials/techniques, developed in India/abroad and evaluated as per recognized National/International Specifications has accredited the Consolid System for stabilization of subbase/base course on dated 4th August 2009 The study area is selected by NRRDA at East GujaratRural road to check the improvement in soil parameter useful for rural road construction. The soil in East Gujarat contain Gravel with marginal proportion of clay particles. For efficient performance Consolid system demand equal proportion of Gravel, sand and silt & clay particles. One study stretch of length 1 Km is constructed by locally available in situ clay with treatment by Consolid system and CBR, UCS and Capillary rise tests are performed. Soak CBR is improved 18.55% from 3.2% and UCS is improved 2000 kPa from 250 kPa. which shows significant improvement in engineering properties of soil. The treatment has made possible to use locally available in situ material. It also replace the granular material i.e. GSB material in sub base course, and also consolid system reduces the demand for heavy wearing course save resources and construction time. Introduction The Soil stabilization, in the broadest sense it is the alteration of any inherent property of a soil to improve its engineering performance. Improvement of stability or bearing power, density, shear parameter, reduce compressibility, permeability, swelling and shrinkage property by the use of controlled compaction, proportioning and/ or the addition of suitable admixtures or stabilizers. The Consolid System

The Consolid system is a Swiss Technology for Permanent Soil Stabilization. Producer of consolid system in India is Grace & Sachi Enterprise-Ahmedabad and the competent authority of this company is Mr. Manish Shah. Consolid444 (Liquid) and Solidry (Powder) products are commercial. Table 1 shows the Consolid system component details Table 1 Consolid System component properties Sr. No

Details

Consolid 444

Solidry (SD)

Chemical composition

Aqueous solution of a mixture of 20% mono-molecular material Liquid Milky white to yellow brown Strong reduction of water absorption through reducing

Blend of 96.5 % of coated with 3.5 % Solidry Powder Light grey Solidry prevents the treated soil from water soaking in by closing the capillary.

and poly-molecular interfacial active substance. -Organic Portland cement and lime,

2 3

Form Color

Work

the capillary activity Reduce permeability Lower OMC and Higher density of treated soil Strongly reduced swelling and shrinking behavior

The consolid soil stabilisation system was expressly developed for soil stabilisation. Every cohesive soil possesses the characteristic to petrify again. It requires a very long time and high pressure. Through the addition of catalysts we can speed up this process. The consolid soil stabilization system speeds up the natural process of solidification of all kinds of cohesive soil. It improves and consolidates the soil. The consolid system is changing the behaviour of any soil itself toward petrification and does not act as a binder or chemical reactant. A soil, once treated remains treated for permanent and will keep the advantages of the upgrade without timely limitation. A treatment of soils with additives products of the consolid system allows to upgrade any kind of soil to risk free construction material. The improvement of the treated soil is substantial and allows to incorporate up to 50 to 70 % of clayey, silty fines material which is usually classified as unacceptable for construction purposes in road construction or road rehabilitation. The treatment improves not only the stability and loading capacity; it enables also a tailored realization of full impermeability, which allows to use treated soil as lining in ponds or artificial lakes, dams and other water exposed constructions. Such treated impermeable soil material is also excellent construction material for dams, railway embankments and formations, but also of high value to form bottom soil layers as well as covering soil material at disposal areas to avoid seepage and the pollution of groundwater. The consolid system for soil stabilization is always affected by two products, which are used together. It is consolid444 (C444) and solidry (SD). Consolid444 (C444) liquid components and solidry is a powder like component. The two components are mixed with the soil. Afterwards the soil is fully compacted. The consolid soil stabilisation system can be used for almost every kind of soil. The

consolid soil stabilisation system is a total system, not only compaction aid or something else. It allows to change the behaviour of the treated soil completely. Water is the most effective enemy of stability; consolid fights against the capillary rise of water and agglomerated the fines irreversible. A soil loses its bearing strength by taking up water. Therefore any diminution of such water absorption will yield increased bearing capacities. The CBR value (California Bearing Ratio) taken as an indicator for the bearing capacity of a soil, a CBR value of 35 times that of an untreated soil can be expected by the consolid soil stabilisation treatment. The use of consolid system in the field has some economical advantages on cost. Using local soil as much as possible instead of bringing the material from outside, the digging of the local soil and exchanging with the material brought from outside and avoiding the cost of both transportations, one of the most important advantages of the consolid system is the opportunity to use and develop the local material that generally causes costs to increase, when local material needs to be exchanged with the material that is brought from outside, the opportunity to pre-mixing the material and saving construction time. As cement and lime are additives with hydraulic binding properties, they significantly increase the CBR values of any soil they are applied. However, consolid system does not have any binding property. Although the natural soil sample used in this study is not a type of soil on which consolid system has a maximum effect, it is considered that good CBR values are obtained. Since the consolid soil stabilisation products interact with the fine particles that thanks to the treatment can be used as natural binders, sand has to be mixed with cohesive soil prior to the treatment with the consolid soil stabilisation additives in order to obtain a content of fines of approximately 20%30%. The soil mix prepared in this way can then be treated just as any other soil. In principle all cohesive or semicohesive soils or soils with a certain amount of silt (0.0020.1 mm) lead to a permanent soil stabilisation. The optimal soil mixture is 1/3 clay and silt (00.2 mm), 1/3 sand (0.22 mm), and gravel and stones (2200 mm). Missing fractions are easily mixed in from nearby soils. Scope of The Study To Study soil stabilization for subbase and base course using innovative material namely Consolid system of soil stabilization for rural road in East Gujarat at District Dahod. Taluka: JHALOD. One stretch of road details as shown in Table No 2, and Figure 1. Table 2 Location of field study Sr. No 01 Name of road Karath Kali Mahudi Bharkha Length of Road - Km. 1.02 Study Jhalod. Dist Dahod

Figure 1: Study area location Objectives of the Study To study the improvement in physical and engineering properties of soil using innovative material namely Consolid system application in sub base and base course in rural road in East Gujarat at District Dahod. Taluka: JHALOD. Codal Practice for Stabilized Soil in Pavement. IRC: SP: 72-2007-Guidelines for the design of flexible pavement for low volume rural roads. Subbase materials: Liquid limit and plasticity index of not more than 25 and 6 respectively. The soaked CBR value should not be less than 20. If the material is not available in economical leads, the subbase material meeting the prescribed grading with a soaked CBR value of not less than 15 can be permitted with the approval of competent authority. The minimum thickness of subbase shall not less than 100mm. Subbase course-Cement treated The cement content for cement treated subbase should be determined by mix design, yielding a 7 day unconfined compressive strength of not less than 17 Kg/cm2.= 1700 kPa.

Base course material Soil cement base: The soil cement mix should be designed to attain a minimum laboratory 7 day UCS of 2.76 MN/m2. =27.6 Kg/cm2 = 2760 kPa. The thickness of base shall not less than 150mm. IRC: 51-1992 -guidelines for the use of soil lime mixes in road construction. As per IRC: 51-1992 UCS Design procedure should be preferred since it is more realistic as compared to CBR Design. Strength Criteria: For testing the strength of stabilized soils, the CBR test is widely used in the case of gravelly soil where as UCS test is often used with fine grained soils. CBR Test: Minimum CBR value for the lime stabilized sub base should be 15% for low trafficked rural road. UCS Test: In terms of the unconfined compressive, the lime stabilized soil used for sub base should have a strength of 700 kPa (kN/m2 ) = 7 Kg/cm2. IRC-8 IRC-88-1984 :recomme- nded practice for lime flyash stabilised soil base/subbase in pavement construction. The minimum unconfined compressive strength and CBR values after 28 days curing and 4 days soaking should be 7.5 Kg/cm2 and 25% respectively. In terms of seven days curing and 4 days soaking, the minimum unconfined compressive strength and CBR values should be 3 Kg/cm 2 and 10 % respectively.

Figure 2: Existing prepared earthwork of gravelly material

Figure 3: Composite soil

Design of Experiment

Figure 4: CBR mould preparation on site The purpose of the experimental work is to investigate the effect of addition of Consolid System of soil stabilization on various Engineering properties of soil like CBR value in soak and unsoak condition, Unconfined Compressive strength (UCS). One more test which typically represent the field condition Capillary Rise Test is performed, and also to investigate its utilization as a Subbase and Base course for rural road construction. As shown in Table 3.1 the soil sample is tested for CBR unsoaked and soaked with and without consolid system. CBR test is performed as per IS: 2720 (Part-16). UCS Test: IS 2720 (Part-10) -1973. UCSUnconfined Compressive Strength test, It is mostly performed on fine grained soil. The maximum load that can be transmitted to the sub-soil by a foundation depends upon the resistance of the underlying soil or rock to shearing deformation or compressibility. Therefore it is the prime importance to investigate the factors that control the shearing strength is commonly investigated by means of compression test. The purpose of this test is to obtain a quantitative values of compressive strength and shearing strength of such soil in an undrained state.

Field Application of Consolid System The soil sample collected from study stretch District: Dahod. Taluka: Jhalod, The physical properties is tested for 2 samples and CBR test performed collected on every 500 mt. Total length of road is 1.02 Km. The results shown in Table-1 Testing on Native soil of Karath kali Mahudi Bharkha Dabar falia Road.

Testing of Soil Samples of Study Stretch East Gujarat. Dist: Dahod, Taluka : Jhalod.- One study stretch Composite soil preparation

Figure 5: Application of Solidry Powder on Trial stretch at Karath kali Raod.

Figure 6: Mixing with rotavator and compaction by roller

For Maximizing the use of in situ material there is cohesive soil is available nearby so the cohesive soil is placed over the prepared subgrade and mixed with coarser particle of the granular sandy material. The composite soil is ready to use for consolid system application. As per manufacturers guidelines C444-Liquid and solidry powder mixed with soil by using rotavator and compaction by static roller of 10 ton as shown in fig-5 and Fig-6.

Figure 7: Treated top surface of Road at Karath Kali Mahudi Road

Figure 8: Treated and Untreated soil sample for capillary rise test

As shown in Fig-7 compacted top surface of road. Capillary Rise Test Capillary rise test performed on UCS test size sample of 40 mm dia and 80 mm length. Samples are prepared as per UCS sample preparation procedure. Soil samples are prepared with and without consolid treatment. Soil samples are put in 20 mm deep water and capillary rise is measured.

As shown in Fig -8 left hand side sample is treated and right hand side is untreated As shown in Fig 9 untreated soil sample fell down after one hour of capillary rise test. This shows the water proofing effect of consolid treatment.

Figure 9: Treated and Untreated soil sample for capillary rise test.-untreated sample fell down within one hour.

Figure 10: Field CBR Testset up at Karath Kali Road

Field CBR Test on Study Stretch After completion of stabilization treatment with Consolid on 1.02 Km of road field CBR test is performed on top surface of road. Field CBR test is performed after three week of road construction. The surface is left for routine traffic and vehicular movement has been started on prepared surface of road. Test set up as shown in Fig- 10

As shown in above Table No 8 there is significant improvement in CBR value. The test results shows that after period of time stability of road is improved. Prepared surface become stable and none yielding. From the above results average CBR may be considered in the range of 25% to 40%. The CBR at the time of construction before one month was 27.1%.

Economic Aspects Overview Quantifying the cost of stabilized soil is a very difficult issue to address. This is the result of several factors real figures can only be obtained when the full design of the construction makes use of all advantage of the treatment. For cost comparison treated and untreated pavement section cost is compared for crust provided on the study stretch. Study stretch at karath kali mahudi Road cross section as per Fig No 11. The treated layer thickness is same with untreated pavement course. Treated pavement has replaced the subbase course of Granular material (GSB) and base course of WBM/WMM. The treated pavement also replaces the bituminous binder course of BM/MPM. The cost is workedout for the crust provided at study stretch. The rates are as per DPR of this project.

Cost calculation for the study stretch with consolid treatment The pavement thickness design and cross section as shown in Figure No 11. Cost calculation only for the provided crust. The cost calculation as shown in Table no 9. The rates are as per study stretch work, quantities are worked out for 1 Km length of road. The cross section of the road is as per Figure No-11. The cross section is for treated subbase and base course pavement.

Figure 11: Typical Cross section of Rural road with Consolid treatment

As shown in Fig 11 the cross section of rural road pavement for soil stabilization treatment with Consolid system. The Table no. 8 shows the cost calculation with chemical treatment. The cross section of road crust detail shows that there is replacement of Granular sub base course and 75 mm thick Water bound macadam (machine crushed metal) for base course. There is also total replacement of Bituminous binder course only surface course is provided with 25 mm thick Open Graded premix carpet (OGPC) with seal coat. The total cost for the above treatment is worked out Rs.13,41,680=00

Cost calculation for the study stretch without Consolid treatment As shown in Fig 12 is the cross section of rural road pavement for usual construction practice. The Table no 10 shows the cost calculation without chemical treatment. The cross section of road crust

detail shows that there is 175 mm thick Granular sub base course and 75 mm thick Water bound macadam (machine crushed metal) for base course. There is Bituminous binder course is provided by 50 mm thick Modified penetration macadam and surface course is provided 20 mm thick Open Graded premix carpet (OGPC) with 5 mm thick seal coat. The total cost for the above treatment is worked out Rs.12,54,052=00

Figure 12 Typical Cross section of Rural road with treatment The difference between untreated and treated cost is 12,342/- with the Consolid system per km construction of rural road cost savings Rs.12,342/The benefit is in terms of saving in resource, the chemical treatment replace the Granular material and WBM (Machine crushed metal) so it is the benefit by saving useful resource. The saving is in bituminous binder course which also saves the resource. The possible savings are substantial 1. There is no soil to exchange (May be some material has to be borrowed to improve the insitu soil) which gives substantially savings in material and transportation costs. 2. Bituminous course thickness is reduced 3. Construction time can be saved.

