Centrosome

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Schematic of typical animal cell, showing subcellular components. Organelles: 1 Nucleolus 2 Nucleus 3 Ribosomes (little dots) 4 Vesicle 5 Rough endoplasmic reticulum 6 Golgi apparatus 7 Cytoskeleton 8 Smooth endoplasmic reticulum 9 Mitochondria

10 Vacuole 11 Cytosol 12 Lysosome 13 Centrioles within Centrosome 14 Cell membrane In cell biology, the centrosome is an organelle that serves as the main microtubule organizing center (MTOC) of the animal cell as well as a regulator of cell-cycle progression. It was discovered by Edouard Van Beneden in 1883 [1] and was described and named in 1888 by Theodor Boveri.[2] The centrosome is thought to have evolved only in the metazoan lineage of eukaryotic cells.[3] Fungi and plants use other MTOC structures to organize their microtubules.[4][5] Although the centrosome has a key role in efficient mitosis in animal cells, it is not essential.[6][7][8] Centrosomes are composed of two orthogonally arranged centrioles surrounded by an amorphous mass of protein termed the pericentriolar material (PCM). The PCM contains proteins responsible for microtubule nucleation and anchoring[9] including -tubulin, pericentrin and ninein. In general, each centriole of the centrosome is based on a nine triplet microtubule assembled in a cartwheel structure, and contains centrin, cenexin and tektin.[10]

Contents
[hide]

1 Roles of the centrosome 2 Centrosome alterations in cancer cells o 2.1 Structural aberrations o 2.2 Numeric aberrations 3 Evolution of the centrosome 4 Centrosome associated nucleotides 5 References

[edit] Roles of the centrosome

Role of the centrosome in cell cycle progression Centrosomes are associated with the nuclear membrane during prophase of the cell cycle. In mitosis the nuclear membrane breaks down and the centrosome nucleated microtubules (parts of the cytoskeleton) can interact with the chromosomes to build the mitotic spindle. The mother centriole, the one that was inherited from the mother cell, also has a central role in making cilia and flagella.[10] The centrosome is copied only once per cell cycle so that each daughter cell inherits one centrosome, containing two structures called centrioles (see also: centrosome cycle). The centrosome replicates during the S phase of the cell cycle. During the prophase in the process of cell division called mitosis, the centrosomes migrate to opposite poles of the cell. The mitotic spindle then forms between the two centrosomes. Upon division, each daughter cell receives one centrosome. Aberrant numbers of centrosomes in a cell have been associated with cancer. Doubling of a centrosome is similar to DNA replication in two respects: the semiconservative nature of the process and the action of cdk2 as a regulator of the process.[11] But the processes are essentially different in that centrosome doubling does not occur by template reading and assembly. The mother centriole just aids in the accumulation of materials required for the assembly of the daughter centriole.[12]

Centrosome (shown by arrow) next to nucleus Interestingly, centrioles are not required for the progression of mitosis. When the centrioles are irradiated by a laser, mitosis proceeds normally with a morphologically normal spindle. Moreover, development of the fruit fly Drosophila is largely normal when centrioles are absent due to a mutation in a gene required for their duplication.[13] In the absence of the centrioles the microtubules of the spindle are focused by motors allowing the formation of a bipolar spindle. Many cells can completely undergo interphase without centrioles.[10] Unlike centrioles, centrosomes are required for survival of the organism. Acentrosomal cells lack radial arrays of astral microtubules. They are also defective in spindle positioning and in ability to establish a central localization site in cytokinesis. The function of centrosome in this context is hypothesized to ensure the fidelity of cell division because it greatly increases the efficacy. Some cell types arrest in the following cell cycle when centrosomes are absent. This is not a universal phenomenon.

When the nematode C. elegans egg is fertilized the sperm delivers a pair of centrioles. These centrioles will form the centrosomes which will direct the first cell division of the zygote and this will determine its polarity. It is not yet clear whether the role of the centrosome in polarity determination is microtubule dependent or independent.