Conclusion The consolid additives improves the strength properties of soil expresses as CBR and UCS are increased if the treated material is dried back to about 50% OMC. Once the treated soil has been dried back, water ingress into the soil is prevented at high degree. The moisture content remains low and the strength high. The Atterbergs limits are therefore not relevant. From the laboratory experiment it is clearly identified that the treatment improves CBR 4 to 5 times and UCS is improved 11 to 12 times which shows that Consolid system increases the cohesion between soil particles and improves the shear strength of soil which ultimately improves the load bearing capacity.

The field CBR test is carried out on prepared base course it is in the range of 25 to 40%, The Laboratory CBR at the time of construction was 18.55 %. The field CBR results shows that there is considerable improvement in CBR after traffic movement on the road and there is a chance of further improvement in stability. The new capillary rise test shows the actual effect of treatment. The test shows that the treatment create the water proofing effect, control water sensitivity of soil by reducing or destroying the capillary rise of water and by controlling the soaking in of surface water as one of the main supposition for stability. It become feasible to replace the superior and costly layer of granular Subbase and Base course of WBM and bituminous binder course of MPM/BM/BBC, need wearing course only. The use of consolid system can be attractive and most viable alternative in the regions where scarcity of granular material and stone metals are of high cost. The Comtt for accreditation of New materials and techniques formed under the agies of highway research board of Indian Road congress to accredited patented or new materials has accredited large number of materials / techniques for a period of two years and these are being used on trial basis. References

Alam singh "Soil Engineering in theory and practices" Vol-III selected topics. CBS publishers 2002,New Delhi. ASTM :D1633 Standard Test Methods for Compressive Strength of Molded Soil-Cement Cylinders. ASTM :D 5102-96 Standard Test Method for Unconfined Compressive Strength of Compacted Soil-Lime Mixtures A.U. Ravi Shankar et.al. " Bio-Enzyme Stabilized Lateritic Soil as a Highway Material" Paper no-553 Journal of the Indian Road Congreee, July-September-2009, 143-151. Behad Kalantari "Peat Soil Stabilization, using ordinary Portland cement, Polypropylene Fibres, and Air Curing Technique" EJGE Vol 13,2009. Consolid AG Switzerland "The Consolid System manual" D Neeraja et. al. "Use of certain admixtures in The construction of pavement On expansive clayey subgrade International Journal of Engineering Science and Technology. IRC: 88-1984 "Recommended practice for lime fly ash stabilized soil base/sub base in pavement construction" 1984 published by Indian road congress-New Delhi.-1984. IRC: 51-1992 "Guidelines for the use of Soil-Lime mixes in road construction." 1984 published by Indian road congress-New Delhi.-1992. IRC SP:20-2002 "Guidelines for the design of flexible pavement for low volume roads" published by Indian road congress-New Delhi.-2002. I.S. : 2720 ( Part 1 to 41) "Various Method of Test for Soil."

Madhavi Vedula et al "Low Cost Soil Stabilization Technique for Rural Road Construction" Commemorative Issue For National Conference on Rural Road and Exposition Green sampark PMGSY-2007.

Mark C. Jogan, "Low cost Technique of base stabilization" Iowa department of Transportation,1994. Quality Assurance hand book for Rural Roads-Ministry of Rural Development Govt of India. National Rural Road Development Agency. Volume-I -2007 Kadiyali L.R. "Principles and Practices of Highway Engineering, Khanna Publishers-Delhi-2006.

NBMCW March 2012

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Different Methodologies for Repair of Cracks in PQC in Concrete Pavements

Dr. Yash. P. Gupta, Technical Advisor, COWI - DIPL Consortium, Naini Bridge Project, Allahabad, India And (Ex) Material Consultant Allahabad By Pass Project, Allahabad Large scale construction of Bridges & Highways is going on in India and World over. They are mostly made as rigid pavements using Pavement Quality Concrete (PQC). On one hand, concrete is a very good and strong material, but it develops cracks due to temperature, shrinkage, creep etc. Until unless enough precautions are taken, some cracks do come up on concrete surface. Prominent cracks should be repaired for better performance and longer life of Highways/pavements. To repair these cracks, several materials and procedure have been developed. The efficiency of these materials and procedures depend on the type of crack, weather conditions and applicator efficiency. In this paper various procedures of crack repair are described. However, any procedure in general should be first tried on pilot basis and then depending upon its success, repairing of cracks be done at site. A procedure of injecting low viscosity Epoxy Material is an excellent material. It is discussed here and can be used for the repair of cracks. Why Concrete Cracks

First it is necessary to understand why the concrete cracks. There can be many reasons why the concrete cracks. These need to be understood from its reaction and setting pattern point of view. The main reason is improper concrete mix design and laying / jointing practice related to the inherent nature of concrete to change volumetrically due to moisture, reaction and thermal effects etc. The incidence of cracks can be minimized by improving concrete mix design, laying time weather condition and jointing practices with timely saw cutting and properly managed curing. Concrete roads, properly designed and constructed, should require little, if any, maintenance over its design life. Still, proper and timed maintenance may extend the life of the pavement even beyond designed service life. Concrete pavements undergo stress and strain due to traffic and climatic effects. However, as long as sub grade is properly compacted, any variation/change in support (due to moisture-changes) has little effect on performance. Proper weather during construction and laying / jointing practice will eliminate most premature distresses. Otherwise, some shrinkage cracking may appear before the road is opened to traffic. Normally, there is no reason why a concrete road should not perform well during the designed life span if properly laid and cared through maintenance.

Identification and Location of Cracks on PQC Surface A. Identification of Affected Area The relevant pavement is surveyed and effected portion marked with a marker. The area can be struck with a hand held hammer to further qualify and quantify the crack. The dull and hollow sound is emitted from the unsound concrete whereas metallic sound is emitted from sound concrete. The boundary of area to be treated should be marked and as far as possible rectangular and normally about 50 mm should be taken into the sound concrete to make sure that all unsound concrete is included. Cracks and its location can be identified from top surface of PQC and some from sides. Then judge the extent of cracking in concrete by any one of following methods. 1. Visual Survey of the effected PQC Surface. This should preferably be done after rains or after washing the surface with water. 2. Measure the width of cracks at top of PQC surface by using thickness gauges. 3. NDT: Non destructively estimate the extend of cracking by using NDT technique. Commonly adopted NDT technique is Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity Measurements using UPV meter. 4. Core Drilling: Take cores at the apparent location of cracks which are seen from top, upto full depth of PQC. Generally cores can be taken of 100 or 150 mm in diameter. B. Classification of Cracks and Repair Methods The cracks may be classified in following categories: a. b. c. d. e. f. Small Hair Cracks (< 1mm) - seen mainly at top. Medium / Partial or half depth cracks Full depth cracks Many checker cracks in any one panel of PQC. Pot holes and Corner damages Settlement of panel or Multiple cracks near expansion joints.

Such Surface Cracks develops in PQC due to temperature difference, late joint cutting, and defective curing of PQC etc. The cracks will allow water / mud /debris going into the cracks and widens them further.

Medium or Full depth cracks Some typical Medium or Full depth cracks are shown in Figures 1.

Figure 1: Typical Cracks in PQC Pavement Surface

Settlement of panel or Multiple cracks near expansion joints: Such cracks normally develop because of poor compaction or poor Concrete Mix Design. Some typical cracks are shown in Figure 2.

Figure 2: Typical Panel Settlement or near panel Cracks

Visually examine all such cracks and decide which crack is to be repaired on the basis of width, depth and its pattern. In general hair or micro cracks do not affect much the structural integrity of PQC much. Thus remedial works or repair of such cracks may not be necessary. However, partial / half depth cracks should be repaired. About full depth cracks and many checker cracks, it must be decided on the case to case basis after looking at the site and analyzing the condition depending upon its width, length and number of cracks in a panel as to what treatment is to be given.

Repair Materials for Crack

The material, techniques / System for repair the PQC cracks should be such which will have durability of minimum 10 15 years or as per the designed life of pavement. Otherwise water may penetrate from these cracks and reach sub-grade and embankment level causing settlement. This will ultimately damage the pavement. Hence it is necessary that a methodology and guidelines for the repairs & rehabilitation of such cracks in PQC be developed. Normally the repair material should remain flexible enough to accommodate anticipated expansion & contraction, water-tightness etc. Repaired cracks should not be rigid otherwise the cracks may appear again in the same panel at adjacent panels. Following are some of the material used in crack repair. 1. Very Low Viscosity Epoxy Material 2. Epoxy Modified Mortar 3. Polyurethane based coating over Epoxy Mortar 4. Elastomeric Concrete 5. Fiber Reinforced Concrete. Details of some of these materials are given here: 1. Very Low Viscosity Epoxy Material It is a free flow epoxy grout material designed for grouting gaps of low width like 0.5 to 10 mm. This epoxy repair compound or free flowing epoxy resinous grouting material or similar product is a very low viscosity liquid of around 10 poise or so. Epoxy compound like RESICRETE of SWC or CONVEXTRA EP10 (M) of FORSROC which is normally supplied as two-component product consisting of base and hardener can be used. This should normally have viscosity of 2-4 poise at ambient temperature. The Compressive strength of such material should be at least 60-70 MPa or 1 times the Compressive strength of concrete used for PQC. 2. Epoxy Modified Mortar Epoxy mortar is a common material used for repair of concrete surfaces in general, especially for the pot holes in rigid pavements. However, 100 % epoxy based mortar is little brittle in the long run; hence in case of repairs of pavements, its modified products should be used such that the resultant material is not rigid. The Epoxy Mortar we can modified by:

Adding about 5 % Poly-sulphide polymer in the epoxy resin as it basically needs to modify the formulations of epoxy based mortar. Many companies have started manufacturing Epoxy Poly-sulphide mixed based mortar.

o o

It will not only improve the life of mortar but also it gives flexibility which is required in the repair mortar used for the pavements. By adding Poly-sulphide polymer, it improves the UV resistance.

3. Polyurethane based coating over Epoxy Mortar As epoxy mortars are non-uv resistance, but still it is a good high strength material, so use polyurethane based coating on the repaired surface of mortar which is exposed to UV or direct sunlight. This coating will protect the existence of epoxy mortar till the time the mortar remain intact & not start to loose its property of non-brittleness. PU coating should normally be of about 300 micron thickness. 4. Elastomeric Concrete This is an epoxy modified cement concrete used in repairs not only in PQC crack repairs but also in structures and concrete surface. For PQC Crack repairs Elastomeric concrete is a useful material. 5. Fiber Reinforced Concrete Fiber reinforced concrete is a concrete having small size aggregate (say 6 mm or so) or Cement sand mortar. It is mixed with any one of the different type of fiber given below which are generally used in construction. Poly propylene Fibers are more appropriate for this purpose. Though, there are several types of fibers available as given below. Normally fiber concrete can also be used as a thin top layer or bearing surface over the cracked PQC pavement after treatment of cracks. a. b. c. d. Steel Fibers Carbon fibers Glass Fibers Poly propylene Fibers etc.

Repair Method of PQC in Pavements Repairs can be classified into following categories: a. b. c. d. e. f. Partial Depth repairs (Transverse as well as Longitudinal) of PQC. Repairs of longitudinal cracks by using U type anchorages / stitching. Repairs of the pavements especially for the areas where aggregates are exposed due to various reasons like after concreting sudden rain started or due to more tear & wear of concrete etc. Re-surfacing of Pavements by Fiber Reinforced Concrete / Mortar for betterment. Cross Stitching / stapling of panels / cracks: Repair the cracks by putting dowel bars with caps & tie bars so that it can have some space to have movements. Repairs of Potholes and corner spalls in concrete pavements etc

Repair of minor Cracks (<1 mm wide)

These are very low (small) width cracks or hairline cracks. Such cracks generally do not affect the performance of road surface. Thus these cracks, unless the severity level increases, need not be repaired. Further observe these cracks over a period of time for enlargement. Medium Cracks (generally 1 to 5 mm wide) If cracks are not moving then a very low viscosity epoxy resin may be used for its repair with or without fine sand to bond the crack faces. V shaped joint wells are made with 3 to 5 mm saw blade. Also make 8 to 10 mm diameter grout holes at regular interval. Then pump the epoxy bonded into holes using a grout gun. Partial Depth Repairs The spalling of concrete occurs near the joints mainly due to adjacent slab load transfer related movement at the joint particularly in summer. The spalling will occur frequently in mid slab locations and other locations mainly due to high slump due to w/c ratio, poor construction or failure of earlier done repairs. Spalls are a localized problem and can be easily repaired with partial depth repair methods. Full Depth Repairs The full depth repairs are necessitated due to Transverse Crack in slab in full panel width. This crack may be in one lane or both the lanes. The reasons for such crack are:

Locking of Transverse Joint: The joint does not function due to non-functioning of dowel bars. These dowel bars either get misaligned during construction or slurry gets into sleeves and prevents their movement. The intermediate crack may be caused due to too much resistance offered by rough surface of underlying DLC. The crack may also develop due to thermal changes coupled with large joint spacing.

In all such cases where cracks are more harmful, then the PQC Panel should be examined carefully, if the panel is to be repaired or removed. If it has to be repaired than use the technique of cross stitching method. However, if that portion of panel is to be removed and then recast the panel as indicated by Removal of Existing Unsound Concrete. Some of these repair methods are described here. I. Repair By Grouting of Low Viscosity Epoxy Material a. Equipments for Repair Depending upon the method of repair the following equipments may be used.

Grouting Pump of capacity about 5-10 Kg/cm2. Mechanical Grout Mixer Air Compressor Injection Ports.


b.

Hand Chisel, trowel, etc. On both sides of crack, the side edges be slightly chiseled to give a V-shape. If required do chiseling until a hard concrete is encountered. Remove loose material from crack area and blow out the dust and debris from the gap of crack by using a compressor or air blower.

Preparation for Crack Repair

Figure 3: PQC crack showing the Grout holes

Drill holes in PQC surface in the line of Crack upto depth of about 150mm & 10 mm diameter @ 300 400 mm c/c as shown in figure 3.