[edit] Centrosome alterations in cancer cells

It was very early identified (at the end of the 19th century) that centrosomes are frequently altered in cancer cells, by Theodor Boveri, the scientist who named the centrosome itself. This initial observation was subsequently extended to many types of human tumors.[14] Centrosome alterations in cancer can be divided in two subgroups, structural or numeric aberrations, yet both can be simultaneously found in a tumor.

[edit] Structural aberrations

Usually they appear due to uncontrolled expression of centrosome components, or due to post-translational modifications (such as phosphorylations) which are not adequate for those components. These modifications may produce variations in centrosome size (usually too big, due to an excess of pericentriolar material). On top of this, due to the fact that centrosomal proteins have the tendency to form aggregates, often centrosome-related bodies (CRBs) are observed in ectopic places.[15] Both enlarged centrosomes and CRBs are similar to the centrosomal structures observed in tumors,.[16] Even more, these structures can be induced in culture cells by overexpression of specific centrosomal proteins, such as CNap-1 or Nlp.[15][17] These structures may look very similar, yet detailed studies reveal that they may present very different properties, depending on their proteic composition. For instance, their capacity to incorporate -TuRC complexes (see also: -tubulin) can be very variable, and so their capacity to nucleate microtubules,[16] therefore affecting in different way the shape, polarity and motility of implicated tumor cells.

[edit] Numeric aberrations

The presence of an inadequate number of centrosomes is very often linked to the apparition of genome instability and the loss of tissular differentiation.[16][18] However, the method to count the centrosome number (each one with 2 centrioles) is often not very precise, because it is frequently assesed using fluorescence microscopy, whose resolution capacity is not the best. Nevertheless, it is clear that the presence of supernumerary (in excess) centrosomes is a common event in human tumors. It has been observed that loss of the tumor-suppressor protein p53 produces supernumerary centrosomes,[19] as well as deregulation of other proteins implicated in tumorigenesis in humans, such as BRCA1 and BRCA2 (for references, see [14]). It is important to note that supernumerary centrosomes can be generated by very different mechanisms: specific reduplication of the centrosome, failure during cell division (generating an increase in chromosome number), cell fusion (for instance due to infection by specific viruses) or de novo generation of centrosomes. At this point there is not sufficient information to know how frequent are those mechanisms in vivo, but it is possible that the increase in centrosome numbers due a failure during cell division might be more frequent than appreciated, because many "primary" defects in one cell (deregulation of the cell cycle, defective DNA or chromatin metabolism, failure in the spindle checkpoint, etc...) would generate a failure in cell division, an increase in ploidy and an increase in centrosome numbers as a "secondary" effect.[20][21]

[edit] Evolution of the centrosome

The evolutionary history of the centrosome and the centriole has been traced for some of the signature genes, e.g. the centrins.[3] Centrins participate in calcium signaling and are required for centriole duplication.[22] There exist two main subfamilies of centrins, both of which are present in the early-branching eukaryote Giardia intestinalis. Centrins have therefore been present in the common ancestor of eukaryotes. Conversely, they have no recognizable homologs in archea and bacteria and are thus part of the "eukaryotic signature genes." Although there are studies on the evolution of the centrins and centrioles,[3][23] no studies have been published on the evolution of the pericentriolar material. It is evident that some parts of the centrosome are highly diverged in the model species Drosophila melanogaster and Caenorhabditis elegans. For example, both species have lost one of the centrin subfamilies that are usually associated with centriole duplication. Drosophila melanogaster mutants that lack centrosomes can even develop to morphologically normal adult flies, which then die shortly after birth because their sensory neurons lack cilia.[13] Thus, these flies have evolved functionally redundant machinery, which is independent of the centrosomes.