Fix Injection ports (Nipples) of plastic or similar material ie nozzles of 6-8 mm in diameter and 100mm length into the holes using appropriate gluing compound like Araldite. Keep the projection of nozzle outside the PQC to about 20 mm. c. Repair Procedure

Surface to be repaired may be pre wetted or bring it in SSD condition. Apply a coat of primer like acrylic bonding agent using brush after scrubbing it well on the prepared surface. Allow the primer to become tacky, which normally takes 10 15 minutes or as given in the manufacturer literature.

Push the Compressed air into the crack to flush out the dust and all foreign material from the crack to the side or top. Fill the top of V-grove portion by appropriate Epoxy modified mortar. Use the epoxy repair compound or free flowing epoxy resinous grouting material or similar product of very low viscosity. Prepare the mix of the repair material as directed by manufacturer or Mix them mechanically with Grout mixture after weighing them in recommended proportions.

Recommended water quantity (if water based) will be measured and added to polymer component and mix it thoroughly. The powder component will be mixed until a homogeneous mix is obtained.

Pressure Inject the above material or appropriate ultra low Viscosity epoxy liquid first in the middle nozzle from one side of crack. Continue till it is forced out of next nozzle or from the side of PQC crack. Then shift the injection procedure to next nozzle.

After the injection is complete, estimate the consumption of grouting material or find out the quantity of injected material. This may be compared with the estimated quantity.

If possible ask a supervisor from the suppliers of material to supervise the job as per their recommended procedure and specifications during the use of product.

d.

Apply the mix within the pot life of repair compound on the prepared crack. If sagging on surface occurs during application to PQC surface, then Polyurethane based coating may be applied by trowel in smaller thickness in one or two layers.

Finishing of Repair Surface of Crack

The applied mortar shall be finished with wooden floats. When the injection operation is over then cut the projected portion of nozzles and sealing the portion by Epoxy Mortar. After completion of repair of the joints, spalls, partial depth repair, corner repairs, etc sealing of expansion joints should be done immediately using polyurethane coating otherwise joints might leak & will create problems in future.

e.

Curing of Repaired Surface

II.

The repaired surface shall be cured by curing compound or water curing, if required or as recommended by manufacturer.

Repair By Stitching or Cross-stitching of Cracks Cross-Stitching is a repair technique mostly used for longitudinal cracks which are in reasonably good condition. The purpose of cross-stitching is to maintain aggregate interlock and provide added reinforcement for strength. The tie bars used in cross-stitching prevent the crack from vertical and horizontal movement or widening. This technique knits the cracked portions of the slab together and reduces the chances of crack to grow further. Cross-stitching uses deformed tie bars drilled across the crack at an angle of 30-40 degrees. Deformed steel bars of 10-12 mm diameter are sufficient to hold the crack tightly closed and enhance aggregate interlock. Full depth holes of 18-20 mm diameter are drilled at a pitch distance of 300 mm with offset of about 150 mm from the crack. The holes are drilled alternately from each side of the crack so that it passes through the crack from left to right, while the next from right to left. After drilling, the holes are flushed with high pressure air to clean out any residual dust. Then a high strength epoxy gel adhesive is injected into the hole. Immediately after injecting epoxy, deformed steel bars are inserted into each hole. The crack is sealed at the top with silicon / epoxy modified sealant.

III.

Removal / Replacement Of PQC Panel which has large cracks

When any one of the PQC panel has large number of cracks or if it is settled, then concrete of such panel should be removed fully. Otherwise ether it is very difficult to repair or it is too costly. In such cases the following may be resorted: a. Full panel removal and recasting as given below.

Removal of Existing Unsound Concrete A minimum of 50 mm deep rectangular cut should be made at the end of panel which is to be removed. Use saw cutting machine with vertical faces. Inside this panel mark rectangle, smaller square of size 100 mm 100 m and 25-30 mm deep. These are marked to remove in parts. The smaller square should be chipped off with chisel. If jack hammer is used, it should not be more than 14 Kg. in weight. After removal of unsound concrete, a reassurance hammer-striking is done and any left out unsound area is also removed by enlarging the rectangle. If the unsound concrete penetrates more than half depth of slab then full depth of panel should be removed.

Breaking the Old Concrete A saw cut usually as deep as possible is made to include all unsound concrete. Once this cut (full depth or partial maximum depth) has been made, about 100 mm deep cuts are made with circular diamond saw-cutters. On the surface of cut-out slab some 75 mm 75 mm or 100 mm 100 mm square saw cuts are made to facilitate the breaking of concrete by jack-hammer.

Recasting of Panel Concrete Once the old concrete is removed the panel can be prepared for recasting. A typical view is shown in figure 4. The PQC used for recasting should be used should be of the same grade as of original grade concrete. While recasting the panel, Dowel bars and tie bars should be put in panel as shown in figure. Other procedures are as used in original casting.

References

Jose C. Horta Report on Defects and Distress of Rigid Pavement Sections: Survey, Rating, Monitoring, Causes and Repair By Rev.TL.30.10.05 Binod Kumar, Dr. Saroi Gupta, Dr. V. K. Sood, 2004, Restoration Techniques for Distressed Concrete Pavements, Technical Papers, Seminar on Design Construction and Maintenance of Cement Concrete Pavements, New Delhi, 8-10 October 2004, p. IV-101 to 110

Committee of State Road Authorities, Pretoria, South Africa, 1990, Standard Nomenclature and Methods for Describing the Condition of Jointed Concrete Pavements, Technical Recommendations for Highways, Draft TRH19:1989, p. 1 - 49

D. C. De, S. K. Bagui, 2004, Approach to Maintenance of Concrete Roads, Technical Papers, Seminar on Design Construction and Maintenance of Cement Concrete Pavements, New Delhi, 8-10 October 2004, p. IVK-1 to 21

S. G. Joglekar, D. C. Saha, 2005, Defects, Repair and Rehabilitation of Concrete Pavement, Seminar on High Speed Road Corridors, New Delhi, 23 - 24 September 2007, p. 2:51 - 59 Satander Kumar, 2004, Causes of Distress, Repair end Maintenance of Concrete Roads, Technical Papers, Seminar on Design Construction and Maintenance of Cement Concrete Pavements, New Delhi, 8-10 October 2004, p. IV-2 to 14

Mohamed Y. Shahin, 1994, Pavement Management for Airports, Roads and Parking Lots, Chapman & Hall, New York, London, 450 p. Dr. V. M. Sharma, 2004, Diagnostic Investigations and Repair of Cement Concrete Pavements State of the Art, Technical Papers, Seminar on Design Construction and Maintenance of Cement Concrete Pavements, New Delhi, 8-10 October 2004, p. IV-133 to 144

Vikas V. Thakar, 2004, Maintenance and Rehabilitation of Cement Concrete Pavements - State of the Art, Technical Papers, Seminar on Design Construction and Maintenance of Cement Concrete Pavements, New Delhi, 8-10 October 2004, p. IV-111 to 132

J.R. Hodgkinson (June 1982) C&CAA Technical Note 49: Steel Reinforcement for Concrete Road Pavements, Australia.

Retrofitting Techniques for Bridges and Flyovers

Dr. S.K.Thakkar, Ex. Professor Railway Chair and Professor of Earthquake Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee. Abstract The extensive damage to bridges world over in earthquakes has generated considerable interest amongst the engineers and researchers on the seismic design of new bridges and retrofitting of existing ones. Prior to the development of modern codes, the bridges were designed for nominal seismic forces without provisions of ductility. Seismic codes began to incorporate ductility provisions only in 1970. Thus the bridges designed earlier may be deficient to withstand effect of future earthquakes. These structures may require seismic evaluation and retrofitting. The protection of bridges from damage in earthquakes has direct relevance in prevention of aggravation of disaster, as disruption of transportation routes hampers relief and rescue operations immediately following the earthquake. Several retrofitting techniques have been developed for bridges in recent years. Many of the existing bridges can be retrofitted by these techniques. Some seismic countries have undertaken the programmes of seismic assessment and retrofitting of bridges on a bigger scale. Such actions are proving to be effective as evidenced by performance of retrofitted bridges in recent earthquakes. There is need in India to investigate the likely behavior of existing bridge stock in future earthquakes and initiate seismic retrofitting. This paper highlights the important issues: structural deficiencies; retrofit philosophy, retrofit techniques, recent developments and effectiveness of retrofit techniques Introduction The extensive damage of bridges all over the world in recent earthquakes has been the motivation in significant advancement in the earthquake resistant design and retrofitting of bridges. The bridges constructed prior to 1970 were not designed for adequate seismic resistance as the ductility provisions were not incorporated in the seismic codes till then. As a result the bridges designed before this year lack in earthquake resistance and ductility and may be vulnerable to significant damage even from moderate earthquakes. The post earthquake damage surveys in recent earthquakes have confirmed

this view. It has also been revealed from damage surveys that many of the damages that occurred in bridges and flyovers could be prevented by proactive measures of seismic retrofitting prior to earthquakes. Many of the reinforced concrete piers designed earlier had inadequate shear capacity due to lack of transverse steel and confinement, inadequately lapped longitudinal steel, and premature termination of longitudinal steel. The superstructures were vulnerable to falling down in the absence of restraining devices; bearings were deficient in accommodating large seismic displacement and bearing seat was inadequate. These deficiencies had an adverse impact on the performance of bridges. An existing bridge can be replaced by a newly designed bridge to meet earthquake demands or upgraded in its strength by appropriate retrofitting measures. The retrofitting is often an economical alternative than replacement. The retrofitting of bridges has received considerable attention in recent years because need of their safe operations in post-earthquake scenario for relief and rescue operations. There are two types of situations that require retrofitting in bridges, (i) the existing bridges that are deficient to meet requirements of current codes but are vulnerable to damage; these bridges have not yet experienced even moderate earthquakes, (ii) the existing bridges that are damaged in earthquakes. The bridges in the later category require both repair and retrofitting. There are many retrofitting techniques developed for upgrading earthquake resistance in bridges. The techniques are equally applicable to bridges damaged in earthquakes. The principal issues facing the retrofitting are: evaluation of seismic capacity of existing bridges, identifying structural deficiencies, ageing effects, decision on level of retrofitting, hazard levels for design, performance criteria, developing alternate strategies of retrofitting, choice of right strategy, re-evaluation of retrofitted structure, validating effective retrofitting measures and health monitoring of retrofitted bridges. There are not many codes and guidelines developed for the retrofitting of bridges. There are many issues that still need more research and development. The objective of the paper is to present an overview of retrofitting techniques and discussion on many of the issues highlighted above. Earthquake Damages of Bridges In order to design suitable retrofit measures, it is appropriate to highlight common bridge damage types and failures that has occurred in past earthquakes in India. These types of failures are to be often required to be dealt with in retrofitting of bridges. The common types of earthquake damages of bridges in India are briefly described below: Falling down of bridge spans: The bridge spans can drop down from their supports. There are few examples of loss of span types of failures in past earthquakes. The Inchape Bridge over toppled from its supports in Bihar earthquake of 1934. A multispan masonry arch bridge collapsed in Koyna earthquake of 1967. A single span steel truss over toppled from its supports in Uttarkashi earthquake of 1991. There are many examples of dislodgement of spans on the bearings. Bearing failure: There are many examples of bearing failures in bridges in India. To mention a few, the holding down bolts of fixed bearings sheared off in one fixed bearing in a railway bridge in Broach earthquake of 1970. There was failure of bearings in Silcher in Cachar earthquake of 1984 (Arya and Thakkar, 1992). There was failure of elastomeric bearings in Surajbari Bridge in Bhuj earthquake of 2001.

Expansion joint failure: There are examples of expansion joint failure in Kaliabhomora Bridge at Tejpur in Assam earthquake of 1988. There are examples of expansion joint failures in Bhuj earthquake of 2001 (Thakkar et al, 2001). Substructure damage: There are many examples of substructure damage in earthquakes in India. To mention a few, the twin RC piers of a bridge became inclined and cracked in Cachar earthquake of 1984. There are examples of damage to substructures of bridges in the form of cracking and spalling of concrete in Bhuj earthquake of 2001. Liquefaction failure: There are examples of liquefaction of sand in Bihar earthquake of 1934, BiharNepal earthquake of 1988 and in river beds in Bhuj earthquake of 2001. The effect on bridges has not led to catastrophic failures. Structural Deficiencies The observation of performance of bridges in past earthquakes world over has highlighted following deficiencies in bridges: Superstructure: Traditionally there is no linkage provided between two adjacent spans in the case of multispan simply supported bridges as a result spans are dislodged from supports due to out of phase motion in piers or bearing failures. The bearing failure occurs in fixed bearings when these are unable to withstand the seismic force generated in the superstructure. In many cases, spans fall down from their supports resulting into irrepairable damage. Superstructure deficiency is also associated with inadequate seat length at expansion joints on the supports or at the abutments resulting into unseating of span. Bearings: The traditional rocker and roller bearings have not shown satisfactory performance in earthquakes. There have been problems of jumping, inadequacy of bearings in accommodating displacements. Inadequate seat width on supports: The inadequacy of seat width on bearing supports or at expansion joints have caused unseating of span. Substructure: The various types of deficiencies observed in RC columns and piers are (i) Lack of flexural strength, (ii) Lack of shear strength (iii) Insufficient transverse reinforcement and confinement (iv) In adequate lap splicing of longitudinal steel (iv) In adequate ductile detailing in plastic hinge region of columns (iv) Premature termination of longitudinal steel in piers (v) Insufficient strength of joints between pile cap beams. Inadequacy of foundation and soil strength: Liquefaction of soil often results in damage due to unequal settlements and loss of span types of failures. Abutment failure can occur due to increased earth pressure; abutment slumping is known to occur in soft soils. Inadequate strength of footings, wells and/or piles can result in foundation failures.

Retrofit Philosophy Design Philosophy: The design philosophy for retrofitting should normally conform to that for new bridge design. This is the minimum design performance expected from a retrofitted structure. The design philosophy for new structures is as follows: i. ii. The structure is designed to resist Design Basis Earthquake (DBE) with only minor damage, which should be repairable. The structure is designed to resist Maximum Considered Earthquake (MCE) with some structural damage but controlled so as to prevent collapse. Higher Level of Performance: A higher degree of performance can however be specified to control damage such as the availability of vital communication route immediately after the earthquake. This will restrict the occurrence of category of damage specified, such as loss of girder supports, collapse of substructure and liquefaction failure of foundation soil. The purpose of this level of retrofit is to prevent collapse, as well as to provide serviceability after a major earthquake. The performance level is to be specified prior to retrofit design. Decision to Retrofit: There are two basic decisions required at the beginning of under taking retrofitting of bridges (i) whether to retrofit or not (ii) level to which bridge should be retrofitted. The first decision should be based on results of detailed seismic evaluation and level of risk. The second decision may involve reduction of seismic risk by incorporating retrofitting measures such as extending seating width and/or providing restrainers. The additional reduction in risk is possible by providing other types of seismic devices such as energy dissipating devices/dampers, and base isolation bearings between super and substructure. In case of substructures jacketing for increase in strength and ductility and detailing of plastic hinge region shall be specially required. Retrofitting Steps The major steps in retrofitting of bridges are as follows: Preliminary Screening: The seismically deficient bridges are identified by preliminary screening. The screening procedure is mainly based on (a) Seismicity (b) Vulnerability and (c) Importance. The prioritization of bridges to be retrofitted can be made on the basis of rating procedures based on above factors. Detailed Seismic Assessment: The detailed seismic evaluation of expected performance of existing bridge is necessary to determine seismic capacity, weaker sections and mode of failure. The strength evaluation can be made according to codes following dynamic methods of analysis and push over analysis techniques. It is normally desired that assessment procedure should be more precise than code. A number of prioritization methods have been developed, ATC (1983), and Kawashima (1991). Selection and Design of Retrofit Measures: On the basis of detailed seismic assessment, it should be determined whether individual component level retrofit such as extending seating width, providing restrainer or a global retrofit of complete bridge is to be undertaken. The global retrofit may include:

jacketing of bridge piers, replacement of bearings and retrofit of foundations. Re-analysis of Retrofitted Structure: The retrofitted structure should be re-analyzed using dynamic analysis. The checking of design of retrofitted structure should be based on current design codes. The retrofit techniques can also be tested on model/prototype components in laboratory under cyclic loading tests. Retrofitting Techniques The retrofitting of bridge may be required in each of the components: superstructure, bearings, substructure and foundations. The extent of retrofitting will be based on detailed seismic assessment following dynamic methods of analysis. The retrofitting techniques for various portions of bridge are described below: Superstructure

Superstructures will not normally need strengthening due to their high rigidity and large flexural capacity. Superstructure deficiency is associated with their unseating at expansion joints or on bearing supports due to relative displacements. The most commonly observed type of failure in superstructure of simple supported bridges is a girder falling off the supports due to longitudinal response. To prevent such type of failure, the adjoining spans should be interconnected by connection rods/restrainers/linkage bolts (Park, 1993). A typical example of linkage and tying of spans by restrainer, ATC (1983) is given in Fig. 1 and 2. An example of vertical restrainer retrofit is shown is Fig. 3. The unseating prevention for steel girders is often made by tying webs together with steel plates over the supports. (Keady, Alameddine and Sardo, 2000). Bearings Bridge bearings are one of the most vulnerable components in resisting earthquake. Bearing deficiencies are associated with (i) inadequate seat width and (ii) inadequacy to accommodate displacements in earthquakes. The possible retrofit solutions are: (i) replacing steel bearings, by (a) elastomeric bearings (b) base isolation bearings, (ii) bearing seat extension (iii) provision of stoppers and devices to prevent jumping of girders. Some devices have been recommended by ATC (1983). A typical example of replacement of bearing is shown in Fig. 4.

Substructures The RC columns in substructures are commonly deficient in flexural strength, shear strength and ductility. In addition, these deficiencies could be due to lack of transverse reinforcement in the plastic hinge region leading to inadequate confinement. There could be other detailing deficiencies such as premature termination of longitudinal steel in cantilever piers, inadequate anchorage and inadequate splicing of longitudinal reinforcement. The common retrofitting techniques for such deficiencies are: steel jacketing, concrete jacketing and composite material jackets:fiberglass, fiber reinforced plastic (FRP), pre-stressing steel and carbon fiber. The jacketing normally increases flexural strength of piers. The increase of flexural strength of piers tends to increase the seismic force transmitted from piers to the foundation. Therefore, there should be controlled increase in flexural strength of piers when jacketing technique is adopted. The jacketing techniques are briefly described. Steel Jacketing The circular columns are retrofitted by circular steel jackets while rectangular columns are retrofitted by elliptic or rectangular jackets, the former is more effective. In the case of circular columns, two half shells of steel plate are rolled to a radius of 12.5 to 25 mm bigger than the column radius, Fig 5 (a) and (b), (Priestley, 1996), and are site welded up the vertical seams. The steel shall provide a continuous tube around the concrete column with an annular gap. This gap is grouted with cement grout or epoxy resin. A small gap of about 50 mm is provided at the bottom of piers between steel jacket and the top of the footing. This gap enables jacket to function as a passive confinement and prevents excessive increase in the flexural strength. This jacket primarily increases shear strength and confinement. The increase of thickness of column after retrofit is very small. Concrete Jacketing This type of jacket uses a thick layer of reinforced concrete around the column. The RC jacket increases flexural strength, shear strength and ductility of column. The longitudinal reinforcement should be dowelled with adequate anchorage in the footing to develop flexural strength.

The flexural strength of column is increased (Unjoh, 2000) but it should be accompanied by footing retrofit so as to ensure that plastic hinge forms in column and not in footing. A typical method of

retrofitting using RC jacket is shown in Fig. 6 (Priestley, 1996). The confinement of circular columns can be achieved by using closely spaced hoops or spiral reinforcement. In the case of rectangular column, circular or elliptic jackets are more effective than rectangular jackets. In the later form of jacket longitudinal bars are susceptible to buckling in the middle region with the type of reinforcing shown in Fig 6b (Priestley, 1996). The concrete jacketing has an advantage of cost for construction. This method increases thickness of column by 0.50 m. This type of jacketing increases the flexural strength of column also. Composite Material Jackets The use of Advanced Composite Materials (ACM) is receiving prominence in retrofitting because it involves lesser effort; these materials have favorable mechanical properties, low weight, high strength and easier in construction. The procedure involves wrapping layers of thin, flexible straps or sheets of fiber composites around the column in the plastic hinge zone or along the entire height of column, (Saadatmanesh, 1997), Fig. 7.

The composite materials in use are fiberglass, fiber reinforced plastic (FRP), carbon fiber sheets and aramid fiber sheets. These techniques are used where enough construction space is not available (Priestly, 1996, Kawashima 2000, Unjoh, 2000). The composite jackets are effective in improving strength and ductility of columns. Techniques are found to be effective as evidenced by observed in laboratory testing. Design methods are not fully developed. There is a lack of knowledge on performance of retrofitted bridge with these techniques in major earthquakes. Foundation The retrofit of foundation, may involve high costs, is normally avoided. The rocking and uplift of foundation though undesirable is often considered as a form of isolation and may reduce seismic forces in the bridge superstructure and substructure. While ascertaining retrofitting needs in foundation, detailed seismic analysis should be carried out. However, if analysis and re-design shows deficiency in foundation, retrofitting of foundation is carried out. The retrofitting option available for

footing is the enlargement of footing size. The retrofitting option for pile foundation may consist in addition of piles and then integrating these with existing piles by extending pile caps. Recent Advances in Retrofitting Techniques There have been developments in retrofitting using newer materials and innovative technology some developments include: seismic base isolation, structural control, smart materials and viscous dampers. These techniques are briefly described below: Seismic Base Isolation

The seismic base isolation (SBI) method of retrofitting consists in replacement of conventional bearings by base isolation device. The isolation bearings elongate the natural period of bridge from a typical value of less than one second to 3 second or more. This will result in significant reduction of earthquake-induced response. The force reduction could be of the order of 3 to 8 from those of conventional fixed bearings. The base-isolation devices will result in increase in displacement response. To counter this effect some kind of damping device is provided externally or internally within the bearing. The devices should be designed according to principles of isolation. The available options of isolation system are: elastomeric bearing with external damper, high damping rubber bearing, lead rubber bearing and friction pendulum system (FPS). A typical seismic base isolation system of bridge using lead rubber bearings is shown in Fig. 8. A judicious choice may be necessary based on the benefits of isolation and additional costs of such devices. Structural Control The structural control method consists in reduction of vibrations in the system by design employing passive or active methods. The passive methods include installing isolators to isolate ground motions (SBI) and/or adding supplemental damping or passive energy dissipating devices (PED) for reduction of dynamic response. The active method consists in applying external forces to the system by actuators based on the feedback of the system. The active control system has better control and adaptivity than passive system, thus offers greater promise in bridge engineering (Zaiguaing Wu, 2000) The passive methods have their own merits and limitations. The limitations are mainly for nearfield earthquake motions and for structures with longer natural periods of vibration. In active control system, external power is required for control actuator(s) to apply forces to counter the effect of dynamic loads. The control forces can both add or dissipate energy in the structure. The feed back

signals of the system response received from physical sensors mounted on the system are sent to control actuators, which can generate necessary forces for reduction of response. The active control system has better control but it suffers from the disadvantage of requiring significant power to run actuators at the time of earthquake. Active mass dampers are one of the applications of active control method that can be used for bridges. The semi-active devices, which require much less external power as compared to active control, offer promise for applications in bridge structures. Smart Materials The smart materials have unusual thermo mechanical properties that have been explored for purpose of earthquake protection and retrofitting measures in structures. These materials also called intelligent materials have selfrepairable and self-diagnosis characteristics. Shape memory alloys (SMAs) are one kind of materials, which has found application in bridge structures. The SMA materials differ from ordinary materials in that in the former, heating the material can change the crystal structure. These materials can have phase transformation above a transformation temperature range that is specific to various alloys. One such material is use is Nitinol, which has shape memory effect and super elastic effect. Shape memory effect permits having pseudo yield and pseudo elastic deformation. The pseudoelastic deformation remains as residual strain upon unloading but can be removed upon heating. This is called shape memory effect. SMAs also possess super elastic characteristics. After pseudo yield the deformation can be recovered simply by unloading. This is called super elastic effect. The high elastic strain capabilities are of the order of 6-8%. The shape memory and super elastic effect depend on the temperature: In the lower range they show shape memory effect but in 20 to 300C higher than transformation temperature these materials show super elastic effect. The transformation temperature is a function of alloy compound. SMAs can act both as restrainers and dampers. SMAs can dissipate significant amount of energy due to shape memory effect (Andrawes and Desroches, 2004). One application of SMAs is in the use of restrainers. These devices are installed between adjoining spans to limit excessive relative displacements. Traditionally steel restraining cables have been used for this purpose. The disadvantages of traditional devices are, (i) these have no re-centering capability (ii) the devices increase ductility demand of structure. Both the drawbacks of traditional devices are overcome in restrainers made of SMA alloys. Viscous Dampers The viscous dampers are installed between deck and pier and function as an energy dissipating devices. These devices have been employed as retrofitting devices in bridges. Twelve bridges have been retrofitted in South Korea using this technology. A viscous fluid damper generally consists of a piston in a damper housing filled with a compound of silicone or oil. It dissipates energy through movement of the piston in the highly viscous fluid. If the fluid is purely viscous then damping force is directly proportional to the velocity of the piston. The device can cause significant dissipation of energy. The viscous dampers are reliable, easy in installation and efficient in operation. Effectiveness of Retrofit Techniques The success of retrofit scheme depends on how effective it is in enhancing strength and ductility of the member/structure. The real test of retrofit schemes is the observation of performance of such

structures in earthquakes. The effectiveness of retrofit schemes is studied by conducting cyclic test on model/prototype components in the laboratory. The study of hysteretic behavior under cyclic test of both original and retrofitted structure reveals the increase in stiffness, strength and ductility. The stable hysterisis loops show overall improvement in the performance. Such tests are performed in quasi-static testing laboratory. Shake table testing of original and retrofitted structure is more rational method of testing effectiveness of retrofit measures. Research and Development Issues There are significant advances in seismic retrofitting of bridges, yet there are issues that need further research for effective use of retrofitting methods. The following issues need further research: i. ii. iii. Seismic assessment: Development of seismic assessment techniques of existing bridges, particularly those bridges, which have been damaged in earthquake. Level of retrofitting: The level to which retrofitting should be done for DBE and MCE seismic conditions. This is related with retrofit philosophy adopted for bridges. Validation techniques: The validation techniques could be analytical and/or experimental. The experimental techniques include: quasi-static cyclic load testing techniques, shake table testing and pseudo dynamic testing and observation of performance in earthquakes. iv. Structural control techniques: The passive methods such as base isolation, passive energy dissipating devices like dampers and active methods are to be explored further for their application in retrofitting. v. Smart materials: Application of smart materials such as SMAs is to be studied further for their greater application in retrofitting as restrainers and dampers. Research in structural health monitoring and damage detection in hidden regions of foundations and superstructures relevant to bridges is necessary as its benefits have direct bearing in maintenance and retrofitting. Research on Non Destructive Testing (NDT) for status determination of structures is important. vi. Design procedures: Design procedures of retrofitting using advanced composite materials are required to be developed.