[edit] Centrosome associated nucleotides

Research in 2006[24] indicated that centrosomes from Surf clam eggs contain RNA sequences. The sequences identified were found in "few to no" other places in the cell, and do not appear in existing genome databases. One identified RNA sequence contains a putative RNA polymerase, leading to the hypothesis of an RNA based genome within the centrosome. However, subsequent research has shown that centrosome do not contain their own DNAbased genomes. While it was confirmed that RNA molecules associate with centrosomes, the sequences have still been found within the nucleus. Furthermore, centrosomes can form de novo after having been removed (e.g. by laser irradiation) from normal cells.[23]

[edit] References
1. 2. 3. ^ Wunderlich, V. (2002). "JMM - Past and Present". Journal of Molecular Medicine 80 (9): 545548. doi:10.1007/s00109-002-0374-y. PMID 12226736. edit ^ Boveri, Theodor (1888). Zellen-Studien II: Die Befruchtung und Teilung des Eies von Ascaris megalocephala.. Jena: Gustav Fischer Verlag. ^ a b c Bornens, M.; Azimzadeh, J. (2007). Origin and Evolution of the Centrosome. "Eukaryotic Membranes and Cytoskeleton". Advances in experimental medicine and biology. Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology 607: 119129. doi:10.1007/978-0-387-74021-8_10. ISBN 978-0387-74020-1. PMID 17977464. edit ^ Schmit (2002). "Acentrosomal microtubule nucleation in higher plants". International review of cytology. International Review of Cytology 220: 257289. doi:10.1016/S0074-7696(02)20008-X. ISBN 9780123646248. PMID 12224551. edit ^ Jaspersen, S. L.; Winey, M. (2004). "THE BUDDING YEAST SPINDLE POLE BODY: Structure, Duplication, and Function". Annual Review of Cell and Developmental Biology 20 (1): 128. doi:10.1146/annurev.cellbio.20.022003.114106. PMID 15473833. edit ^ Mahoney, N. M.; Goshima, G.; Douglass, A. D.; Vale, R. D. (2006). "Making Microtubules and Mitotic Spindles in Cells without Functional Centrosomes". Current Biology 16 (6): 564569. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2006.01.053. PMID 16546079. edit ^ Azimzadeh, Juliette; Wong, Mei Lie; Downhour, Diane Miller; Alvarado, Alejandro Snchez; Marshall, Wallace F. (5 Jan 2012), "Centrosome Loss in the Evolution of Planarians", Science: Science

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Express, doi:10.1126/science.1214457, http://www.sciencemag.org/content/early/2012/01/04/science.1214457, retrieved 6 Jan 2012 ^ staff (5 Jan 2012) (press release), Flatworms minimalist approach to cell division reveals the molecular architecture of the human centrosome, Stowers Institute for Medical Research, http://www.stowers.org/media/news/jan-5-2012, retrieved 6 Jan 2012 ^ Edd, B.; Rossier; Le Caer; Desbruyres; Gros; Denoulet (1990). "Posttranslational glutamylation of alpha-tubulin". Science 247 (4938): 8385. Bibcode:1990Sci...247...83E. doi:10.1126/science.1967194. PMID 1967194. edit ^ a b c Rieder, C. F. (Oct 2001). "The centrosome in vertebrates: more than a microtubule-organizing center". Trends in cell biology 11 (10): 413419. doi:10.1016/S0962-8924(01)02085-2. ISSN 09628924. PMID 11567874. edit ^ Stearns, T. (May 2001). "Centrosome duplication. A centriolar pas de deux". Cell 105 (4): 417420. doi:10.1016/S0092-8674(01)00366-X. ISSN 0092-8674. PMID 11371338. edit ^ Rodrigues-martins, A.; Riparbelli, M.; Callaini, G.; Glover, D. M.; Bettencourt-dias, M. (2007). "Revisiting the Role of the Mother Centriole in Centriole Biogenesis". Science 316 (5827): 1046. Bibcode:2007Sci...316.1046R. doi:10.1126/science.1142950. PMID 17463247. edit ^ a b Basto, R.; Lau, J.; Vinogradova, T.; Gardiol, A.; Woods, G.; Khodjakov, A.; Raff, W. (Jun 2006). "Flies without centrioles". Cell 125 (7): 13751386. doi:10.1016/j.cell.2006.05.025. ISSN 0092-8674. PMID 16814722. edit ^ a b Nigg, E.A. (2002). "Centrosome aberrations: cause or consequence of cancer progression?". Nat Rev Cancer 2 (11): 815821. doi:10.1038/nrc924. PMID 12415252 ^ a b Casenghi, M.; Meraldi, P.; Weinhart, U.; Duncan, P.I.; Korner, R.; Nigg, E.A. (2003). "Polo-like kinase 1 regulates Nlp, a centrosome protein involved in microtubule nucleation". Dev Cell 5 (1): 113 125. doi:10.1016/S1534-5807(03)00193-X. PMID 12852856 ^ a b c Lingle, W.L.; Barrett, S.L.; Negron, V.C.; D'assoro, A.B.; Boeneman, K.; Liu W. Whitehead C.M.; Reynolds, C.; Salisbury, J.L. et al. (2002). "Centrosome amplification drives chromosomal instability in breast tumor development". Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 99 (4): 19781983. doi:10.1073/pnas.032479999. PMC 122305. PMID 11830638 ^ Fry, A.M.; Mayor, T.; Meraldi, P.; Stierhof, Y.D.; Tanaka, K.; Nigg, E.A. (1998). "C-Nap1, a Novel Centrosomal Coiled-Coil Protein and Candidate Substrate of the Cell Cycleregulated Protein Kinase Nek2". J Cell Biol 141 (7): 15631574. doi:10.1083/jcb.141.7.1563. PMC 2133000. PMID 9647649. Retrieved 2009-07-29 ^ Ghadimi, B.M.; Sackett, D.L.; Difilippantonio, M.J.; Schrock, E.; Neumann, T.; Jauho, A.; Auer, G.; Ried, T. (2000). "Centrosome amplification and instability occurs exclusively in aneuploid, but not in diploid colorectal cancer cell lines, and correlates with numerical chromosomal aberrations". Genes Chromosomes Cancer 27 (2): 183190. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1098-2264(200002)27:2<183::AIDGCC10>3.0.CO;2-P. PMID 10612807 ^ Fukasawa, K.; Choi, T.; Kuriyama, R.; Rulong, S.; Woude, Vande G.F. (1996). "Abnormal centrosome amplification in the absence of p53". Science 271 (5256): 17441747. doi:10.1126/science.271.5256.1744. PMID 8596939 ^ Meraldi, P.; Honda, R.; Nigg, E.A. (2002). "Aurora-A overexpression reveals tetraploidization as a major route to centrosome amplification in p53/ cells". EMBO J 21 (4): 483492. doi:10.1093/emboj/21.4.483. PMC 125866. PMID 11847097 ^ Storchova, Z.; Pellman, D. (2004). "From polyploidy to aneuploidy, genome instability and cancer". Nat Rev Mol Cell Biol. 5 (1): 4554. doi:10.1038/nrm1276. PMID 14708009 ^ Salisbury, J. L.; Suino, K. M.; Busby, R.; Springett, M. (2002). "Centrin-2 is required for centriole duplication in mammalian cells". Current biology : CB 12 (15): 12871292. doi:10.1016/S09609822(02)01019-9. PMID 12176356. edit ^ a b Marshall, W. F. (2009). "Centriole evolution". Current Opinion in Cell Biology 21 (1): 1415. doi:10.1016/j.ceb.2009.01.008. PMC 2835302. PMID 19196504. edit ^ Alliegro, M. C.; Alliegro, M. A.; Palazzo, R. E. (2006). "Centrosome-associated RNA in surf clam oocytes". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 103 (24): 90349038. Bibcode:2006PNAS..103.9034A. doi:10.1073/pnas.0602859103. PMC 1482561. PMID 16754862. edit

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This instrument provides a revolutionary method of microscopy, with magnifications up to one million. This permits visualization of submicroscopic cellular particles as well as viral agents. In the electron microscope, the specimen is illu-minated by a beam of electrons rather than light, and the focusing is carried out by elec-tromagnets instead of a set of optics. These components are sealed in a tube in which a complete vacuum is established. Transmission electron microscopes require speci-mens that are thinly prepared, fixed, and dehydrated for the electron beam to pass freely through them. As the electrons pass through the specimen, images are formed by direct-ing the electrons onto photographic film, thus making internal cellular structures visi-ble. Scanning electron microscopes are used for visualizing surface characteristics rather than intracellular structures A narrow beam of electrons scans back and forth, producing a three-dimensional image as the electrons are reflected off the specimen's surface.