Conclusion The bridges need retrofitting primarily because of two reasons (i) these were designed for smaller forces than that can occur, and (ii) these may be lacking in ductility in the absence of ductile detailing of reinforcement. The structural deficiencies in many of the existing bridges have been observed from seismic behavior in recent earthquakes. Several bridges constructed prior to existence of modern seismic codes fail to meet requirement of safety. Seismic retrofitting is required for protection of such bridges in future earthquakes. It is possible to retrofit many of the existing bridges against falling of spans and other distress by simple retrofitting measures. The key issues in retrofitting are: retrofit philosophy, seismic assessment, retrofit techniques, validating effectiveness of retrofit measures, application of composite materials and smart materials, in retrofitting. The bridge retrofit program is a necessity for the country and should be undertaken for vulnerable bridges that have not yet experienced earthquakes. The retrofitting of existing bridges has direct relevance towards mitigating disaster caused by earthquakes.

References

Andrawes, Bassem and Desroches, Reginald (2004) Comparison of Different Methods for Seismic Retrofit of Bridges Using Smart Materials, 13 WCEE, Vancouver, B.C. Canada, Aug. 1-6, paper no. 274.

Arya, A.S., Thakkar, S.K., and Bakir, S.M. (1992), Retrofitting of an Earthquake Damaged Reinforced Concrete Bridge, 10WCEE, July 19- 24, Madrid, Spain. ATC (1983) Seismic Retrofitting Guidelines for Highway Bridge, Report ATC-6-2, Applied Technology Council, Palo Alto, California, August. Kawashima, K., Ichimasu, H. and Ohuchi, H. (1991), Retrofitting of Bridges, Proceedings, InternationalWorkshop on Seismic Design and Retrofitting of Reinforced Concrete Bridge, Bormio, Italy, April, pp. 471-501.

Keady, Kevin, I., Alameddine, Fadel,and Sardo, Thomas, E. (2000), Seismic Retrofit Technology, Chapter 11, Bridge Engineering, Seismic design, Edited by Wai-Fah Chen and Lian Duan, CRC Press.

Park, R. and Rodriguez, M.E. (1993), Assessment and Retrofit of a Reinforced Concrete Bridge Pier for Seismic Resistance, Earthquake Spectra, Vol. 9, No. 4. Priestley, M.J.N., Seible, F, and Calvi, G.M. (1996), Seismic Design and Retrofit of Bridges, John Wiley & Sons. Saadatmanesh, H., Ehsani, M.R., and Jin, L., (1997), Seismic Retrofitting of Rectangular Bridge Columns with Composite Straps, Earthquake Spectra, Vol. 13, No. 2, May. Thakkar, S.K., Dubey, R.N. and Agarwal, Pankaj (2001), Behavior of Buildings, Bridges and Dams in Bhuj Earthquake of January 26, 2001, Proceedings of 17th U.S. Japan Bridge Engineering Workshop. Nov.12-14, Tsukuba City, Japan.

Unjoh, Shigeki (2000), Seismic Design Practice in Japan, Chapter 12, Bridge Engineering, Seismic design, Edited by Wai-Fah Chen and Lian Duan, CRC Press Wu, Ziaguang (2000), Active Control in Bridge Engineering, Chapter 13, Bridge Engineering, Seismic Design, Edited by Wai-Fah Chen and Lian Duan, CRC Press.

Foundation Practices & Rehabilitation of Structures on Expansive Soils

Rama Subbarao G.V., Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, S.R.K. Institute of Technology, Enikepadu, Vijayawada. Expansive soils popularly known as Black cotton soils in India are highly problematic, as they swell on absorption of water and shrink on evaporation thereof. Because of this alternate swell and shrinkage, distress is caused to the foundations of structures laid on such soils. Extensive research is going on to find the solutions to black cotton soils. The present paper reviews innovative solutions along with conventional foundation practices to counteract the dual problem of swelling and shrinkage posed by expansive soils. Besides, the present paper throws a light on causes of distress in lightly loaded structures founded on expansive soils and also various measures to rehabilitate the distressed structure founded on them.

Introduction Expansive soil is commonly known as black cotton soils, because of their color and their suitability for growing cotton. Black cotton soil is one of the major regional soil deposits in India, covering an area of about 3.0 lakh sq.km. Expansive soils are problematic soils because of their inherent potential to undergo volume changes corresponding to changes in the moisture regime. When they imbibe water during monsoon, they expand and on evaporation there of in summer, they shrink. Because of this alternate swelling and shrinkage, structures founded on them are severally damaged. The annul cost of damage to the civil engineering structures is estimated at 150 million in the UK, $1000 million in the USA and many billion of pounds worldwide (Gourley et al. 1993). In India, black cotton soils have liquid limit values ranging from 50 to 100%, plasticity index ranging from 20 to 65% and shrinkage limit from 9 to 14%. The amount of swell generally increases with increase in the plasticity index. The swelling potential depends on the type of clay mineral, crystal lattice structure, cation exchange capacity, ability of water absorption, density and water content. Swell in the vertical direction is called heave. Among the illite, kaolinite and montmorillinite clay minerals, the montmorillinite possesses the greatest ability to swell by illite. The Kaolinite does not swell. Black cotton soils are very hard in dry state and possess high bearing capacity. In summer, it is very common to see shrinkage cracks with hexagonal columnar structure, with vertical cracks as wide as 10mm extending up to a depth of 3m or more. Soils containing expansive clays become very sticky when wet and usually are characterized by surface cracks or a popcorn texture (Fig.1) when dry. Therefore, the presence of surface cracks (Fig.2) is usually an indication of an expansive soil.

Figure 1: Expansive soil with popcorn texture

Figure 2: Expansive soil showing cracks

Problems With Expansive Soils The problem is more in case of light structures; those cannot counteract the upward thrust posed by expansive soils. The damage will be apparent, usually, several years after construction. The soil below will exert swelling pressure both upwards and laterally. As a result, the floor slab is lifted up, leading to cracking of floor. Cracking is normally evident at the corners of window and door openings. These usually assume in the form of diagonal cracks-a consequence of differential settlement in the wall (Fig. 3 & 4). Often, utilities buried in soil as the water pipelines and sewage lines, get damaged due to displacement in the soil in which they are buried. The ensuing leakage further aggravate the situation. Roads that pass through expansive soil sub-grade are subjected to heaving and shrinkage settlement of these treacherous soils. Both the lined and unlined canals are subjected to the vagaries of expansive soils. The unlined canal slopes erode and become soft. Canal beds heave up obstructing the functioning of the canal. The concrete linings splinter like glass pieces on account of deleterious cyclic movement of background swelling clay. This heavy results in seepage losses.

Figure 3: Cracks in exterior walls, as a

Figure 4: Major cracks in exterior walls at

result of upward soil expansion

doors and windows

Foundation Practices on Expansive Soils The following conventional foundation practices and innovative techniques can provide solutions to problematic soils. Sub excavating or replacing the Expansive Soil by Cushions

Figure 5: Subexcavating or Replacing the Expansive Soil by Cushions

In this technique, the expansive soil is replaced either in part or full (Fig. 5) with a material that doesnt undergo swell. The load of the cushion provides the load necessary to counter heave. Sand Cushion Method Satyanarayana (1969) has suggested that the entire depth of the expansive soil stratum or a part there of may be removed and replaced with a sand cushion, compacted to the desired density and thickness. Swelling pressure varies inversely as the thickness of the sand layer and directly as its density. Therefore, generally sand cushions are formed in their loosest possible state without, however, violating the bearing capacity criterion. The basic advantage of the sand cushion method is its ability to adapt itself to volume changes in the soil. However, the sand cushion method has several limitations particularly when it is adopted in deep strata. Most of the foundation engineers often suggest some arbitrary thickness for the sand cushion without consideration to the depth of the zone of potential volume change which itself is difficult to determine. The high permeability of sand creates conditions conducive to easy ingress and accumulation of water from surface runoff. CNS Layer Method Replacement by soils with relatively impervious material may, to a great extent offset the disadvantages of sand cushion method. Katti (1978) has developed a technique where by removal of about 1m of expansive soil and replacement by cohesive non-swelling soils (CNS) layer beneath foundations has yielded satisfactory results. Katti has successfully adopted it for prevention of heave and resultant cracking of canal beds and linings and recommends it for use in foundations of residential buildings also. According to Katti cohesive forces of significant magnitude are developed with depth in an expansive soil system during saturation which is responsible for reducing heave and counteracting swelling pressure. The behaviour is mainly attributed to the influence of electrical charges present on the surface of clay particles on the dipolar nature of water molecules, producing

absorbed water bonds that give rise to cohesion. Moorum is a typical example of CNS material. The cohesive bonds develop around the particles at a faster rate than the ingress of water molecules into the interlayer of the expanding lattices of montmorillinite, thereby reducing heave. The heave of expansive soil underlying a CNS layer reduces exponentially with increase in thickness of the CNS layer and attains a value of no heave around a depth of 1.0m.The shear strength of the underlying expansive soil at the interface and below increases with the thickness of CNS layer. The ultimate bearing capacity after saturation at the interface and 1m below interface have been found to increase compared with the value of expansive soil in winter. Thus the expansive soil should be excavated up to of 1m below the footing level and replaced with CNS layer, compacted to modified AASHO specifications, projecting up to 1m beyond the foundations. However, studies conducted later (Subba Rao et al., 1995) indicated that CNS Cushion was effective in arresting heave only during the first cycle of seasonal moisture fluctuations and, during the subsequent cycles, the heave may be more than that recorded by a black cotton soil without cushion. Besides, a soil conforming to the specifications suggested by Katti (1978) for suitability as CNS material is difficult to find. Fly Ash Cushion Each one of the above methods has one limitation or the other, in terms of its efficacy or economy. The studies have been carried out using fly ash as a cushioning material (Sree Ramarao et al., 2005). Developments of cohesive bonds in a lime-stabilized fly ash cushion, when stabilized with lime, is expected to produce an environment similar to the one obtained in CNS material following saturation and consequently arrest heave. The results of the study showed a new solution to the problem heave of expansive soil in the form of Fly ash cushion method. It also solves the problem of fly ash utilization and disposal to some extent. If at a site containing black cotton soil, the depth of the active zone is 3m, it would be sufficient if 1.5m of expansive clay is removed and replaced with fly ash cushion to get the heave reduced significantly. With the superstructure load causing further reduction of heave, the amount of sub-excavation and replacement with lime stabilized fly ash cushion can be further reduced.

Deep Foundation Techniques In this case, the foundation is made to rest at some depth by passing the soil in the active zone, i.e. the zone within which volume changes in the soil occur due to seasonal moisture changes.

Under-Reamed Piles Under-reamed bored piles were introduced in India by Central Building Research Institute (C.B.R.I), Roorkee. In India, at about 3.5m below the ground, movements are negligible and if foundations are anchored at that depth, they will remain stable. Based on this principle, under-reamed piles (Sharma et al, 1978) were adopted for foundations in expansive soils in India. The bulbs are provided generally in the inactive zone where sufficient anchorage is available. The diameter of the stem of the underreamed pile ranges from 20-50cms and the diameter of the bulb is normally 2 times the diameter

of the stem. The spacing of the bulbs, in the case of multi under-reamed pile, should not exceed 1 times the bulb diameter. The Bureau of Indian Standards has also brought a code IS 2911: Part III1980 on under-reammed piles (Fig. 6).

Figure 6: Under-Reammed Pile Foundation

Figure 7: Granular Pile-Anchor Foundation System

Granular Pile-Anchor Foundation (GPAF) System It has been observed that under-reamed pile foundations suffer from the difficulty of both formation upon which the whole mechanism of anchoring depends. Phanikumar et al (1996) felt that the cost of under-reamed pile foundation is more for light structures where the cost of structure itself is very low. In this technique, the foundation is anchored at the bottom a granular pile to mild steel anchor plate with the help of a mild steel anchor rod. This is called a granular pile-anchor (Fig. 7) also counteracts the problem of shrinkage acting as a storage medium. As the granular pile is a particulate medium, it cannot resist the tensile uplift force on the foundation, and as such needs to be modified into a pileanchor by the above mechanism. As the expansive soil absorbs water, it swells and uplifts the foundation. But, an enormous resistance to uplift is mobilized along the cylindrical pile soil interface because of the shear parameters of the Pile-soil Interface, and the shear resistance augmented by the lateral swelling pressure. Model tests conducted in the laboratory revealed that heave and swell potential are enormously reduced by the installation of granular pile anchors. The % reduction was about 90 to 95. It has also been observed that the strength characteristics of the ambient soil surrounding the granular pile-anchor showed a large improvement and that the composite ground showed improved bearing capacity. Chemical Stabilization

Chemical stabilization of expansive soils can be adopted to alleviate the problems posed by these soils to civil engineering structures. Chemical stabilization of expansive clays consists of changing the physico-chemical around and inside of clay particles where by the clay requires less water to satisfy the static imbalance and making it difficult for water that moves into and out of the system. The most common chemical admixtures used in soil stabilization are lime and cement. Lime stabilization has been used successfully on major projects to minimize swelling of the expansive soil. Generally, 3 to 8% by weight hydrated lime is added to the top several inches of the soil (John et al). Lime continues to be widely used additive for modification of expansive clays in view of its costeffectiveness although limited success in many instances. Lime is sparingly soluble in exchange reactions are less. Further, the lime diffusion into soil either from lime piles or lime slurry pressure injection is hardly 38 to 50mm in 1 to 4 years unless extensive fissure and crack system is present. The hydration of Portland cement is a complex pozzolanic reaction that produces a variety of different compounds and gels. The results of mixing cement with clay soil are similar to that of lime. It reduces liquid limit, the plastic index and the potential of volume change, it increases the shrinkage limit and shear strength. For highly plastic clay, it is not effective like lime in stabilization. Addition of 2 to 6% cement content can produce a soil that acts as a semi rigid slab (John). Some investigators have tried and succeeded in minimizing the swelling of expansive soil using chemicals like calcium chloride (CaCl2), calcium sulfate (CaSo4), potassium chloride (Kcl), aluminum chloride (AlCl3), etc. Stabilization by Industrial Wastes Utilization of industrial wastes like fly ash, quarry dust, silica fume, copper slag, tannery sludge, etc (Sabat et al, Stalin et al) in the geotechnical engineering field will solve the problem of disposal of these wastes. Extensive research is carried and carrying by the geotechnical investigators to reduce the swelling of expansive soils by using industrial wastes. Fly ash is a waste material produced due to burning of coal for thermal power industries. It is a hazardous material causing environmental pollution degradation. Fly ash is added to soils treated with lime to increase the pozzolanic reaction and improve the gradation of granular soils. The pozzolanic activity of silt soils has been improved by using a lime-fly ash ratio of 1:2. Liquid limit decreases and plastic limit increases with increase in the percentage of fly ash. Generally, the plasticity index reduces by about 50% when 20% of fly ash added. The optimum moisture content decreases and maximum dry unit weight increase with increase in fly ash content. When the nonplastic fly ash particles are added to the expansive clay the water content required for the reorientation of the particles will be less (Pandian et al., 2004).

Stabilization by Reinforcement Using fibers like jute fabrics, coir ropes, rubber tire chips, waste plastics, synthetic fibre etc can successfully stabilize the expansive soils. The work reported by Raid R. Al-Omari and Faris J. Hamodi (1991) showed the feasibility of using tensile geogrid for the purpose of controlling the swell of plastic soils. Swelling tests using an enlarged oedometer revealed promising results. The reinforcements were cylindrical geogrid of varying stiffness values embedded in clays of different plasticity indices. The reduction in swell increased with increasing the geogrid stiffness, apparently due to a strong interference bond restricting the relative movement between clay and the grid. A footings model test confirmed the effectiveness of the proposed technique.

Horizontal Moisture Barriers Horizontal moisture barriers can be installed around buildings in the form of membranes or paving, both flexible and rigid. Horizontal barriers are meant to prevent excessive intake of moisture. Considerable success has been achieved with asphaltic membranes-catalytically blown asphalt membranes or prefabricated sheets. Asphalt membranes can be used to cover the surface of expansive soils so that non-expansive fill can be placed on top of the membranes. This minimizes infiltration of surface water into the under slab soils. Vertical Moisture Barriers Vertical moisture barriers using concrete, ferrocement or any other impervious material around the perimeter of the building, to cut off the source of water, can be very useful in minimizing seasonal drying and shrinkage of the perimeter foundation soils and also in maintaining long-term uniform moisture conditions beneath covered areas. Vertical moisture barriers should be provided to a depth greater than the depth of seasonal moisture changes. SERC Roorkee / Ghaziabad have developed technology for ferrocement waterproofing and water barriers. Construction and same has been successfully used in field. Distress in Lightly Loaded Structures Founded on Expansive Soils If the load is placed on the expansive soil is more, the selling is arrested. When the imposed loads are light, the swelling is more pronounced. It is interesting to note that it is rare that heavily loaded structures have problem with swelling soils while it is the lightly loaded single and two storeyed buildings which experience maximum distress.

Causes for Distress in Lightly Loaded Structures The following are the causes for distress in lightly loaded structures founded on expansive soils:

The construction of building on marshy area and water table is observed at a shallow depth below the ground level. There is no flagging/plinth protection around the building. Growth of vegetation is observed around the building. Sump tank and sewage pipes are very close to the foundation. Wastewater and rainwater are disposed directly on the ground very close to the foundation. Cracks at plinth, sill, lintel levels and differential heaving of flooring, shifting of walls, extensive cracks are observed in internal and external walls of the building. It is due to the high swelling and shrinking characteristics of expansive black cotton soil in the foundation region.

The presence of chloride and sulphate contents in fine aggregate are very high compared to the permissible values aggregate could have affect the concrete durability, which in turn have results severe corrosion of reinforcement in various members.

Measures for Rehabilitation of Distressed Structures Founded on Expansive Soils

The following restoration measures as suggested below to counteract the dual problem of swelling and shrinking behavior of expansive clay (Rama Rao M, et al (2004), Sivapullaiah, et al (2005), Prabhakar, et al (2005):

Construction of additional one or two floors above the existing building should be done so that the loading on the foundation would be more than the existing swelling pressure. The plinth beam should be separated from the natural ground by leaving an air gap of 8 to 10cm between the plinth beam bottom and natural ground. If the gap is not provided the plinth beam have at least to be designed for upward pressure due to soil swelling.

A flexible water proof apron (plinth protection) of about width 2.0m shall be provided all round the building. Installation of horizontal/ vertical moisture barriers around the perimeter of the building. The internal non-load bearing walls with wide multiple cracks and dislocations shall be removing completely and rebuilt. Before dismantling, the complete roof should be supported by either steel or timber props.

Flooring shall be redone after removing existing filled up soil up to about 1.5 m from the floor level and replacing the same with well-compacted non-expansive materials placed in layers not exceeding 30cm thickness.

The sewer pipes with leak proof joints close to the foundation shall be beyond the foundation media. Providing sump tank far from foundation region. Plantation of trees, plants and hedges within 3m distance around the building should be avoided. This because of extensive watering of plants close to the building contributes to swelling.

Discharging rainwater collected from roof at a distance from the structure.

Conclusion Adequate geotechnical investigations are imperative for the characterization of expansive soil. By evaluating the properties of expansive soils accurately, it is feasible to choose the proper foundation technique with a good constriction quality. The distress in the lightly loaded structures is essentially due to high swelling and shrinking characteristics of expansive black cotton soil in the foundation media. The light loaded structures founded on expansive soils must be designed in such way to observe that the load coming on the structure is sufficiently more than the swelling pressure of the expansive soil. It should be ensured that there is no presence of high level of chloride and sulphate contents in fine aggregate using during construction, if not that may lead to the corrosion of reinforcement. References

Chen. F. H. (1975) Foundations on Expansive soils, Elsevier Scientific Publications, Amsterdam.

Gourley, C.S., Newill, D. and Schrenier, H.D. (1993) Expansive soils: TRLs research Laboratory, Proc. 1st International Symposium Engineering Characteristics of arid soils, London.

John D. Nelson and Debora J. Miller, Expansive Soils: Problems and Practice in Foundation and Pavement Engineering, Wiley Publications, February 1997. Katti, R.K. (1978), Search for solutions for problems in Black cotton soils, Indian Geotechnical Conference (IGC) -1978, New Delhi. Pandian, N.S. (2004) Stabilization of Expansive Soil with Fly Ash, Proceedings of National Symposium on Advances in Geotechnical Engineering, Karnataka Geotechnical Center of Indian Geotechnical Society, India, pp. 8189.

Phani Kumar, B.R and Sree Ramarao, A. (1996), Granular pile anchors in expansive soils, Proc. National Seminar on partially Saturated Soils and Expansive Soils, IGS Kakinada Chapter, India, pp. 15-22.

Prabhakar Y.S., Madhav M.R. and Potha Raju M. (2005) Extensive damages to buildings founded on sandy stratum underlain by expansive soil, IGC-2005, pp. 347-350. Raid R. Al-Omari and Faris J. Hamodi (1991), Swelling Resistant GeogridA new approach for the treatment of expansive soils, Geotextiles and Geomembranes, Volume 10, Issue 4, pp. 295-317

Rama Rao M., Sridevi G., (2004) Failure of a lightly loaded structure on Expansive soil - a case study, IGC-2004, Warangal, pp. 117-120. Sivapullaiah, P. V., Basavaraj Katageri and Herkal, R. N. (2005) Distress in light one storey building founded on expansive soil, IGC-2005, pp. 347-350. Sabat, A. k., Bahera, S. N., Dash S. K. (2005), Effect of fly ash-marble powder on engineering properties of an expansive soil, Proceedings of IGC-2005, pp. 269-272. Satyanarayana, B. (1969), Behaviour of expansive soil treated or cushioned with sand, Proceedings of 2nd National Conference on Expansive soils, Texas, pp.308-316. Sharma, Jain and Prakash (1978), Hand book on Under-reamed and Bored Compaction Pile Foundation, CBRI, Roorke. Sree Ramarao, A. et al. (2003), Use of Cement-Stabilized Fly Ash Cushion in minimizing swell of Expansive clays, IGC-2003, Roorkee, Vol.2, pp. 455-458. Stalin V. K., Dayakar. P (2003), Stabilization of problematic soils using silica fume and tennary sludge, IGC-2003, Roorkee, pp. 341-344. Stalin V. K., Sathish Kumar. Y (2006), Sustainable development of problematic soils using solid waste, Emerging Technologies in Civil Engineering-2006, SRKR Engineering College, Bimavaram, pp. 341-344.

NBMCW June 2011

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Structural Strengthening of Brick Masonry Walls of Heritage Building with Carbon Fibre Reinforced Polymers
S. K. Savardekar, Director, FYFE (India) Pvt. Ltd., Mumbai, V. Jain, Director, FYFE (India) Pvt. Ltd. Delhi and K. R. Raikar, Director, Structwel Designers & Consultants Pvt. Ltd, Mumbai. A sprawling palace complex built in 1893 and belonging to the Nizam family, rulers of the erstwhile princely state of Hyderabad in India, is currently being developed as a luxury heritage palace hotel by a leading hotel group from India. Various functional buildings are integrated to form the palace complex of around 940,000 square meters area. The original construction of the palace features mainly a load bearing masonry structure comprising burnt clay brick masonry in lime mortar. Years of disuse and exposure to environmental vagaries, had resulted in various distresses to the structures. The present developers thought is it prudent to conduct a structural audit of the palace complex to assess the present condition of various structures. Subsequent to a structural audit, it was noted that amongst other anomalies, various sections of the load bearing masonry walls of various buildings were non-compliant to the allowable values of slenderness ratios. This necessitated certain intervention measures to the deficient masonry wall panels. An intervention scheme using carbon fibre reinforced polymer (CFRP) bands as localised intermediate stiffeners onto the walls was found appropriate and thus adopted considering various advantages it offered. This paper describes the site case study on the installation of a particular proprietary CFRP system in achieving the desired objective of carrying out structural intervention of masonry walls. Introduction

Project Description

Figure 1: Front faade view of the main palace building

A leading hotel group in India has recently commenced development of an existing old palace complex to be converted into a luxury heritage hotel. The palace complex belonged to the Nizam royal family, of the erstwhile princely state of Hyderabad in southern India. The construction had commenced in 1884 and is said was completed in various stages over a period of nine years. The palace complex comprises various functional buildings such as the main palace, Gol bungalow, Zanani mahal and various other ancillary buildings all integrated to form a sprawling complex covering around 940,000 square meters. Fig.1. Need For Structural Intervention The various buildings of the palace complex are predominantly load bearing type and constructed of burnt clay brick masonry with lime mortar rendering. Certain sections of the walls at the ground level, are noted to be of stone masonry with lime mortar. Over the years, the palace complex was in state of disuse and had been exposed to environmental vagaries. Certain sections of the palace buildings exhibited distresses in the form of cracks in the masonry and even partial collapses of the masonry walls at few locations were evident. The developers have therefore considered it prudent to conduct a structural audit of all the palace buildings to determine its suitability for their proposed use and the resulting loading conditions. The developers had thus appointed structural engineers for this purpose. Various surveys, visual inspections, non destructive and partially destructive tests and analysis had been conducted by the structural engineers. Based on their evaluation, the structural engineers had identified certain structural anomalies. One amongst the various anomalies having relevance to this paper was that certain masonry walls of various buildings of the palace complex being slender. This necessitated localized structural intervention to address the issue. Structural Intervention Details Structural Intervention Approach To appropriately address this particular anomaly at hand, the use of various remedial options using different conventional techniques such as, section enlargement and introduction of steel sections as substitute framing systems were explored by the structural engineers. However, at certain locations,

the age, aesthetic and heritage nature of the existing structures governed the choice of a remedial technique. As such, it was imperative that a retrofit system to be executed, should have essentially been minimal invasive, quick and discreet. Prime deterrents to the use of the above mentioned conventional techniques were that they were invasive, would aesthetically alter the walls appearance and were time consuming. Thus, the use of CFRP for structural intervention measures in order to appropriately address the above issues was recommended by the structural engineers. Strengthening Basis Certain wall panels that were identified by the structural engineers to be non-compliant to the specified slenderness limits were recommended for structural intervention. Two criteria of slenderness had been checked for, viz. the ratio of; a. b. wall height / wall thickness wall length / wall thickness.

Figue 2: A wall panel at site identified for structural intervention

The structural intervention detail was based on the concept of providing CFRP strips in the horizontal and vertical directions and at certain specified spacing and bonded coincident onto either sides of the masonry walls, anchored with fibre anchors. This was designed to act as vertical and horizontal stiffeners by locally plating or sandwiching the masonry walls thereby increasing the stiffness. These CFRP stiffeners would then essentially act as intermediate pilasters/columns so as to reduce the effective wall height / length and thus bring the slenderness ratios within acceptable limits. Based on this concept shop drawings for individual wall panels were prepared taking into account factors such as openings and aesthetic features. Fig.2 shows an actual wall panel at site and Fig.3 shows part print of a shop drawing of the CFRP installation details for that wall panel.

Figure 3: CFRP installation detail for the identified wall panel

CFRP System Properties The CFRP system selected for installation was a proprietary system from a reputed FRP system manufac- turer. This system was selected on the criteria of mat- erial characterization, system performance and environmental durability as speci- fied by structural engineer. The CFRP system comprised a unidirectional carbon fibre fabric as the reinforcement and a compatible two component epoxy resin as the matrix. The key properties of the CFRP system used for carrying out the structural intervention are as shown in Table 1.
Table 1 Properties of CFRP system used for structural intervention Property Ultimate tensile strength in main fibre direction Elongation at break Tensile Modulus Laminate thickness Test Method Typical Test Value* ASTM D-3039 ASTM D-3039 ASTM D-3039 986.0 MPa. 1.0% 95.8 GPa 1.0 mm

* Values reported by CFRP system manufacturer based on gross laminate properties.