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Statistics plays a vital role in every fields of human activity. Statistics has important role in determining the existing position of per capita income unemployment, population growth rate, housing, schooling medical facilities etcin a country. Now statistics holds a central position in almost e field like Industry, Commerce, Trade, Physics, Chemistry, Economics, Mathematics, Biology, Botany, Psychology, Astronomy etc, so application statistics is very wide. Now we discuss some important fields in which statistics is commonly applied.

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(1) Business: Statistics play an important role in business. A successful businessman must be very quick and accurate in decision making. He knows that w customers wants, he should therefore, know what to produce and sell and in what quantities. Statistics helps businessman to plan production ac to the taste of the costumers, the quality of the products can also be checked more efficiently by using statistical methods. So all the activities of t businessman based on statistical information. He can make correct decision about the location of business, marketing of the products, financial resources etc

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(2) In Economics: Statistics play an important role in economics. Economics largely depends upon statistics. National income accounts are multipurpose indic for the economists and administrators. Statistical methods are used for preparation of these accounts. In economics research statistical methods used for collecting and analysis the data and testing hypothesis. The relationship between supply and demands is studies by statistical methods, imports and exports, the inflation rate, the per capita income are the problems which require good knowledge of statistics.

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(3) In Mathematics: Statistical plays a central role in almost all natural and social sciences. The methods of natural sciences are most reliable but conclusions dr them are only probable, because they are based on incomplete evidence. Statistical helps in describing these measurements more precisely. Stati branch of applied mathematics. The large number of statistical methods like probability averages, dispersions, estimation etc is used in mathem and different techniques of pure mathematics like integration, differentiation and algebra are used in statistics.

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(4) In Banking: Statistics play an important role in banking. The banks make use of statistics for a number of purposes. The banks work on the principle tha people who deposit their money with the banks do not withdraw it at the same time. The bank earns profits out of these deposits by lending to o interest. The bankers use statistical approaches based on probability to estimate the numbers of depositors and their claims for a certain day.

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Accounting is impossible without exactness. But for decision making purpose, so much precision is not essential the decision may be taken basis of approximation, know as statistics. The correction of the values of current asserts is made on the basis of the purchasing power of money current value of it. In auditing sampling techniques are commonly used. An auditor determines the sample size of the book to be audited on the basis of error

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(8) In Astronomy: Astronomy is one of the oldest branch of statistical study, it deals with the measurement of distance, sizes, masses and densities of heavenly by means of observations. During these measurements errors are unavoidable so most probable measurements are founded by using statistical methods. Example: This distance of moon from the earth is measured. Since old days the astronomers have been statistical methods like method of least s for finding the movements of stars.

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Different Fields Statistics plays a vital role in every fields of human activity. Statistics has important role in determining the existing position of per capita income, unemployment, population growth rate, housing, schooling medical facilities etcin a country. Now statistics holds a central position in almost every field like Industry, Commerce, Trade, Physics, Chemistry, Economics, Mathematics, Biology, Botany, Psychology, Astronomy etc, so application of statistics is very wide. Now we discuss some important fields in which statistics is commonly applied. (1) Business: Statistics play an important role in business. A successful businessman must be very quick and accurate in decision making. He knows that what his customers wants, he should therefore, know what to produce and sell and in what quantities. Statistics helps businessman to plan production according to the taste of the costumers, the quality of the products can also be checked more efficiently by using statistical methods. So all the activities of the businessman based on statistical information. He can make correct decision about the location of business, marketing of the products, financial resources etc (2) In Economics: Statistics play an important role in economics. Economics largely depends upon statistics. National income accounts are multipurpose indicators for the economists and administrators. Statistical methods are used for preparation of these accounts. In economics research statistical methods are used for collecting and analysis the data and testing hypothesis. The relationship between supply and demands is studies by statistical methods, the imports and exports, the inflation rate, the per capita income are the problems which require good knowledge of statistics. (3) In Mathematics: Statistical plays a central role in almost all natural and social sciences. The methods of natural sciences are most reliable but conclusions draw from them are only probable, because they are based on incomplete evidence. Statistical helps in describing these measurements more precisely. Statistics is branch of applied mathematics. The large number of statistical methods like probability averages, dispersions, estimation etc is used in mathematics and different techniques of pure mathematics like integration, differentiation and algebra are used in statistics.