Structural Intervention Process Preparatory Works The preparatory works commenced with identifying on site, wall panels marked for structural intervention on the drawings. Locations of the vertical and horizontal CFRP strips were then marked onto the walls ensuring that the CFRP strip locations are coincident on the internal and external faces

of the walls. The lime plaster rendering was carefully chipped off at these marked locations to expose the brick masonry. Fig.4 shows the CFRP strip locations and removal of lime plaster. A polymer modified cementatious skim coat was then applied onto the exposed masonry to level off all concavities and depressions, so as to provide for a level substrate to receive the CFRP application. After adequate water curing, the leveled surface was then sanded using sand paper to smoothen out any protrusions and make the surface ready to receive CFRP application. Holes for fibre anchors were drilled at locations as indicated on the drawings. Fig.5 shows a wall panel with the prepared surface ready to receive CFRP strips.

Figure 4: Marking of CFRP strip locations and removal of lime mortar rendering

Figure 5: View of a wall panel with prepared surface ready to receive CFRP strips

Figure 6: Installing vertical CFRP strip onto a wall panel

Figure 7: Closeup view of fibre anchor installed over CFRP strip

CFRP Installation The installation of the CFRP was wet wrapping type process as recommended by the system manufacturer. The installation process commenced with sizing and cutting of the carbon fibre fabric to the required dimensions that were obtained from site measurements. The two components of the saturant resin matrix were mixed together in the ratio as per manufacturers specifications. The sized fabric was then manually saturated from both sides with the mixed resin matrix. The saturation was carried out manually using fabric rollers. The saturated fabric was then rolled onto spools and taken to site for installation. Prior to installation of the CFRP strips, the prepared surface was first wet primed

with a coat of saturant resin. The saturated fabric was then installed onto the primed surface by evenly rolling out the spool along the primed surface. The CFRP strips were adhered onto the surface using uniform hand pressure along the main fibres. This also ensured to remove any entrapped air voids behind the CFRP strip. At a given wall panel, all the vertical CFRP strips were installed followed by the horizontal CFRP strips. Fig.6 shows the installation of vertical CFRP strip. The fibre anchors were then installed by first saturating the anchors into the saturant resin matrix and inserting one end of the anchor into the pre-drilled holes. The outer end of the fibre anchor was then splayed over the CFRP strips as shown in Fig.7. Upon the CFRP strip achieving a tacky stage of the curing process, quartz sand was sprinkled over it. This acted as a key for further lime plaster render finish. Conclusion The use of CFRP for structural intervention of the masonry walls of the palace buildings was found to be an appropriate technique to achieve the desired objective and at the same time being minimal invasive, quick and discreet as compared to conventional strengthening techniques. References

ACI Committee 440, Guidelines for the design and construction of externally bonded FRP system for strengthening concrete structures. American Concrete Institute, Detroit, 2000. ICC AC125, Interim criteria for concrete and reinforced and unreinforced masonry strengthening using fibre reinforced polymer (FRP) composite sytems. ICC Evaluation Service Inc. Whittier, California, 2003.

Technical Datasheet, Tyfo SCH41 composite using Tyfo S epoxy. Fyfe Co. LLC, San Diego, CA. 2006.

Acknowledgment This article has been reproduced from the proceeding of 'National Conference on Repair & Rehabilitation of Concrete Structures' organized by ICI western U.P Gaziabad, IA Sructural Engg, and Association of Structural Rehabilitation, with the kind permission of the organisers.

Guidelines on Repair and Rehabilitation of Structures

Samir Surlaker & Sunny Surlaker, MC-Bauchemie India Private Limited Introduction Versatility of Concrete is an established fact on account of its mouldability and durability. This makes it attractive for use in varied exposure conditions. Vulnerability of concrete to deterioration has always been a cause of deep concern. Concrete Cover plays a key role in this phenomenon. Generally, the process of deterioration begins almost immediately after the casting. Basically from material science point of view, the durability of concrete structure is a direct function of achieving specified cover not only in dimensions but also in quality. Considering a mix of complicated construction, quick completion deadlines, speed of construction and economy, it becomes virtually impossible to cast specified cover to reinforcement. The outermost layer of concrete therefore becomes the weakest one. If formworks are not impermeable and slump of concrete is not adequate, the cement paste does not cover the reinforcement optimally to render it passive to corrosion. This facilitates deterioration and the subsequent need for repairs.

Since cover is the first line of defense to inhibit corrosion, repair and rehabilitation is recreation of

cover with the highest protection quotient. We therefore need to use the latest technologies like polymers, fibres, etc. to lower the permeability, minimize the cracks and provide adequate bonding, to stop further deterioration. Given actual working conditions, it is difficult to create a cover that will be resistant to carbonation or chloride ingress. To remove this lacuna from the system, it is preferable to resort to protective coating that work on principles to equivalent cover to ensure durability of repairs. Therefore, the last step of Concrete Repair, which is anti- carbonation or chloride ingress resistant coating, ensures the durability of Repairs.

Cause of Deterioration It has been established that the increasing environmental stress is one of the key factors causing concrete damage. Figure 1 shows this process, due to carbonation attack. It is recognized that steel embedded in a heavily alkaline medium like concrete with pH-values from 9 upwards will not rust. The concrete's hydration process ensures the concrete's alkalinity, producing a pH-value of more than 12.6, which renders the steel surface passive to corrosion. Due to this, even the occurrence of small cracks (up to 0.1 mm in width) or blemishes in the concrete need not necessarily lead to damage. Environmental influences and carbon dioxide in particular, will reduce the concrete's pH-value (carbonation) and will remove the passivating effect. In conjunction with existing humidity, the result is corrosion of the reinforcement. Basic Principles for the Protection and Repair of Concrete Structures Defects and damage occurring in concrete structures can be ascribed to varying causes, which frequently overlap. European Standard EN 1504 provides an excellent guideline summary of possible causes of concrete deterioration. The first points emphasized in the statistical record of causes of damage are poor workmanship on the part of the concrete producer and environmental stress. With regard to poor workmanship, the principal factors concerned here are an excessive water/cement ratio, defective concrete cover and defective curing. Taking these factors into consideration, specifiers should issue more stringent guidelines in respect of concrete cover. It has become widely accepted in specialist circles that particular importance should be attributed to sufficient curing of the concrete with a view to ensuring its durability. These new developments will considerably improve the durability of newly erected concrete structures, though they do not of course affect the quality of already completed concrete buildings, which is the majority of our infrastructure. Other factors, of course include higher mechanical, chemical, thermal and biological loads.

The Process of Remediation When a structure shows signs of distress or deterioration, the following steps should be taken in principle. The condition survey is to be conducted and the field investigations are to be done. The steps are as under: Preliminary Investigation, detailed Investigation, Diagnosis, Laying out specifications for repairs, Selection of Materials, Surface Preparations, Actual Repairs, Periodical maintenance, Mainten- ance of Reports etc. for future repairs. In these steps, the choice of procedure, base pretreatment and materials for concrete repair will depend on the existing degree of deterioration, the mechanism of deterioration, its causes and anticipated future stress. A correct diagnosis must therefore be arrived at prior to repair. The reasons for evident defects or damage must be explored as thoroughly as possible. Following this a thorough QA system needs to be established to ensure the durability of repairs. To provide building owners and architects with a high level of reliability in terms of durable protection and repair work, MC has developed Quality Assurance Systems based on the following criteria:

Long years of experience, professional competence and technical equipment for assessment of defects, damage and for establishment of repair measures. Depending on environmental or structural stress concerned and on extent of damage, protective and repair system adapted to the structure in question and involving suitable and reliable products for the repair of concrete structures will be recommended from a range of successfully tested and established materials.

Experienced professional firms who are thoroughly familiar with the material concerned should only carry out protective and repair work. For these reason, MC passes on the experience and knowledge of its staff to professional applicators. The company will advise such firms before and during the performance of repair work.

Protection : 1

Protection : 2

A well-established repair system for concrete structures in building construction is described in detail below. Hints are also given on alternatives frequently required due to conditions at the structures in question. In Brief, Figure 3 shows the procedure of effective concrete repair. The steps are discussed in detail below. The MC Concrete Repair System Surface Preparation: The existing base must be firm & stable and free from oils, and fats, impurities of all kind including form/mould oil residues which must be removed along with any cement laitance. Sandblasting or wire brushing are effective water-free methods to clean reinforcement. Use of acidic rust removers and water is not recommended to protect the reinforcement from further corrosion. The base should be lightly moistened before commencing work and should be slightly damp but still absorbent and never saturated with water.

Protection of Exposed Reinforcement: All exposed reinforcement cleaned to bare metal must be protected immediately after sandblasting by using Zentrifix KMH polymer modified one component corrosion inhibitor and bond coat. In harsher conditions, a zinc rich material like MC-DUR ZKE can be used. Treatment of Cracks: The sealing of cracks in concrete is a special measure in itself, which becomes absolutely essential in the event of the following widths of cracks: More than 0.3 mm in dry areas/rooms or More than 0.2 mm on buildings in the open or More than 0.1 mm where the structure has a high corrosion risk. Low-viscosity epoxy-resins likeMC-DUR 1264 can be used to treat fine cracks. MC-DUR 1264 produces a structurally perfect bond in the case of non-moving cracks. For bigger cracks Centricretemineral injection grout is also available. This injection must be carried out before application of the final treatment. Concrete PCC Repair: All defective areas to be filled are first pre-treated with a bond coat. Zentrifix KMH or a mixture of Zentrifix dry mortar and a mixing liquid consisting of a polymer component, Nafufill BB 2/ Nafufill SBR and water can be used. This mixing liquid is added to the dry mortar until a grouting consistency is achieved. The resultant grout is then thoroughly brushed into the base. While the adhesive bond is still fresh, Zentrifix repair mortar is applied to it wet on wet. The Zentrifix repair, mortar can also be improve with the polymer component Nafufill BB 2/ Nafufill SBR in order to ensure

good adhesion to the base, to prevent shrinkage cracking and to improve resistance to temperature changes.

Rep : 1

Rep : 2

Where conditions on site make it impossible to work wet on wet, a scud coat of suitable composition can also be applied as adhesive bond. Zentrifix mortars are applied in one operation at repair depths up to 25mm, and in several layers where such depths exceed 25mm. The fine filling described in detail below can be applied after a gap of at least 12 hours. For larger honey combs and jacketing purposes ready to use, high strength micro concretes like Emcekrete/ Expacrete/ Emcekrete Type Acan be used. Fine Filling: To achieve a visually uniform surface and to provide additional preventive protection the repaired concrete surface should be fine-filled. This is done with a fine dry-mortar, concrete cosmetic Zentrifix FF 02/ Nafuquick, and a mixing liquid composed of water and or the polymer component Nafufill BB 2. Depending on the structure involved, it can be used in overhead work or as a fine-filler under elastic, crack-bridging systems.

Impregnation to provide Hydrophobic Qualities: As an additional, protective measure, particularly in the case of porous substrates susceptible to fractures (e.g light weight concrete), a hydrophobic impregnation agent can be applied up to saturation point to the surfaces first treated by a fine finish, using Emcephob SX/ Emcephob AC etc. This impregnation will ensure that there will be no infiltration leading to more extensive damage if hairline cracks from or if the surface protection is subjected to mechanical damage.

Concrete Surface Protection, Carbonation inhibitor, Coloured finishes: On completion of the work described above, the entire concrete surface must be provided with a final seal or final coating. This is mandatory to maintain status quo of corrosion. Such surface treatments perform several duties at the one time. Firstly, all the concrete is protected from further stress due to aggressive pollutants in the air and from progressive carbonation. These coating systems must have to a high CO2 resistance if they are to be effective in protecting against carbonation and, on the other hand, they must not have a negative effect on the buildings water vapor diffusion rate. The Emcecolorflex/Betonflair protective system has proved itself to be particularly suitable for this purpose. Systems on a Two- component Epoxy/ PU Resin Base: Systems based on MC-DUR reaction resins have proven to be best for structures subjected to severe chemical stress-e.g in production areas, water clarification plant, factory floors, multi-storey car parks and many other structures. It should be noted here that systems of this kind, based on two-component reaction resins, show a thermal expansion behavior different from that of concrete. Allowance must be made for this fact in the repair of structures in the open air and of objects exposed to severe stress from changes in the repair of structures in the open air and of objects exposed to severe stress from changes in temperature. MC-DUR resin systems provide important additional properties in comparison with systems bases on hydraulic binding agents particularly where chemical or mechanical load is severe. Conclusion Corrosion damage to the reinforcement in concrete and the resultant spalling of sections of concrete along with other concrete surface damage is far more serious than being just an eye-sore: it constitutes a serious risk to the useful life of the concrete structure and even become a danger to occupants and passer-by. The guidelines provided above indicate possible ways of providing reliable repair with well-established products and systems. MC products for the repair of concrete structures have proven themselves in practice for more than 20 years in Indian conditions, and many buildings and structures can now be referred to as evidence of their quality. In addition to quality of the repair material, professional handling of these materials and a knowledge of concrete technology, construction physics and their inter relationships on the part of those applying the treatment is of decisive importance. It is therefore essential to reserve the execution of concrete repairs solely to experienced and trained professional firms. It has also been shown that, besides careful execution and observation of all specifications relating to the durability of concrete structures, preventive protection can provide added assurance. Particularly worthy of note in this connection is curing of the fresh concrete with products which will provide long-term protection against CO2 and other air pollutants, thus preventing carbonation of the concrete surface. Reference is also made to proven protective systems for structures especially at risk, like the Emcephob System for preventive protection, Emcecolorflex/ Betonflair for anti- carbonation coats and the various MC-DUR liquid plastics for protection of concrete corrosive materials, acids, salts, and other chemical effects-severe chemical

attack. MC's technicians are always ready to advise in expert appraisal of a particular structure and in the selection of suitable means of protection. About the Authors

Mr. Samir Surlaker is a Civil and Structural Engineer from VJTI with over 30 years of National and International experience and exposure in Construction Chemicals, Rehabilitation Strategies, Injection Systems etc Germany, Europe, Middle East and India. He is currently the Managing Director of MCBauchemie (India) Pvt Ltd, a joint venture with MC-Bauchemie, Germany manufacturing over 100 construction chemicals.