(4) In Banking: Statistics play an important role in banking. The banks make use of statistics for a number of purposes. The banks work on the principle that all the people who deposit their money with the banks do not withdraw it at the same time. The bank earns profits out of these deposits by lending to others on interest. The bankers use statistical approaches based on probability to estimate the numbers of depositors and their claims for a certain day.

(5) In State Management (Administration): Statistics is essential for a country. Different policies of the government are based on statistics. Statistical data are now widely used in taking all administrative decisions. Suppose if the government wants to revise the pay scales of employees in view of an increase in the living cost, statistical methods will be used to determine the rise in the cost of living. Preparation of federal and provincial government budgets mainly depends upon statistics because it helps in estimating the expected expenditures and revenue from different sources. So statistics are the eyes of administration of the state. (6) In Accounting and Auditing: Accounting is impossible without exactness. But for decision making purpose, so much precision is not essential the decision may be taken on the basis of approximation, know as statistics. The correction of the values of current asserts is made on the basis of the purchasing power of money or the current value of it. In auditing sampling techniques are commonly used. An auditor determines the sample size of the book to be audited on the basis of error. (7) In Natural and Social Sciences: Statistics plays a vital role in almost all the natural and social sciences. Statistical methods are commonly used for analyzing the experiments results, testing their significance in Biology, Physics, Chemistry, Mathematics, Meteorology, Research chambers of commerce, Sociology, Business, Public Administration, Communication and Information Technology etc

(8) In Astronomy: Astronomy is one of the oldest branch of statistical study, it deals with the measurement of distance, sizes, masses and densities of heavenly bodies by means of observations. During these measurements errors are unavoidable so most probable measurements are founded by using statistical methods. Example: This distance of moon from the earth is measured. Since old days the astronomers have been statistical methods like method of least squares for finding the movements of stars.

Cell theory
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A prokaryote

In biology, cell theory is a scientific theory that describes the properties of cells, the basic unit of structure in every living thing. The initial development of the theory, during the mid17th century, was made possible by advances in microscopy; the study of cells is called cell biology. Cell theory is one of the foundations of biology. The three parts to the cell theory are as described below:
1. All living organisms are composed of one or more cells. 2. The cell is the basic unit of structure, function, and organization in all organisms. 3. All cells come from preexisting, living cells.

Contents
[hide]

1 History 2 Modern interpretation 3 Types of cells 4 See also 5 References 6 Further reading 7 External links

History [edit]

Drawing of the structure of cork by Robert Hooke that appeared in Micrographia.

The cell was first seen by Robert Hooke in 1665. He examined (under a coarse, compound microscope) very thin slices of cork and saw a multitude of tiny pores that he remarked looked like the walled compartments a monk would live in. Because of this association, Hooke called them cells, the name they still bear. However, Hooke did not know their real structure or function.[1] Hooke's description of these cells (which were actually non-living cell walls) was published in Micrographia.[2] His cell observations gave no indication of the nucleus and other organelles found in most living cells. The first person to make a compound microscope was Zacharias Jansen, while the first to witness a live cell under a microscope was Anton van Leeuwenhoek, who in 1674 described the algae Spirogyra and named the moving organisms animalcules, meaning "little animals".[3] Leeuwenhoek probably also saw bacteria.[4] Cell theory was in contrast to the vitalism theories proposed before the discovery of cells. The idea that cells were separable into individual units was proposed by Ludolph Christian Treviranus [5] and Johann Jacob Paul Moldenhawer.[6] All of this finally led to Henri Dutrochet formulating one of the fundamental tenets of modern cell theory by declaring that "The cell is the fundamental element of organization".[7] The observations of Hooke, Leeuwenhoek, Schleiden, Schwann, Virchow, and others led to the development of the cell theory. The cell theory is a widely accepted explanation of the relationship between cells and living things. The cell theory states:

All living things or organisms are made of cells and their products. New cells are created by old cells dividing into two. Cells are the basic building units of life.