Sunny Surlaker passed his B.E. in Civil Engineering from VJTI Mumbai in 2005 and also holds a Masters in Civil Engineering from University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, USA. He is currently the Head of Admixture Division with MC-Bauchemie India Private Limited a joint venture with MC-Bauchemie, Germany manufacturing over 100 construction chemicals. He has also worked extensively in Germany and Brazil with MC-Bauchemie. Before that he was a Material Specialist with the Global Multinational AMEC Earth and Environmental, in Phoenix, Arizona, USA.
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Cement Grounting to improve Bearing Capacity

Low Pressure Cement Grouting to Improve Bearing Capacity of Old Waste Dump Site for Economical Foundations of Low Cost Housing

The land cost is increasing tremendously and decreasing availability of good

construction site is building up pressure on the engineers to utilize even the poorest site either by providing special type of foundation or by improving ground conditions in urban centres.

Cost of land in Surat city has reached to sky. To satisfy need of land, Surat city limit has been expanded and more area is included by Surat Municipal Corporation (SMC). SMC is planning to make the city zero slum in forthcoming years. For that, slum rehabilitation policy is prepared by SMC. For this purpose, large area is required within the city limit. If landfill area can be used for the purpose, it may be the economical solution.

This paper presents work carried out to check the performance of the cement grouting as a ground improvement technique and cost effectiveness of techniques and material for a final economical solution.

Ms Nehal Gaurav Dalal Research Scholar, Dr Chandresh H Solanki Associate Professor, Dr Atul K Desai Head, Applied Mechanics Department, S V National Institute of Technology, Surat, Gujarat Introduction The land cost is increasing tremendously and decreasing availability of good construction site is building up pressure on the engineers to utilize even the poorest site either by providing special type of foundation or by improving the ground condition. The weak subsoil deposits pose the problems of low bearing capacity and excessive settlement over long period of time. This may be overcome a the recently developed method of ground improvement. It can be effectively utilized to force the soil to behave according to the project requirement rather than having to change the project to meet the limitation due to weak ground. Solid waste disposal in landfills is the most economical form of disposal of waste particularly in the developing country. As the old and closed landfills are having the limited end use in terms of recreational uses like gardens and golf courses, it is now the demand of time to gain some return from the old landfills like infrastructure, commercial and low income residential development.

Cost of land in Surat city has reached to sky. To satisfy need of land, Surat city limit has been expanded and more area is included by Surat Municipal Corporation (SMC). SMC is planning to make the city zero slum in forth- coming years. For that, slum rehabilitation policy is prepared by SMC. For this purpose, a large area is required within the city limit. If landfill area can be used for the purpose, it may be an economical solution.

Surat city is having landfill site at Bhatar, near Sewage Treatment Plant. The land fill site is on the bank of Mithikhadi from Bamroli Road-Hegdevar Bridge to Althan -

Bamroli road Bridge. The land is filled by garbage of varying depth of 1.00m to 5.00m at various locations length of bank. This site is discontinued since 2002. Bhatar site was found convenient for the proposed experimental work as this site is closed. Grouting Modern grouting began in the mining industries, concerned with seepage and strength control in mines, tunnels and shafts, then was taken up by civil engineering, where it was used in the construction and maintenance of a sub base, for stabilizing loose soils or fragmented rocks during tunnel driving, reducing the likelihood of liquefaction of loose saturated granular deposits during earthquakes and as an underground cut off wall for strengthening and impermeation of dam foundation. In addition to these applications, there are several applications of grouting for foundation soil improvement to support structures which includes the filling voids to prevent excessive settlement, as settlement is the major criteria for consideration for the redevelopment of municipal solid waste landfill sites. Application of grouting includes the permitting increments in allowable soil pressure relative to the untreated soil for both new structures and existing structures.

Grouting is new in use in all the fields of foundation engineering, the most recent being to prevent the contamination of hazardous waste landfills (Shroff and Shah, 1992)[9]. Laboratory Testing

Figure 1: UCC results without cement grouting

The detailed study has been carried out to check the performance of the cement grouting as a ground improvement technique and cost effectiveness of techniques and material has checked for a final economical solution. For that samples were collected in disturbed form to perform laboratory tests. Disturbed representative samples were collected from the site at 0.60 m depth. The samples so collected were logged, labeled and placed in polyethylene bags and taken to the laboratory

for the further tests. Strength Analysis

Table 1: Results of UCC test without cement grouting Sr. No. 1 2 3 Qu kg/cm2 0.15 0.16 1.25 0.19 Avg. Qu Remarks Samples are tested without giving any treatment

Table 2: Results of UCC test with cement grouting Sr. No. 1 2 3 4 1 2 1 2 1 2 3 1:5 1:5 1:10 1:10 Cement Grout Proportion UCC Qu kg/cm2 0.46 0.43 0.40 0.43 0.67 0.63 0.59 0.64 0.80 0.86 0.72 0.80 0.62 0.65 0.43 Avg. Qu Remarks

UCC test conducted after 7 days UCC test conducted after 14 days UCC test conducted after 7 days UCC test conducted after 14 days

Table 3: Safe bearing capacity for the different grout proportions: Sr. No. 1 2 Cement grout proportion 1: 5 1: 10 Footing size 1.2m x 1.2 m x 0.4m 1.2m x 1.2 m x 0.4m qf in Kg/m2 222.9 158.8

Table 4: Net settlement calculated for the different grout proportions: Sr. No. 1 2 Cement grout proportion 1:5 1 : 10 Footing size 1.2 m x 1.2 m x 0.4m 1.2 m x 1.2 m x 0.4m E kN/m2 1500 2000 Settlement in mm 20 mm 10 mm

The laboratory tests like UCC (performed as per IS 2720 Part 10) [4]and permeability (performed as per IS 2720 Part 17)[5] were carried out to determine strength properties and permeability respectively. The Table 1 shows the UCC result before grouting and average Qu found is 0.19 kg/cm2.

The laboratory tests were performed for two different grout proportions 1:10 (1 cement: 10 water) and 1:5 (1 cement: 5 water) and the grout was applied to the samples without pressure. For both the proportions, the UCC test were carried out to check the strength properties after 7 days (Fig. 2 and Fig.4) and 14 days (Fig. 3 and Fig.5) and the results are shown in Table 2.

The bar chart shown in the Fig.6 gives the comparison of unconfined compressive strength for 1: 10 proportion of cement grouting. The strength measured after 7 days has increased by 1.26 times and after 14 days 2.42 times. The bar chart shown in the Fig. 7 gives the comparison of unconfined compressive strength for 1:5 proportion of cement grouting. The strength measured after 7 days has increased by 2.26 times and after 14 days 3.21 times.

Considering the plane of failure in UCC tests is adopted as 25 and c = qu/2 on conservative side as shown in fig.8 For cement grout proportion 1: 5 and 1: 10, the bearing capacity as per the Terzagis equation for square footing (considering footing size as 1.2m x 1.2m x 0.4m) is calculated as described in Table 3. Settlement is calculated as per IS 8009 Part I 1976 [6] for both the proportions as per Table 4. The modulus of deformation E is calculated from the graphs of UCC test results.

Figure 2: UCC results after 7 days for 1:10 grout proportion

Figure 3: UCC results after 14 days for 1:10 grout proportion

Figure 4: UCC results after 7 days for 1:5 grout proportion

Figure 5: UCC results after 14 days for 1:5 grout proportion

Figure 6: Comparison of Unconfined Compressive strength for 1:10 proportion of cement grouting

Figure 7: Comparison of Unconfined Compressive strength for 1:5 proportion of cement grouting

Permeability Permeability is a property of material which permits the passage of any fluid through its interconnecting pore spaces. The physical properties that influence the permeability in MSW are density, particle size, porosity, material type, degree of saturation, stage of decomposition, and depth within the landfill.

Figure 8: Failure pattern of samples in UCC Test

Chen HT. (1995)[1] studied the variation in permeability with density of the samples and hydraulic gradient and indicated a decrease in permeability with time. Constant head tests were conducted on test columns at densities 160 kg/m 3, 320 kg/m3, and 480 kg/m3. The permeability reduced from 9.6 x 10-2 cm/s to 4.7 x 10-5 cm/s when compacted to densities 160480 kg/m3, respectively.

Powrie et al. (2005)[8] indicated decrease in permeability with increase in effective stress, density and decrease in porosity. Korman et al. (1987)[7] indicated higher values of permeability of MSW for old refuse compared to fresh wastes which might be attributed to the heterogeneity and reconstitution of the sample in the laboratory. Hossain et. al. (2009)[3] measured the coefficient of permeability of the MSW samples at different phases of decomposition and densities. Refuse samples representing various stages of decomposition were generated in laboratory scale reactors that were operated under the conditions to simulate the decomposition in

bioreactor landfills. The stages of decomposition were determined based on the gas production rate and composition, pH, and by volatile
-2 -4

solids

composition.

Permeability of municipal solid waste was in the order of 10 phase of disintegration and decreased to the order of 10

cm/s after the first

cm/s at the final phase of

degradation. The permeability of MSW at the first phase of degradation is 0.0088 cm/s at 700 kg/m3. As the sample degrades at the same density permeability reduced to 0.0013 cm/s. The results suggested that the coefficient of permeability ranged from 2 x 10-4 cm/s to 4 x 10-3 cm/s; and in general, reduced with increasing time and filling depth (Xiang-rong et al., 2003)[10].

The range of permeability of impervious soil is generally 10-5 to 10-8 cm/sec (Desai, 1992)[2]. The permeability tests carried out of the sample from the site at field density and moisture are 3.8 x 10-6 cm/sec and 3.5 x 10-5 cm/sec (Appendix - I) in the present study, which shows that the material is impervious and therefore the decay of foundations due to rain and capillary rise will be considerably minimized. Cost analysis
Table: 5 The amount of grout injected in the sample in the proportion of 1:10: Sample No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Moisture Content (%) 12 12 12 12 12 12 Dry Density (kN/m3) 1.25 1.25 1.25 1.25 1.25 1.25 Grout Injected (ml) 229 200 219 216 192 216 Avg. 200 ml. Grout is injected in proportion of 1:10 by weight.

Table: 6 The amount of grout injected in the sample in the proportion of 1:5: Sample No. 1 2 3 4 5 Moisture Content (%) 12 12 12 12 12 Dry Density (kN/m3) 1.25 1.25 1.25 1.25 1.25 Grout Injected (ml) 157 192 175 175 175 Avg. 175 ml. Grout is injected in proportion of 1:5 by weight.

The amount of cement grout applied to the sample of diameter 103 mm and height 140 mm is 200 ml for 1:10 proportion as shown in Table 5, therefore the cement required for the sample is 5 gm. So the total cement requirement of the site to improve top half a meter crust is 3673611 kg. and so the total costing is

1,65,31,250 Rs. this is 1 to 2% of the total market value of the waste dump site. The amount of cement grout applied to the sample of diameter 103 mm and height 140 mm is 175 ml for 1:5 proportion as shown in Table 6, therefore the cement required for the sample is 7 gm. So the total cement requirement of the site to improve top half a meter crust is 4951389 kg. and so the total costing is 2,22,81,250 Rs. this is 2 to 4% of the total market value of the waste dump site. Conclusion The present research was extended to assess feasibility of simple, easy to construct low pressure grout of cement for improving the top half a meter crust for economical foundations.

The bearing capacity is calculated for two different grout proportions, 1: 10 and 1: 5, that is 223 kPa and 159 kPa which is 2.42 and 1.72 times more respectively as bearing capacity before treatment is observed about 92 kPa. The total settlement for the particular footing size is calculated and it is within the permissible settlement limit. The permeability test carried out at field density and moisture, which shows that grouting will improve the strength as well as decreases the permeability. Therefore, the decay of foundations due to rain and capillary rise will be considerably minimized. The cost comparisons for the site shows that 2 to 4% of the cost of the total market value of that landfill site is required for the ground improvement treatment to reuse the site. Acknowledgment We wish to express my deepest gratitude and sincere appreciation to Dr M D Desai (visiting professor of SVNIT) for his constant guidance, dedication, and encouragement throughout the course of the study. His systematic guidance, moral support, constant persuasion, motivation and encouragement helped me at all stages to complete this seminar.

We are also grateful to Er H H Desai and Unique Engineering service for providing all the facilities required for the experimental work. Thank all the experts with whom the research scholar had interacted during Conference, Workshop and STTPs. References

Chen, H.T. (1995). "Hydraulic conductivity of compacted municipal solid waste", Bioresour Technol 51, pp. 205212.

Desai M.D (1992), "Experimental Geotechnical Engineering.", published by Surat chapter of Indian Geotechnical Engineering, pp 58. Hossain, M. S., Penmethsa, K. K., Hoyos, L. (2009). "Permeability of Municipal Solid Waste in Bioreactor Landfill with Degradation." Geotech Geol Engineering, 27, pp. 4351.

IS 2720: Part 10: 1991 (Reaffirmed 2006) Methods of Test for Soils - Part 10 : Determination of Unconfined Compressive Strength. IS 2720: Part 17: 1986 (Reaffirmed 2007) Methods of Test for Soils - Part 17 : Laboratory Determination of Permeability. IS 8009: Part I: 1976 Code of Practice for Calculation of Settlements of Foundations - Shallow Foundations Subjected to Symmetrical Static Vertical Loads.

Korman, E.M., Horvitz, E.G., Kleppe, H.J., Dalton, G.M. (1987). "Material properties of landfilled primary waste", In: Environmental conference: Portland Marriott, Portland, OR, April 2729, pp. 179186.

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