The cell theory holds true for all living things, no matter how big or small. Since according to research, cells are common to all living things, they can provide information about all life. And because all cells come from other cells, scientists can study cells to learn about growth, reproduction, and all other functions that living things perform. By learning about cells and how they function, you can learn about all types of living things. Cells are the building blocks of life Credit for developing cell theory is usually given to three scientists: Theodor Schwann, Matthias Jakob Schleiden, and Rudolf Virchow. In 1839, Schwann and Schleiden suggested that cells were the basic unit of life. Their theory accepted the first two tenets of modern cell theory (see next section, below). However, the cell theory of Schleiden differed from modern cell theory in that it proposed a method of spontaneous crystallization that he called "free cell formation".[8] In 1855, Rudolf Virchow concluded that all cells come from pre-existing cells, thus completing the classical cell theory. (Note that the idea that all cells come from preexisting cells had in fact already been proposed by Robert Remak; it has been suggested that Virchow plagiarised Remak.)[9]

Modern interpretation [edit]

The generally accepted parts of modern cell theory include:
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. All known living things are made up of one or more cells. All living cells arise from pre-existing cells by division. The cell is the fundamental unit of structure and function in all living organisms. The activity of an organism depends on the total activity of independent cells. Energy flow (metabolism and biochemistry) occurs within cells. Cells contain hereditary information (DNA) which is passed from cell to cell during cell division. 7. All cells are basically the same in chemical composition in organisms of similar species.

Types of cells [edit]

Cells can be subdivided into the following subcategories:
1. Prokaryotes: Prokaryotes lack a nucleus (though they do have circular DNA) and other membrane-bound organelles (though they do contain ribosomes). Bacteria and Archaea are two domains of prokaryotes. 2. Eukaryotes: Eukaryotes, on the other hand, have distinct nuclei bound by a nuclear membrane and membrane-bound organelles (mitochondria, chloroplasts, lysosomes, rough and smooth endoplasmic reticulum, vacuoles). In addition, they possess organized chromosomes which store genetic material.

See also [edit]

Cell adhesion

Cell biology Cellular differentiation Germ theory of disease

References [edit]
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. ^ Inwood, Stephen (2003). The man who knew too much: the strange and inventive life of Robert Hooke, 1635-1703. London: Pan. p. 72. ISBN 0-330-48829-5. ^ Karling JS (1939). "Schleiden's Contribution to the Cell Theory". The American Naturalist 73 (749): 51737. doi:10.1086/280862. ^ Moll WAW (2006). "Antonie van Leeuwenhoek". Archived from the original on 2008-06-02. Retrieved 2008-11-25. ^ Porter JR (June 1976). "Antony van Leeuwenhoek: tercentenary of his discovery of bacteria". Bacteriol Rev 40 (2): 2609. PMC 413956. PMID 786250. ^ 1811, , "Beytrge zur Pflanzenphysiologie" ^ Moldenhawer, Johann Jacob Paul 1812, "Beytrge zur Anatomie der Pflanzen" ^ Dutrochet, Henri 1824, "Recherches anatomiques et physiologiques sur la structure intime des animaux et des vegetaux, et sur leur motilite, par M.H. Dutrochet, avec deux planches" ^ Schleiden, Matthias Jakob 1839,"Contributions to Phytogenesis" ^ Silver (January 1987). "Virchow, the heroic model in medicine: health policy by accolade". American Journal of Public Health 77 (1): 86. PMC 1646803. PMID 3538915. Retrieved 2011-04-04.

Further reading [edit]

Turner W (January 1890). "The Cell Theory, Past and Present". J Anat Physiol 24 (Pt 2): 253 87. PMC 1328050. PMID 17231856. Tavassoli M (January 1980). "The cell theory: a foundation to the edifice of biology". Am. J. Pathol. 98 (1): 44. PMC 1903404. PMID 6985772.

External links [edit]

Mallery C (2008-02-11). "Cell Theory". Retrieved 2008-11-25. "Studying Cells Tutorial". 2004. Retrieved 2008-11-25.

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Cell biology Scientific terminology History of biology Biology theories

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